Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
What is the Green Credit Programme?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Credit Programme
Why in the News?
The Green Credit Programme (GCP), launched by the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change in 2023, was questioned by the Ministry of Law and Justice regarding the legality of its business model.
About the Green Credit Programme (GCP)
- The GCP launched by the MoEFCC in 2023, is a government initiative aimed at encouraging voluntary participation in environmental activities.
- It was launched officially in December 2023 by PM Narendra Modi and Sheikh Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan at the UN climate conference in Dubai.
- Participants, including individuals, companies, and industries, can earn green credits for actions such as tree plantation, water conservation, waste management, and others.
- These credits can be traded on a domestic platform, helping participants meet sustainability targets or fulfill legal obligations.
- It is managed by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE), an autonomous organization under the MoEFCC.
- The program supports the Mission LiFE (Lifestyle for Sustainable Environment) and encourages a market-based approach to environmental action.
Criticisms of the Program:
- Forest Diversion Concerns: The GCP has been criticized for promoting forest diversion for industrial activities. Critics argue that trading compensatory afforestation credits could weaken forest protection efforts and lead to the loss of old-growth forests.
- Impact on Ecologically Valuable Lands: Concerns have been raised about plantations on degraded lands and scrublands, which provide essential ecological services. Critics argue these areas should not be used for plantations with uncertain long-term benefits.
- Plantation Survival Issues: There are concerns about the survival rate of trees planted under the GCP, with some questioning if these plantations can truly replicate the environmental value of mature forests.
- Compensatory Afforestation Conflicts: The GCP’s exchange of plantation credits for compensatory afforestation is seen as a challenge to the Van Adhiniyam, 1980, which mandates non-forest land for afforestation rather than degraded forest land.
| [UPSC 2009] In the context of C02 emission and Global Warming, what is the name of a market driven device under the UNFCC that allows developing countries to get funds/incentives from the developed countries to adopt, better technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
(a) Carbon Footprint (b) Carbon Credit Rating (c) Clean Development Mechanism (d) Emission Reduction Norm |
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[25th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: As ice frozen for millennia thaws, Kashmir wakes up to new risks
PYQ Relevance:Question: How does the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. (UPSC 2021) Reason: It addresses the broader impact of melting ice on weather patterns and human activities, a theme relevant to the permafrost thaw in the Himalayas. |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains usually focus on the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers (2021) and the melting of Himalayan glaciers in 2020.
Permafrost, frozen for millennia, is now thawing due to global warming, releasing stored carbon, including methane, a potent greenhouse gas, leading to severe climatic and ecological consequences. It’s melting poses a growing environmental threat in the Kashmir Himalayas, endangering 193 km of roads, 2,415 households, 903 alpine lakes, and eight hydropower projects.
Today’s editorial discusses melting permafrost and its impacts, which is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A study by researchers from the University of Kashmir and IIT-Bombay, published in Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, found that permafrost covers 64.8% of J&K and Ladakh in different forms.
What is Permafrost?Permafrost is ground—comprising soil, rock, or sediment—that remains continuously frozen for at least two years. It is found in high-altitude and polar regions, stores carbon, and supports unique ecosystems. However, rising global temperatures are causing it to thaw, leading to infrastructure damage, greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental disruptions. |
What are the major environmental and infrastructural challenges associated with permafrost melting in the Kashmir Himalayas?
- Increased Risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): Thawing permafrost destabilizes moraines, increasing the likelihood of sudden lake outbursts. Example: The South Lhonak Lake outburst in Sikkim (October 2023) and the Chamoli disaster in Uttarakhand (February 2021).
- Damage to Roads and Infrastructure: Melting permafrost weakens the ground, causing landslides and road subsidence, disrupting connectivity. Example: Strategic roads in Ladakh, crucial for military operations, are at risk due to thaw-induced ground instability.
- Threat to Hydropower Projects: Permafrost degradation affects water availability and increases sediment flow, damaging dams and power plants. Example: 8 hydropower projects in J&K and Ladakh are vulnerable to thaw-induced landslides and reduced water flow.
- Loss of Permafrost-Dependent Ecosystems: Thawing disrupts alpine ecosystems, affecting vegetation, wildlife, and water cycles. Example: Decline of cold-adapted species and changing river flow patterns impacting local biodiversity.
- Release of Greenhouse Gases: Thawing permafrost releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas, accelerating climate change. Example: Increased methane emissions in permafrost-rich Ladakh contribute to global warming.
Where is permafrost most extensively found in Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh?
Which regions lack permafrost coverage?
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What are the causes of the thawing of permafrost?
- Rising Global Temperatures (Climate Change): Increased greenhouse gas emissions lead to higher atmospheric temperatures, accelerating permafrost thaw. Example: In Ladakh, rising temperatures have led to permafrost degradation in the Changthang Plateau, impacting traditional grazing lands.
- Infrastructure Development & Human Activities: Roads, buildings, and military installations generate heat, disrupting the thermal balance of permafrost. Example: The construction of roads like the Zojila Tunnel and military bases in Siachen has contributed to localized permafrost thaw.
- Reduced Snow Cover & Glacial Retreat: Snow acts as an insulating layer, preventing permafrost from direct exposure to warming air. Reduced snowfall accelerates melting. Example: The retreat of glaciers in Zanskar Valley has exposed underlying permafrost to warmer temperatures, leading to faster thawing.
- Increased Rainfall & Changing Precipitation Patterns: More rainfall instead of snowfall leads to surface warming, infiltrating the soil and speeding up permafrost thaw. Example: Parts of Drass have seen changing precipitation patterns, where more rain in summer accelerates permafrost degradation.
- Forest Fires & Loss of Vegetation Cover: Vegetation helps insulate the ground; its loss due to deforestation or fires exposes permafrost to direct heat. Example: In Ladakh, overgrazing by livestock in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary has led to soil erosion, increasing permafrost vulnerability.
What are the steps taken by the government?
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Way forward:
- Integrating Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Planning: Adopt permafrost-friendly construction techniques, such as thermosyphons and passive cooling methods, in strategic roads, hydropower projects, and military installations to minimize thawing-related damage.
- Strengthening Monitoring and Adaptive Strategies: Expand permafrost monitoring networks, enhance research on thaw impacts, and implement community-based adaptation measures, such as sustainable grazing and afforestation, to mitigate long-term environmental risks.
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United Nations World Water Development Report, 2025
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UN World Water Development Report, 2025
Why in the News?
On March 21, 2025, the United Nations marked the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, and in conjunction, the United Nations World Water Development Report issued a disturbing warning about the rapid loss of glaciers.
Key Highlights of the Report:
- Hindu Kush Himalayas (HKH) Glacier Loss: Glaciers are melting 65% faster (2011-2020) than the previous decade, with up to 50% shrinkage by 2100 if global temperatures rise by 1.5-2°C.
- WMO’s Climate Report: The 2024 climate year was the warmest in 175 years, reinforcing the link between rising temperatures and accelerated glacier melt.
- Unprecedented Glacier Mass Loss: Over 9,000 billion tonnes of ice lost since 1975, with 450 gigatons lost in 2024 alone.
- Rising Sea Levels: Melting glaciers contribute to sea level rise, displacing 200,000 to 300,000 people annually and increasing coastal flooding risks.
- Increased Wildfires and Dust Storms: Rising wildfires and dust storms accelerate glacier melt by darkening their surfaces.
- Permafrost Thawing: Thawing permafrost releases carbon and nutrients, worsening climate change and increasing landslide risks.
- Declining Snow Cover: A 7.79% global decline in persistent snow cover from 1979-2022 affects water resources.
About World Glaciers Day
- March 21, 2025, marked the first-ever World Day for Glaciers, aimed at raising awareness about glaciers and the risks posed by their loss due to climate change.
- It was declared by the UN in its resolution A/RES/77/158 along with the International Year of Glaciers 2025.
- The day calls for governments, organizations, and individuals to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and adopt sustainable water management practices.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:
1. Global warming might trigger the release of methane gas from these deposits. 2. Large deposits of ‘methane hydrate’ are found in Arctic Tundra and under the seafloor. 3. Methane in atmosphere oxidizes to carbon dioxide after a decade or two. Select the correct answer using the code given below. (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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[18th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: How climate change affects India’s wheat production
PYQ Relevance:Q Discuss the consequences of climate change on food security in tropical countries. (UPSC 2023) Reason: This question directly addresses the impact of climate change on food security. |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on the strategy of consequences of climate change on the food security (2023) and the ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem (2017).
Heat waves lead to health crises, crop losses, water shortages, and increased energy demand. In 2023, severe heat in India caused record-breaking temperatures, affecting wheat production in Punjab and Haryana. For example, The Indian state of Bihar had the highest number of heat wave days in 2023, with a total of 18 days. This was followed by the states of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha, both having experienced a total of 15 days of heat waves that year.
Today’s editorial discusses the impact of Extreme heat in India, providing valuable insights for GS Paper 3 in UPSC Mains answer writing.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
This year, India experienced its hottest February in 124 years. The India Meteorological Department (IMD) has warned that March will also be hotter than usual, with more days of extreme heat.
What are the major wheat-producing states in India?
- Uttar Pradesh is the largest wheat producer, contributing approximately 31.77% to India’s total wheat output. In the crop year 2023-24, it produced around 35.34 million tonnes of wheat from an area of 9.53 million hectares. Example: Districts like Meerut, Muzaffarnagar, and Agra are significant contributors, utilizing both traditional and modern agricultural practices to achieve high yields.
- Madhya Pradesh ranks second, accounting for about 20.98% of the national production. The state produced approximately 22.58 million tonnes in the same crop year. Example: The Malwa plateau region, particularly districts like Indore and Ujjain, benefits from black soil and moderate temperatures, which are conducive to wheat cultivation.
- Punjab Known as the “Granary of India,” contributes around 13.87% to India’s wheat output, with a production of about 17.74 million tonnes. Example: Major districts such as Amritsar and Ludhiana utilize advanced farming techniques and well-developed irrigation systems to maintain high productivity levels.
Why is wheat primarily grown in these regions?
- Agro-Climatic Conditions – These states have a cool winter and warm summer, which is ideal for wheat cultivation. The Rabi season (sown in November-December, harvested in March-April) aligns perfectly with the climate. Example: The Malwa plateau in Madhya Pradesh benefits from moderate temperatures that support high wheat yields.
- Fertile Soil – These regions have alluvial and black soil, which retain moisture and provide essential nutrients for wheat growth. The soil is well-suited for irrigated farming. Example: The Indo-Gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh and Punjab have deep, fertile alluvial soil, which supports extensive wheat cultivation.
- Irrigation Facilities – These states have well-developed canal and groundwater irrigation systems, ensuring a stable water supply for wheat crops, which require controlled irrigation. Example: Punjab’s extensive canal network, supported by the Bhakra Nangal Dam, ensures year-round irrigation, enabling high wheat productivity.
Why is extreme heat during the wheat harvest season a serious concern for India’s food security and economy?
- Reduced Wheat Yield: Extreme heat accelerates wheat ripening, leading to shorter grain-filling periods and lighter grains. This results in lower overall production, affecting food availability. Example: In 2022, a sudden heatwave in March reduced India’s wheat output from the projected 111 million tonnes to ~107 million tonnes.
- Lower Grain Quality: High temperatures increase protein content but reduce starch accumulation, making wheat harder and affecting its milling quality. Example: Farmers in Punjab and Haryana reported lower market prices in 2023 due to poor grain quality caused by excessive heat.
- Impact on Food Security: Wheat is a staple for a significant portion of India’s population. Production shortfalls can lead to food shortages, disproportionately affecting low-income communities. The 2025 heatwave poses a serious threat to wheat and rice production, potentially leading to a 6-10% decline, thereby jeopardizing food security for millions.
- Economic Losses for Farmers: Heat stress forces farmers to spend more on irrigation, fertilizers, and pest control, increasing costs while reducing yields, leading to financial distress. Example: Farmers in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan faced heavy losses in 2023 due to unexpected temperature spikes during the grain-filling stage.
- Disruptions in Procurement & Trade: Lower production impacts government wheat procurement, affecting stock availability for schemes like the Public Distribution System (PDS) and exports. Example: India had to ban wheat exports in 2022 to ensure domestic supply, disrupting global markets and trade agreements.
What steps have been taken by the Indian government?
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What adaptation and mitigation strategies can policymakers implement to protect wheat crops from rising temperatures? (Way forward)
- Development of Heat-Resistant Wheat Varieties: Traditional wheat varieties are vulnerable to heat stress, reducing yield and quality. Example: The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed HD 3385, a climate-resilient wheat variety with better heat tolerance, which is expected to perform well in rising temperatures.
- Shifting Sowing Dates and Crop Calendars: Adjusting the sowing period can help wheat plants escape extreme heat during critical growth phases. Example: The Punjab Agricultural University (PAU) has recommended advancing wheat sowing to mid-October instead of November to allow crops to mature before peak heat in March-April.
- Improved Irrigation and Water Management: Heat stress increases water loss from soil and plants, requiring efficient irrigation. Example: The “Per Drop More Crop” scheme under Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY) promotes micro-irrigation (drip and sprinkler systems) to optimize water use in wheat-growing states like Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.
- Promoting Conservation Agriculture Practices: Practices like zero tillage and residue mulching help retain soil moisture and lower soil temperature. Example: Zero tillage wheat in Haryana and Punjab has shown 5-10% higher yields and reduced water usage compared to conventional plowing methods.
- Climate Forecasting and Early Warning Systems: Advanced weather predictions help farmers plan for extreme heat events. Example: The Gramin Krishi Mausam Seva (GKMS) provides real-time agro-advisories, warning farmers about heatwaves and recommending protective measures like additional irrigation and mulching.
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Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)
Why in the News?
Researchers have found that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is slowing due to melting ice sheets. By 2050, it may weaken by 20%, affecting global climate, ocean circulation, and marine ecosystems.
What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)?
- The ACC is the strongest and largest ocean current on Earth.
- It flows continuously from west to east around Antarctica, acting as a boundary between the Southern Ocean and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
- It flows from west to east, driven by the westerly winds and the Coriolis effect, creating a loop that completely encircles Antarctica.
- The ACC interacts with several regional currents, such as the Brazil Current, East Australian Current, and Agulhas Current.
- It is influenced by both westerly winds and polar easterlies, which affect its strength and flow patterns.
- Key features of the ACC:
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- It is five times stronger than the Gulf Stream and transports 130 million cubic meters of water per second.
- It plays a crucial role in global heat and nutrient distribution, influencing climate patterns worldwide.
- It prevents warmer northern waters from reaching Antarctica, helping to preserve the region’s ice sheets.
- The ACC drives the global conveyor belt, regulating deep ocean currents and heat flow.
- Its upwelling of nutrient-rich waters sustains Antarctic marine life, including krill, whales, and penguins.
Why does Antarctic Ice Melt affect ACC?
- Freshwater Dilution: Melting ice lowers salinity, weakening ocean density gradients that drive the ACC.
- Slower Heat Exchange: Reduced current strength disrupts global heat distribution, leading to stronger storms and rising sea levels.
Key Findings of the New Research
A study by the University of Melbourne and NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, published in Environmental Research Letters, reveals:
- ACC could slow by 20% by 2050 due to melting ice sheets.
- Disrupted global climate as a weaker ACC reduces heat distribution, carbon absorption, and weather stability.
- Antarctic ecosystem at risk, with invasive species threatening penguins, krill, and whales.
- Supercomputer simulations confirm that deep ocean circulation is slowing, worsening climate instability.
- Reducing carbon emissions is crucial to prevent further ice melting and ACC weakening.
PYQ:[2012] Consider the following factors: 1. Rotation of the Earth 2. Air pressure and wind 3. Density of ocean water 4. Revolution of the Earth Which of the above factors influence the ocean currents? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why global sea ice cover has dipped to record low — what this means
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of climate change;
Why in the News?
Between February 8 and 13, the total area of sea ice in the Arctic and Antarctic shrank to 15.76 million sq km, breaking the previous record low of 15.93 million sq km from early 2023, according to a BBC analysis of data from the US National Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC).
What are the reasons for the record low?
- Warm Air and Ocean Temperatures: Elevated air and sea temperatures have significantly contributed to the melting of both Arctic and Antarctic sea ice. Warmer conditions, particularly towards the end of summer, have led to increased melting rates, especially in the Antarctic region.
- Wind Patterns: Changes in atmospheric dynamics, including stronger westerly winds associated with the Southern Annular Mode (SAM), have disrupted sea ice formation and stability. In the Antarctic, these winds can break apart ice more easily due to its thinner and more mobile nature compared to the thicker Arctic ice.
- Delayed Freezing: In the Arctic, a delayed freezing process around regions like Hudson Bay has occurred due to unusually warm ocean temperatures, preventing the formation of new ice during winter.
- Increased Freshwater Input: The melting of glaciers and ice shelves adds freshwater to the oceans, which can alter ocean stratification and impact sea ice formation. While freshwater can initially encourage sea ice growth in some contexts, it also leads to changes that may ultimately reduce overall sea ice extent.
- Feedback Mechanisms: The loss of sea ice creates feedback loops that further exacerbate warming. As less ice remains to reflect sunlight, more solar radiation is absorbed by the ocean, leading to increased temperatures and further melting of ice.
What does “dip” mean?
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What could be its impact?
- Accelerated Global Warming: Less sea ice means more ocean water is exposed to sunlight, absorbing heat instead of reflecting it. Example: The Arctic is warming nearly four times faster than the global average, leading to extreme weather patterns worldwide.
- Disruptions in Ocean Currents: Melting sea ice releases freshwater into the ocean, reducing salinity and slowing down deep-water circulation. Example: The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), which influences global climate patterns, is weakening due to increased freshwater from melting Arctic ice.
- Threat to Marine Ecosystems: Sea ice loss affects marine species dependent on stable ice conditions for survival. Example: Polar bears rely on sea ice for hunting seals. As ice declines, they face starvation and habitat loss. Similarly, krill populations in Antarctica, a key food source for whales and penguins, are declining due to changing ice conditions.
- More Extreme Weather Events: Changes in polar ice influence atmospheric circulation, leading to unpredictable weather. Example: The weakening of the polar vortex due to Arctic warming has been linked to severe cold waves in North America and Europe, such as the Texas winter storm in 2021.
- Coastal and Infrastructure Damage: Rising temperatures due to ice melt contribute to permafrost thawing, which destabilizes infrastructure in polar regions. Example: In Siberia, Russia, thawing permafrost has caused buildings and roads to collapse, posing a major economic and environmental challenge.
What measures have been taken at the international level?
- International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation (2025): The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and UNESCO have declared 2025 as the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation. This initiative aims to raise awareness about the importance of glaciers and ice sheets, which store a significant portion of the world’s freshwater, and to promote actions to mitigate their melting.
- Global Cryosphere Watch: The WMO’s Global Cryosphere Watch network, which includes scientists from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), has been actively monitoring and reporting on cryosphere changes. Their findings highlight alarming trends in ice loss and emphasize the need for immediate action to address these issues.
- Collaborative Research Initiatives: Various international scientific collaborations are underway to study and model the impacts of climate change on sea ice. These efforts involve researchers from multiple countries working together to gather data, analyze trends, and develop strategies for adaptation and mitigation.
- Climate Action Frameworks: Global climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement, encourage countries to commit to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, which are a primary driver of climate change affecting sea ice.
- Public Awareness Campaigns: International organizations are engaging in campaigns to educate the public about the significance of sea ice and glaciers in regulating global climate systems.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Climate Mitigation Efforts: Nations must enhance commitments under the Paris Agreement by accelerating renewable energy adoption, reducing greenhouse gas emissions, and implementing carbon pricing mechanisms to curb global warming.
- Enhancing Polar and Oceanic Monitoring: Strengthen international collaboration for real-time satellite monitoring, expand scientific research on polar ice dynamics, and develop adaptive strategies to protect vulnerable ecosystems and coastal communities.
Mains PYQ:
Q How do the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Coral Reefs in the Gulf of Eilat recover after a ‘Shutdown’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gulf of Eilat
Why in the News?
Researchers have discovered a significant pause in coral reef growth in the Gulf of Eilat/Aqaba during the late Holocene period.
Key Highlights of the Study:
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About Gulf of Eilat
- Also known as the Gulf of Aqaba, it is a narrow extension of the Red Sea, located between the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt) and the Arabian Peninsula.
- It connects to the Red Sea through the Strait of Tiran and borders Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia.
- The city of Eilat (Israel) and Aqaba (Jordan) lie along its shores, making it a strategic trade and tourism hub.
Geographical and Political Significance:
- Strategic Trade Route: Provides access to the Indian Ocean via the Red Sea, critical for Israel and Jordan’s maritime trade.
- Bordering Multiple Nations: Shares coastlines with Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, making it a key area for regional diplomacy and security.
- Tourism & Marine Biodiversity: Known for coral reefs and marine life, attracting divers and boosting the economies of Eilat and Aqaba.
- Geopolitical Sensitivity: The Strait of Tiran has been historically significant in Arab-Israeli conflicts, especially during the Six-Day War (1967) when Egypt blocked Israeli access.
- Energy & Trade Importance: It is an alternative route for oil shipments and goods trade, reducing reliance on the Suez Canal.
PYQ:[2014] Which of the following have coral reefs? 1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands 2. Gulf of Kachchh 3. Gulf of Mannar 4. Sunderbans Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 2 and 4 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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[12th February 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A role for India in South-South climate cooperation
PYQ Relevance:Q) Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC CSE 2018) |
Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains have always focused on Climate Change (2017), and COP 26 (2021).
In the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2025, India ranks among the top 10 climate performers globally, underscoring its commitment to climate action. India has been recognized for its significant role in South-South climate cooperation, reflecting its leadership in fostering collaboration among developing nations to address climate change.
Today’s editorial highlights how South-South cooperation can help achieve climate goals, promote sustainable development, and empower developing countries to meet their climate targets, drawing attention to India’s strategic opportunities and responsibilities in this area. This content would help in substantiation of answers in Mains GS Paper III (Environment and Biodiversity).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
India’s potential role in fostering climate cooperation between developing nations through South-South cooperation in the context of the Paris Agreement is needed for the global solutions to tackle climate change.
How does Article 6 of the Paris Agreement benefit India in achieving its climate goals?
- Carbon Markets: Under Article 6.2, countries can trade carbon credits to meet their emissions reduction targets. India can participate in these carbon markets, generating revenue by selling surplus carbon credits earned through emission reductions in sectors like renewable energy, energy efficiency, and afforestation.
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- By engaging in carbon trading, India can attract foreign investments from companies in developed countries looking to offset their emissions. This can provide funding for clean energy projects, supporting India’s transition to a low-carbon economy.
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- Cooperative Approaches: Article 6.4 establishes a global carbon market mechanism, similar to the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol, but with improvements. India could utilize this mechanism to undertake joint projects with other countries that help reduce emissions while fostering sustainable development.
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- Through cooperative approaches, India can access advanced technologies, practices, and expertise from other countries, enabling its industries to adopt cleaner technologies and improve energy efficiency, contributing to its climate and development goals.
- Non-Market Approaches:
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- Article 6.8 promotes non-market mechanisms, which focus on facilitating actions like capacity-building, finance, and knowledge sharing to address climate change. This can help India strengthen its national capabilities to implement climate policies and adapt to the impacts of climate change, particularly in vulnerable regions.
- India, being highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, can benefit from non-market approaches to enhance its adaptive capacities and resilience, addressing critical sectors like agriculture, water resources, and infrastructure.
- Flexibility in Meeting Targets:
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- The flexibility provided by Article 6 allows India to find the most cost-effective solutions for emission reductions, especially in sectors where technology deployment is expensive or challenging. It provides an opportunity to meet its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) in a way that balances economic growth with environmental sustainability.
What are the potential challenges India faces in utilizing ITMOs and engaging in international climate finance?
- Monitoring, Reporting, and Verification (MRV) Systems: India’s current MRV systems for tracking emissions reductions may not meet the rigorous standards required for ITMOs, which are crucial for ensuring transparency and accountability in carbon markets.
- Inadequate MRV mechanisms could hinder India’s ability to accurately quantify and report emission reductions, limiting its participation in carbon trading and climate finance.
- Accessing Climate Finance: Despite being a major developing country, India faces challenges in accessing sufficient and predictable climate finance from international sources, as the global financing mechanisms often favor smaller or more vulnerable nations.
- Limited access to finance can slow down India’s ability to implement large-scale climate projects, especially in sectors like renewable energy, adaptation, and infrastructure development.
- Ensuring Environmental Integrity: While ITMOs enable carbon trading, there’s a risk of “low-quality” credits or “double counting” (where emissions reductions are claimed by multiple parties), which could undermine the credibility and environmental integrity of the system.
- If India is not careful in ensuring robust methodologies for generating and trading ITMOs, it might face challenges in maintaining the credibility of its climate commitments, affecting its international reputation.
- Domestic Policy and Institutional Coordination: India’s domestic policies on climate change may not be fully aligned with the requirements of international climate finance mechanisms or ITMO systems. There is also a need for better coordination among various ministries and stakeholders to implement and track climate action effectively.
- Misalignment between international climate goals and domestic policies could result in inefficiencies and missed opportunities to access ITMOs and climate finance.
What are the opportunities for India under South-South cooperation via Article 6.2?
- Carbon Trading with Fellow Developing Countries: India can collaborate with neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and others in the South Asian region to work together to reduce emissions through renewable energy, afforestation, or energy efficiency programs.
- India could sell any surplus carbon credits generated through its own emission reduction efforts to other developing countries that need help meeting their own NDCs (Nationally Determined Contributions). This allows India to both achieve its climate goals and potentially generate revenue.
- Technology and Knowledge Transfer: India has already made significant progress in solar energy and can offer valuable lessons and technologies to fellow developing countries.
- India can also help other countries develop adaptation strategies for climate change impacts, such as water management techniques, disaster preparedness, and climate-resilient infrastructure.
- In return, India could receive new technologies, methods, and knowledge to enhance its own climate resilience.
- Joint Ventures for Clean Energy Projects: India can partner with other developing countries to co-develop large-scale renewable energy projects, such as solar, wind, or hydropower. Joint initiatives could be supported by carbon markets, with emission reductions which could attract investments, expertise, and improve access to clean energy technologies.
- By collaborating with other developing countries, India can contribute to the development of affordable, scalable solutions that are tailored to the specific needs of developing nations.
- These solutions could be implemented locally, reducing emissions and improving energy access.
- Strengthening Capacity and Institutional Frameworks: South-South cooperation can help India and other developing countries to assist in establishing frameworks for monitoring, reporting, and verifying (MRV) emissions reductions, benefiting both India and its partner countries.
- India can help south countries in refining its strategies and implementing the best practices that suit their own development contexts.
- Leveraging Climate Finance: India, by engaging in South-South cooperation, could also have access to international financial instruments that make climate action more affordable.
- This would be particularly beneficial in sectors where India faces challenges in scaling up clean technologies, like electric vehicles, or in regions like rural areas that require adaptation interventions.
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Why Greenland’s crystal blue lakes have turned brown?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Greenland
Why in the News?
A new study has revealed that over 7,500 lakes in western Greenland have turned brown, suffered water quality deterioration, and started emitting carbon due to extreme weather events in 2022.
About Greenland and Its Lakes
- Greenland, the world’s largest island, is covered by a massive ice sheet that holds nearly 8% of the world’s freshwater.
- The island is home to thousands of glacial-fed lakes, which are crystal blue due to their pristine water quality and low organic content.
- These lakes play a crucial role in providing drinking water, supporting biodiversity, and storing atmospheric carbon by acting as natural carbon sinks.
What are the reasons?
- Extreme Weather in 2022: Greenland saw record-breaking heatwaves and heavy rainfall instead of the usual snowfall.
- Permafrost Thawing: Rising temperatures melted permafrost, releasing large amounts of organic carbon, iron, and other minerals into the lakes.
- Atmospheric Rivers: These long, narrow streams of water vapor in the sky caused intense precipitation, leading to large-scale runoff of organic material and sediments into the lakes.
- Loss of Light Penetration: Increased sedimentation turned the lakes murky brown, reducing sunlight penetration and affecting phytoplankton, which play a key role in carbon absorption.
Why this Study is important?
- The study found that changes in the lakes occurred within months instead of centuries, signaling an unprecedented climate impact.
- Once natural carbon absorbers, the lakes are now releasing 350% more carbon dioxide, accelerating global warming.
- The lakes, which supply drinking water, now contain higher levels of organic pollutants, affecting both humans and aquatic ecosystems.
- Studies suggest atmospheric rivers will become 50–290% more frequent by the end of the century, leading to widespread changes in other freshwater ecosystems worldwide.
- The study adds to growing evidence that Earth’s natural carbon sinks are failing, posing a major challenge to climate mitigation efforts.
PYQ:[2011] The surface of a lake is frozen in severe winter, but the water at its bottom is still liquid. What is the reason? (a) Ice is a bad conductor of heat (b) Since the surface of the lake is at the same temperature as the air, no heat is lost (c) The density of water is maximum at 4 °C (d) None of the statements A, B and C given above is correct. |
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What is Keeling Curve?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Keeling Curve
Why in the News?
Atmospheric CO₂ levels hit a record high in 2024 due to wildfires and human activities, as shown by the Keeling Curve, a 67-year record maintained at Mauna Loa Observatory since 1958.
What is Keeling Curve?
- The Keeling Curve is a long-term record of atmospheric CO₂ concentrations, initiated by Charles David Keeling in 1958 at the Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii.
- It tracks the rise in CO₂ levels and provides evidence of the impact of human activities on climate change.
- Named after Charles David Keeling, it has become a globally recognized tool for understanding global warming.
Significant Features and Sources:
- Steady Upward Trend: Demonstrates a consistent rise in atmospheric CO₂ levels since 1958, primarily due to fossil fuel combustion and deforestation.
- Seasonal Fluctuations:
- CO₂ levels decrease during spring and summer as plants absorb CO₂ through photosynthesis.
- Levels increase during fall and winter when plant decay releases CO₂.
- Initial Measurements: Recorded CO₂ levels at 315 ppm in 1958.
- Current Levels: As of January 2025, CO₂ concentrations have reached 427.1 ppm, the highest in millions of years.
- Data Sources: Measurements are taken from Mauna Loa Observatory and other global monitoring stations.
Observations around the Curve
- Key Milestones:
- 1988: CO₂ levels reached 350 ppm, drawing global attention to climate change.
- 2023: Levels exceeded 420 ppm, marking a critical point in atmospheric history.
- 2024: Record growth of 3.58 ppm in average annual CO₂ concentrations compared to 2023.
- Contributing Factors:
- El Niño: Surface temperature rise in the Pacific Ocean boosted CO₂ emissions during 2024, exacerbated by wildfires in North and South America.
- Anthropogenic Emissions: Burning fossil fuels and land-use changes remain major contributors.
- Global Implications:
- Contradicts IPCC scenarios for limiting global warming to 1.5°C, as emissions continue to rise.
- Record increases in CO₂ levels during El Niño events highlight the interplay between natural phenomena and human activities.
PYQ:[2011] Consider the following: 1. Photosynthesis 2. Respiration 3. Decay of organic matter 4. Volcanic action Which of the above add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on Earth? (a) 1 and 4 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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In news: Yala Glacier
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Yala Glacier
Why in the News?
Yala Glacier in Nepal is predicted to disappear by the 2040s due to rapid retreat and mass loss. It is the only glacier in the Himalayas listed on the Global Glacier Casualty List, an initiative launched in 2024 to document endangered or vanished glaciers worldwide.
| Note: The UN has designated 2025 as the International Year of Glacier Preservation, with March 21st to be observed annually as World Glacier Day starting from 2025. |
About the Yala Glacier
- Yala Glacier is located in the Langtang Valley, central Nepal, and is influenced by the Indian summer monsoon.
- It is one of the most studied glaciers in Nepal and represents the Hindu Kush Himalayan region in the World Glacier Monitoring Service (WGMS) database.
- The glacier has been monitored for over a decade using stakes, snow pits, and satellite images, providing crucial data on the state of Himalayan glaciers.
- It is the only glacier in the Himalayas included in the Global Glacier Casualty List, a recognition of its critical status.
- It plays a vital role in studying the cryosphere, a critical water resource supporting 240 million people in the Himalayan region.
Retreat of Yala Glacier
- Yala Glacier is projected to disappear by the 2040s, reflecting the growing threat to Himalayan glaciers.
- It has retreated by 680 meters between 1974 and 2021, with a 36% reduction in area during this period.
- Its elevation, which ranged between 5,170m and 5,750m in 2011, has significantly declined.
- The glacier has lost so much mass that it no longer meets scientific standards for effective observation.
- The Hindu Kush Himalayan cryosphere is warming twice as fast as the global average, leading to rapid glacial retreat.
About the Global Glacier Casualty List
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PYQ:[2019] Consider the following Pairs : Glacier: River
Which of the following pairs given above are correctly matched? (a) 1,2 and 4 (b) 1,3 and 4 (c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5 |
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What is a Polar Vortex?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Polar Vortex
Why in the News?
The United States is facing severe winter storms as the polar vortex is expanding southward from the Arctic and driving temperatures as low as -50°C (-60°F).
What is a Polar Vortex?
- The polar vortex is a band of fast-moving air that traps cold Arctic air within the Polar Regions.
- It is a natural atmospheric phenomenon, typically spinning in a counter-clockwise direction around the North Pole.
- Wind speeds in the polar vortex can reach up to 250 km/h (155 mph).
- Causes of a Polar Vortex:
- Stable State: Under normal conditions, the polar vortex remains strong and well-contained within the Arctic Circle, keeping frigid air confined to the Polar Regions.
- Weakened State:
- The vortex weakens when rising warm air from the lower atmosphere disrupts its circular flow, allowing Arctic air to spill southward.
- Factors contributing to a weakened state include: Significant weather patterns (e.g., powerful winds in mountainous regions); Changes in tropical climate systems or sea surface temperatures. Climate change causing uneven warming, especially at the poles..
What are its types?
- Tropospheric Polar Vortex:
- It occurs in the lowest atmospheric layer (troposphere) where most weather phenomena take place.
- Typically results in milder weather across northern latitudes.
- Stratospheric Polar Vortex:
- Forms 16–48 km above the Earth’s surface in the Stratosphere.
- Stronger and more stable but can weaken due to disruptions, leading to southward extensions of Arctic air.
- It emerges in autumn and dissipates by spring each year.
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Marine Heatwave killed four million Alaska seabirds
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
Why in the News?
The 2014-2016 Pacific marine heatwave (MHW) killed over four million common murres (Uria aalge) (IUCN: Least Concerned) in Alaska. A study published in Science revealed that this event marked the largest recorded vertebrate die-off linked to warming oceans.
About Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
| Details | |
| What is it? |
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| Key Observations on MHWs | 2014-2016 Pacific MHW:
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| Impacts of MHWs | On Ecosystems:
On Marine Species:
On Biodiversity:
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PYQ:[2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Arctic Tundra is emitting more Carbon than it absorbs: NOAA
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Arctic Tundra
Why in the News?
- The Arctic Tundra, a frozen treeless biome, has traditionally served as a carbon sink, storing vast amounts of carbon for thousands of years.
- However, recent changes in this ecosystem are turning it into a source of greenhouse gases (GHGs), primarily carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) according to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
What is Arctic Tundra?
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How does the Arctic Tundra store Carbon?
- The Arctic tundra stores carbon primarily through a process where plants absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere via photosynthesis.
- This carbon gets trapped in the soil and organic matter (plants and animals) that accumulate over time.
- The cold Arctic climate slows the decomposition of plant and animal remains, meaning that organic materials, including carbon, remain locked in the permafrost.
- This permafrost acts as a natural storage system, preventing CO2 from being released back into the atmosphere.
- Scientists estimate that the Arctic tundra holds about 1.6 trillion metric tonnes of carbon, which is roughly double the amount of carbon in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Why is the Arctic Tundra emitting more carbon than absorbing it?
- Rising temperatures in the Arctic are causing the permafrost to thaw at an accelerated rate.
- When permafrost thaws, microbes in the soil become active, breaking down the organic material trapped in the frozen ground, which results in the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), two potent greenhouse gases.
- The Arctic has been warming at a rate four times faster than the global average.
- 2024 was the second-warmest year on record for the region, contributing significantly to the thawing of the permafrost.
- Wildfires in the Arctic have become more frequent and intense, further accelerating the thawing of permafrost. Wildfire smoke also contributes to the release of greenhouse gases.
- Between 2001 and 2020, the combination of rising temperatures and increased wildfires led to the Arctic tundra releasing more carbon than it absorbed, marking a significant shift in its role from a carbon sink to a carbon emitter.
PYQ:[2012] Climate is extreme, rainfall is scanty and the people used to be nomadic herders. The above statement best describes which of the following regions? (a) African Savanna (b) Central Asian Steppe (c) North American Prairie (d) Siberian Tundra |
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First Ice-Free day in the Arctic could come by 2030: Study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: De-glaciation of Arctic
Why in the News?
A recent study suggests that the Arctic Ocean may experience its first ice-free day—where sea ice falls below one million square kilometres—by 2030, or even sooner.
Key Highlights of the Study
- First Ice-Free Day Prediction: The study predicts that the Arctic Ocean could experience its first ice-free day (less than one million square kilometres of sea ice) by 2030, or even sooner, depending on climatic conditions.
- Simulations and Models:
- 11 different climate models were used to run 366 simulations from 2023 to 2100 to assess the future of Arctic sea ice.
- Most simulations predict the ice-free day within 7 to 20 years, with some models suggesting it could happen as early as September 2027.
- Conditions for Ice-Free Day: The occurrence of an ice-free day will depend on a combination of unusually warm seasons and stormy weather, which accelerates the melting of the sea ice.
- Impact on Sea Ice: Once the first ice-free day occurs, it could be followed by an ice-free period lasting between 11 to 53 days, potentially leading to the first ice-free month.
How does the Arctic Tundra store Carbon?
- The Arctic tundra stores carbon primarily through a process where plants absorb carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere via photosynthesis.
- This carbon gets trapped in the soil and organic matter (plants and animals) that accumulate over time.
- The cold Arctic climate slows the decomposition of plant and animal remains, meaning that organic materials, including carbon, remain locked in the permafrost.
- This permafrost acts as a natural storage system, preventing CO2 from being released back into the atmosphere.
- Scientists estimate that the Arctic tundra holds about 1.6 trillion metric tonnes of carbon, which is roughly double the amount of carbon in the Earth’s atmosphere.
Why is the Arctic Tundra emitting more carbon than absorbing it?
- Rising temperatures in the Arctic are causing the permafrost to thaw at an accelerated rate.
- When permafrost thaws, microbes in the soil become active, breaking down the organic material trapped in the frozen ground, which results in the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4), two potent greenhouse gases.
- The Arctic has been warming at a rate four times faster than the global average.
- 2024 was the second-warmest year on record for the region, contributing significantly to the thawing of the permafrost.
- Wildfires in the Arctic have become more frequent and intense, further accelerating the thawing of permafrost. Wildfire smoke also contributes to the release of greenhouse gases.
- Between 2001 and 2020, the combination of rising temperatures and increased wildfires led to the Arctic tundra releasing more carbon than it absorbed, marking a significant shift in its role from a carbon sink to a carbon emitter.
Why does it matter?
- Climate Change Acceleration: The loss of sea ice will amplify the Albedo effect, causing the Arctic region to absorb more sunlight and heat, which will accelerate global warming and trigger extreme weather events in mid-latitudes.
- Rising Sea Levels: The loss of Arctic ice contributes to sea level rise, with potential long-term impacts on coastal populations and ecosystems, particularly if the Greenland ice sheet melts completely, which could raise sea levels by 6 meters.
- Ecosystem and Species Impact: The melting of sea ice will threaten species that rely on the ice for habitat, such as polar bears, walruses, and reindeer, disrupting the Arctic food chain.
- Human and Infrastructure Threats: Arctic communities and their infrastructure are at risk as the region warms at four times the global average, threatening the livelihoods of people living in these areas.
Back2Basics: Albedo Effect
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PYQ:[2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. [2012] The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere because it absorbs: (a) the water vapour of the air and retains its heat |
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Climate impact of exploring space passing below the radar
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Challenges related to space environment;
Why in the News?
The growing reliance on space technologies for climate monitoring highlights urgent environmental concerns, including orbital debris and system interference, necessitating swift international regulations to ensure sustainable space exploration practices.
How do Rockets affect the environment?
- Emissions from Launches: Every rocket launch releases significant amounts of carbon dioxide, black carbon, and water vapour into the atmosphere. Black carbon is particularly concerning as it absorbs sunlight much more effectively than carbon dioxide, exacerbating global warming.
- Ozone Layer Depletion: Rocket propellants, especially those containing chlorine-based chemicals, contribute to the depletion of the ozone layer at high altitudes. This increases ground-level exposure to ultraviolet radiation and disrupts atmospheric circulation, negatively impacting global climate.
- Satellite Ash: When satellites re-enter the atmosphere at the end of their missions, they burn up and release metallic ash into the middle layers of the atmosphere, which can harm the atmosphere and potentially alter climate patterns.
- Manufacturing Footprint: The production of satellites involves energy-intensive processes that have large carbon footprints due to the extraction and processing of metals and composite materials.
- Space Mining Potential: Future activities such as space mining could lead to increased industrial activity both in space and on Earth, further contributing to environmental impacts.
What are the Barriers to space sustainability?
- Lack of Regulation: Current space activities operate outside international sustainability frameworks like the Paris Agreement. There are no clear guidelines for emissions from rockets and satellites, allowing unchecked growth that contributes to global warming.
- Overcrowding in Low Earth Orbit (LEO): The increasing number of satellites and debris threatens to overcrowd LEO, making future missions more expensive and complicating access to space as a shared resource.
- Need for International Cooperation: Effective regulation requires collaboration through international bodies like the Committee on the Peaceful Use of Outer Space (COPUOS) to create enforceable standards for emissions and debris management.
- Outdated Treaties: Existing frameworks such as the Outer Space Treaty lack binding provisions that address environmental impacts, limiting their effectiveness in promoting responsible space use.
What would be the innovative solutions?
- Reusable Rockets: Developing reusable rockets can significantly reduce manufacturing waste and lower costs by allowing components to be used in multiple missions. However, these rockets may be heavier, increasing fuel consumption, and require costly refurbishments.
- Cleaner Fuels: Transitioning to cleaner fuels such as liquid hydrogen or biofuels can minimize harmful emissions during launches. However, current hydrogen production methods often rely on non-renewable energy sources, undermining its environmental benefits.
- Biodegradable Satellites: Designing satellites with biodegradable materials that disintegrate upon re-entry could help prevent long-term debris accumulation. However, these materials currently lack durability for space conditions and face high development costs.
- Autonomous Debris Removal (ADR): Technologies like robotic arms and laser systems show promise for cleaning up orbital debris but require significant investment and legal clarity before implementation.
- Global Traffic Monitoring System: Establishing a real-time monitoring system for satellites and debris could reduce collision risks and optimize orbital use. However, data-sharing concerns due to security and commercial interests hinder its development.
Way forward:
- Establish Binding International Frameworks: Governments should collaborate through COPUOS and other international platforms to create enforceable regulations for emissions, debris mitigation, and sustainable practices in space exploration.
- Promote Innovation Through Incentives: Public and private entities should prioritize funding for green technologies, such as cleaner fuels, biodegradable satellites, and debris removal systems. Financial incentives like subsidies, tax benefits, or penalties can accelerate the adoption of sustainable practices in the space sector.
Mains PYQ:
Q Why is Indian Regional Navigational Satellite System (IRNSS) needed? How does it help in navigation? (UPSC IAS/2018)
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ADB increases Climate Finance backed by US, Japan Pledge
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ADB
Why in the News?
The Asian Development Bank (ADB) will boost climate-related lending by up to $7.2 billion following an agreement by the United States and Japan to provide risk guarantees for some existing loans.
- This marks the first-ever use of sovereign guarantees for climate finance.
ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK |
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| About | ADB was founded in 1966 following the Conference on Asian Economic Cooperation organized by the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East.
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| Aims and Objectives |
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| Goals and Targets |
Advantages of the Guarantee Structure:
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| Membership |
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What is the Artificial Reef Project implemented in Kerala?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Artificial Reef
Why in the News?
20,000 pompano fingerlings were released into the sea off Vizhinjam as part of an artificial reef project aimed at replenishing marine fishery resources and promoting sustainable fishing.
About the Artificial Reef Project in Kerala:
| Details | |
| Location | • Covers 42 fishing villages in Thiruvananthapuram district, from Pozhiyoor to Varkala. |
| Aims and Objectives | • Enhance fish resources along Kerala’s coast. • Support sustainable fishing and improve fishing community livelihoods. |
| Structural Mandate and Implementation | Funding:
• ₹13.02 crore project cost under Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY). Implementation: • Implemented by KSCADC (Kerala State Coastal Area Development Corporation). Future Expansion Plans: • Phase II: Proposed to cover 96 villages in Kollam, Alappuzha, Ernakulam, and Thrissur districts (₹29.76 crore). |
| Significance | • Boosts marine biodiversity. • Increases fish stocks and supports breeding environments. • Promotes sustainable fishing practices. • Enhances livelihoods of local communities. |
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Glacial Lakes rise as glaciers retreat
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glacial Lakes
Why in the News?
Since 1977, the South Lhonak Lake, a glacial lake in Sikkim has expanded significantly, growing from 17 hectares to 167 hectares by 2023.
Formation of Glacial Lakes:
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Major Glacial Lakes in India
India’s Himalayan region is home to numerous glacial lakes, each with unique characteristics:
- Gurudongmar Lake (Sikkim): One of the highest lakes in the world at 5,430 meters above sea level, fed by glacial melt and known for its religious significance.
- Chandra Taal (Himachal Pradesh): A stunning crescent-shaped lake in the Lahaul-Spiti region at 4,300 meters. It is surrounded by snow-capped mountains and fed by glacier melt.
- Samiti Lake (Sikkim): Located along the trek to Kanchenjunga and known for its clear blue waters and reflective quality.
- Satopanth Tal (Uttarakhand): Found in the Garhwal Himalayas, this lake lies close to Satopanth Glacier and is considered sacred by locals.
- South Lhonak Lake (Sikkim): A growing lake fed by three glaciers, expanding rapidly due to climate change and posing risks of glacial lake outburst floods.
PYQ:[2019] Consider the following pairs: Glacier: River
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched? |
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Why the goal to arrest global temperature rise to 1.5°C is unrealistic?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Issues related to Climate change;
Why in the News?
Over nine years ago, the world promised to cut emissions significantly, but it hasn’t succeeded. As a result, the goal of keeping global warming below 1.5 degrees is now out of reach.
Is the 1.5°C Target Still Achievable?
- Rising Emissions: Global emissions are still increasing, with 2023 seeing record levels. Despite clean energy advancements, emissions reductions have been insufficient to meet the pace required for the 1.5°C target.
- Potential for Emission Peaking: The UNEP Emissions Gap Report suggests that emissions could peak by 2023 or 2024 if significant additional measures are taken, but global actions remain inconsistent and often insufficient.
- Need for Accelerated Action: For the 1.5°C goal, global emissions need to drop by at least 43% by 2030 from 2019 levels.
- Current projections indicate only a 2.6% reduction by 2030, far short of the required cuts.
- Technological and Financial Challenges: Achieving the 1.5°C target hinges on rapid technological deployment, energy transition, and substantial financing for climate action. However, these remain constrained by a lack of coordination and resources.
Implications of Exceeding the 1.5°C Limit
- Increased Frequency of Extreme Events: Exceeding 1.5°C would lead to more frequent and severe extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, droughts, wildfires, and intense storms.
- Impacts on Ecosystems and Biodiversity: Many species and ecosystems are sensitive to small temperature changes; coral reefs, for instance, face near-total collapse beyond 1.5°C warming.
- Threats to Human Health and Livelihoods: Exceeding 1.5°C could lead to more heat-related illnesses, loss of productivity, water scarcity, and risks to food security, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations.
- Feedback Loops: Warming beyond 1.5°C may activate feedback loops (e.g., Arctic ice melt, permafrost thawing), which could lead to irreversible changes and make further warming difficult to control.
Should We Reconsider the Focus on the 1.5°C Target?
- Adaptation vs. Mitigation: Given the increasing difficulty of limiting warming to 1.5°C, some argue for a shift in focus towards adaptation strategies to manage the unavoidable impacts of higher temperatures.
- Realigning Expectations: While the 1.5°C target was critical to rally global climate action, a shift towards realistic, achievable goals may better support gradual but sustained progress, especially if mitigation pathways fall short.
- Moving Towards a ‘Just Transition’: With a likely overshoot of the 1.5°C target, there is a greater need to ensure that climate adaptation and resilience measures do not disproportionately burden low-income countries and communities.
- Science-Based Overshoot Scenarios: The IPCC and other scientific bodies continue to assess overshoot scenarios (e.g., temporarily exceeding 1.5°C and then returning below it later) to guide global climate strategies. However, returning to a lower temperature after an overshoot requires substantial and sustained negative emissions, which are currently unfeasible at scale.
Way forward:
- Prioritize Scalable Emissions Reductions and Resilient Adaptation: Accelerate global transition to renewable energy, improve energy efficiency, and reduce methane and other non-CO₂ emissions. Simultaneously, invest in adaptation measures to help vulnerable communities manage the impacts of warming beyond 1.5°C.
- Strengthen Climate Finance and International Cooperation: Mobilize substantial climate funding for developing nations to support both mitigation and adaptation efforts. Enhance cross-border technology sharing and policy alignment to enable collective, equitable climate action.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
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The case for a nature restoration law in India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Significance of Nature Restoration Law ;
Why in the News?
The urgent global issue of ecosystem degradation affects India significantly, with nearly 30% of its land degraded. India’s need for a comprehensive nature restoration law is critical, drawing inspiration from the EU’s NRL
Why does India need a Nature Restoration Law?
- High Land Degradation: Nearly 30% of India’s land is degraded, with areas like Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan severely affected.
- Rising Desertification: The extent of desertification in India has increased significantly, impacting ecosystems and agricultural productivity.
- Biodiversity Loss: The degradation of natural habitats threatens India’s rich biodiversity and contributes to the global biodiversity crisis.
- Climate Change Mitigation: Degraded ecosystems lose their ability to act as carbon sinks, worsening climate change impacts.
- Economic Implications: Land degradation affects agriculture, water security, and livelihoods, necessitating legal intervention for sustainable management.
What should the Nature Restoration Law in India include?
- Legally Binding Restoration Targets: Similar to the EU’s NRL, set mandates to restore a specific percentage of land and water bodies by 2030 and 2050.
- Multi-Ecosystem Approach: Include provisions for forests, agricultural lands, rivers, wetlands, and urban areas to ensure comprehensive ecosystem restoration.
- Monitoring and Reporting Mechanisms: Establish a framework for monitoring progress, conducting periodic reviews, and reporting on restoration outcomes.
- Funding and Incentive Mechanisms: Provide financial support and incentives for states, communities, and private entities engaging in restoration projects.
- Integration with Existing Programs: Align with ongoing initiatives like the Green India Mission and watershed programs for enhanced effectiveness.
What are the potential benefits of implementing such a law?
- Environmental: Restoring degraded lands can enhance biodiversity, improve soil health, and increase carbon sequestration, aiding climate resilience.
- Economic: Could generate economic returns through improved agricultural productivity, job creation, and enhanced water security.
- Social: Restoration projects can create rural employment opportunities and support sustainable livelihoods, especially in degraded areas.
- Alignment with International Commitments: Helps India achieve its Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially Goal 15, and meet Paris Agreement targets.
Way forward:
- Adopt a Comprehensive Restoration Framework: India should enact a Nature Restoration Law with legally binding targets, integrating multi-ecosystem restoration approaches and aligning with existing environmental programs.
- Strengthen Monitoring and Funding Mechanisms: Establish robust monitoring frameworks for progress evaluation and provide financial incentives for restoration efforts, ensuring effective implementation and long-term sustainability.
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Climate change impact harsher on poorer farmers in India: FAO report
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture;
Why in the News?
On October 16, 2024, the FAO said that poor households around the world lose 5% of their income each year due to heat stress and 4.4% due to floods.
About FAO:
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Key Objectives of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO):
- Eradicate Hunger and Malnutrition: The FAO aims to eliminate hunger, food insecurity, and malnutrition worldwide by promoting sustainable agricultural practices and increasing food availability.
- Promote Sustainable Agriculture: The organization encourages sustainable management of natural resources and resilient agricultural systems to combat climate change and preserve biodiversity.
- Reduce Rural Poverty: FAO works to improve the livelihoods of rural populations through economic development, social protection measures, and improved access to markets.
- Enhance Food Systems: It focuses on improving food production, distribution, and consumption to ensure the global population has access to nutritious, safe, and affordable food.
- Respond to Crises: The FAO assists countries in addressing food-related emergencies and building resilience against future shocks, such as natural disasters and conflicts.
Key Highlights of the Present Report by FAO:
- Economic Losses from Climate Stress: The report highlighted that poor households globally lose 5% of their income due to heat stress and 4.4% due to floods annually, compared to better-off households.
- Impact on Rural Poor in India: It found that rural poor households in India are affected by climate stress differently, with reduced off-farm employment opportunities during droughts, forcing them to allocate more resources to agriculture.
- Structural Inequalities: The report noted that poor households’ vulnerability to climate stressors is rooted in structural inequalities, calling for policy measures such as expanding social security.
- Recommendations for Livelihood Support: Suggested scaling up anticipatory social protection programs and improving off-farm employment opportunities to reduce reliance on negative coping strategies.
- Gender and Employment Barriers: The report urged addressing gender disparities in non-farm employment through gender-transformative approaches to tackle discriminatory norms.
What is NITI Aayog’s Response?
- Efforts to Combat Climate Change: NITI Aayog highlighted India’s proactive measures, such as the National Innovations on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project, which supports farmers’ adaptation to severe climate conditions.
- Social Safety Nets: Emphasized India’s implementation of a nationwide employment guarantee scheme and extensive food distribution efforts during the pandemic as evidence of social protection measures.
- Women’s Workforce Participation: Cited data from the Periodic Labour Force Surveys showing increased female participation in the workforce, indicating progress in addressing gender issues.
- Open to FAO Suggestions: Acknowledged the value of considering the FAO’s recommendations for further policy improvement while emphasizing India’s existing initiatives.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Social Protection: Expand anticipatory social protection programs and climate-resilient agricultural practices to support vulnerable households, reducing income losses from climate stress.
- Address Structural Inequalities: Enhance off-farm employment opportunities, tackle gender disparities, and implement policies targeting the root causes of vulnerability to climate-related risks.
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As the world warms and cool
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of climate change;
Why in the News?
The rising demand for cooling is leading to increased fossil fuel consumption for electricity generation, which in turn contributes to climate change and gradually elevates atmospheric temperatures.
What are the primary impacts of climate change on human societies?
- Heat-Related Health Risks: Increased temperatures and more frequent heatwaves lead to higher incidences of heat-related illnesses and deaths. For instance, global heatwaves already result in approximately 12,000 fatalities annually.
- Threats to Food Security: Extreme temperatures and unstable weather patterns negatively impact agricultural productivity, affecting food quality and availability, and driving up prices.
- Access to Essential Services: Over 1.1 billion people face immediate risks due to inadequate access to cooling, impacting health services (like vaccine storage), food preservation, and economic productivity.
- Increased Mortality: By 2050, deaths from extreme heat are projected to surge, with the World Health Organization predicting up to 255,000 heat-related fatalities each year.
How Can Societies Effectively Adapt to the Ongoing Changes in Climate?
- Promoting Energy-Efficient Cooling: Improve the efficiency of cooling devices to reduce energy demand and mitigate climate impacts. This includes transitioning away from hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) under international agreements like the Kigali amendment.
- Nature-Based Solutions: Implement alternatives to mechanical cooling, such as planting shade trees and using smart building designs to naturally regulate temperatures.
- Policy and Technological Innovations: Governments should enforce strict compliance with energy efficiency standards for cooling equipment and incentivize the development of sustainable cooling technologies.
What Role Does International Cooperation Play in Addressing Climate Change?
- Global Agreements: Initiatives like the Paris Agreement and the Kigali amendment to the Montreal Protocol emphasize the need for unified international action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable development goals.
- Shared Resources and Technology Transfer: International efforts, such as those led by Rwanda and the African Group, advocate for access to energy-efficient technologies, particularly for developing nations.
- Enhancing Compliance and Monitoring: Countries are urged to strictly adhere to global agreements, such as phasing down HFCs, to achieve climate targets and protect vulnerable populations.
Way Forward:
- Accelerate the Transition to Energy-Efficient Cooling: Enhance international efforts to double the average energy efficiency of cooling devices and support the shift to climate-friendly refrigerants.
- Integrate Cooling Solutions into Climate and Development Policies: Recognize cooling as a development issue and address its critical role in poverty alleviation and achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
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As the green patch spreads in Antarctica, here’s what is worrying scientists
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of global warming;
Why in the News?
A new study reveals that plant cover on the Antarctic Peninsula, a mountainous region extending towards South America, has increased more than tenfold in recent decades due to rising temperatures.
What has the study found?
- Vegetation in the Antarctic Peninsula increased 14-fold between 1986 and 2021, expanding from less than 1 sq km to nearly 12 sq km.
- Mosses and lichens dominate this vegetation, with greening accelerating by 30% between 2016 and 2021.
- The changes are linked to anthropogenic climate change and observed through satellite data.
How quickly is Antarctica warming?
- Antarctica is warming twice as fast as the global average, at 0.22-0.32°C per decade (compared to 0.14-0.18°C globally).
- The Antarctic Peninsula is warming five times faster than the global average and is now almost 3°C warmer than in 1950.
- Record-breaking heatwaves have occurred, with temperatures rising up to 28°C above normal in July 2023 and 39°C above normal in March 2022.
Why should we worry about increased vegetation in Antarctica?
- Invasive Species: Warming temperatures and increased vegetation disrupt the ecological balance, allowing non-native species to outcompete native flora like mosses and lichens, leading to reduced biodiversity and altered habitats.
- Albedo Effect: Increased plant cover lowers the albedo effect, resulting in greater solar energy absorption and further warming, creating a feedback loop that promotes additional vegetation growth.
- Soil Formation: Plant life accelerates soil development by adding organic matter, enhancing nutrient cycling, and creating a more hospitable environment for non-native species, thereby increasing the risk of invasives.
- Ice Loss and Sea-Level Rise: Higher temperatures from warming and the albedo effect lead to increased ice melt, contributing to global sea-level rise, which threatens coastal ecosystems and human settlements with flooding and erosion.
Way forward:
- Strengthen climate action: Accelerate global efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, focusing on renewable energy and sustainable practices to mitigate further warming in Antarctica.
- Monitor ecosystems: Establish stricter biosecurity measures and enhanced monitoring to prevent invasive species from spreading and disrupting Antarctica’s fragile ecosystem.
- Promote global cooperation: Increase international collaboration on Antarctic research, focusing on climate change impacts, ecosystem protection, and adaptation strategies to minimize global sea-level rise and biodiversity loss.
Mains PYQ:
Q Major cities of India are becoming vulnerable to flood conditions. Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2016)
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2023 driest for global rivers in 33 years, reveals WMO’s report
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of climate change;
Why in the News?
The World Meteorological Organization (WMO)‘s October 2024 report revealed that 2023 was the driest year for global rivers in 33 years, intensifying stress on water supplies globally.
What factors contributed to 2023 being the driest year for global rivers?
- Record High Temperatures: 2023 was marked as the hottest year on record, which significantly contributed to prolonged drought conditions and reduced river flows across many regions globally.
- Climate Change Impact: Rising temperatures have led to a more erratic hydrological cycle, resulting in both extreme droughts and flooding. This unpredictability has exacerbated water shortages in many areas.
- Transition from La Niña to El Niño: The climatic shift from La Niña to El Niño conditions in mid-2023 played a crucial role in altering weather patterns, leading to widespread dry conditions in many regions while simultaneously causing flooding in others.
- Glacier Melting: The report indicated that glaciers experienced their largest mass loss in 50 years, which threatens long-term water security for millions who rely on glacial meltwater for their water supply.
How has climate change impacted global water resources and glacier conditions?
- Increased Water Scarcity: The report highlighted that approximately 3.6 billion people currently lack reliable access to water for at least one month each year, a number expected to rise to over 5 billion by 2050 due to worsening water scarcity.
- Glacier Dependency: Many regions depend on glacial meltwater for their river systems. As glaciers continue to shrink, future water availability is jeopardized, particularly in areas like Europe and North America.
- Erratic Water Supply: The hydrological cycle’s acceleration leads to unpredictable rainfall patterns, causing both droughts and floods that disrupt agricultural and industrial water supplies.
What are the implications for global water access and management?
- Increased Demand vs. Supply Shortages: With growing populations and rising demand for water resources, the current trends indicate a critical imbalance between supply and demand, leading to heightened competition for available water resources.
- Need for Improved Monitoring: The WMO emphasizes the necessity for better data collection and sharing regarding water resources. This is crucial for effective management strategies that can adapt to changing conditions.
- Urgent Action Required: There is an urgent need for global cooperation and action to address these challenges. Enhanced monitoring systems and international collaboration are essential to mitigate the impacts of climate change on water resources.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Water Resource Management and Adaptation Strategies: Governments should implement integrated water resource management (IWRM) plans to address both water scarcity and flooding risks.
- Enhance Global Cooperation and Data-Driven Decision Making: Countries must prioritize data-sharing, improve monitoring of water resources, and foster cross-border collaborations to manage shared water systems effectively.
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EnviStats India 2024
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EnviStats India 2024 Report and its highlights
Why in the News?
- The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MoSPI) has released the “EnviStats India 2024: Environment Accounts” Report.
What is the EnviStats India 2024 Report?
- The EnviStats India 2024 Report, released by the MoSPI, is the 7th consecutive publication.
- It compiles environmental-economic accounts based on the System of Environmental-Economic Accounting (SEEA) Framework.
- This framework provides a global standard for integrating environmental data with economic statistics, offering insights into the country’s natural resources, ecosystems, and environmental sustainability efforts.
Key Highlights:
| Details | |
| Protected Areas (SDG 13 & SDG 15) | – 72% increase in the number of Protected Areas (2000-2023) – 16% increase in the area of Protected Areas, reflecting biodiversity conservation efforts. |
| Mangrove Cover (SDG 13 & SDG 15) | – 8% increase in mangrove cover (2013-2021), highlighting positive growth in coastal ecosystem protection. |
| Ocean Accounts (SDG 14: Life below Water) | – Introduced for the first time, covering the extent and condition of ocean ecosystems. |
| Energy Use & Physical Asset Accounts (SDG 7: Affordable and Clean Energy & SDG 13: Climate Action) | – Includes Physical Asset Accounts and Physical Supply and Use Tables for Energy, aligned with SEEA-Energy Framework, and data from ministries like Coal and Petroleum. |
| Soil Nutrient Index (SDG 2: Zero Hunger) | – Updated data on Soil Nutrient Index based on the Soil Health Card 2023-24, reflecting soil health and agricultural sustainability. |
| Biodiversity & Species Richness (SDG 15: Life on Land) | – Data on faunal and floral diversity, including endangered species like Leopards and Snow leopards, connecting to biodiversity conservation. |
Policy Recommendations
The EnviStats India 2024 Report suggests several policy directions based on its findings:
- Biodiversity Protection: Strengthen community-led conservation and expand protection of critical ecosystems.
- Ocean Ecosystem Management: Use Ocean Accounts for sustainable marine resource management and pollution control.
- Soil Health: Encourage sustainable farming practices and better soil management, leveraging Soil Health Cards for improved productivity.
- Integrated Planning: Focus on species conservation, habitat restoration, and genetic conservation through data-driven planning.
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Little Prespa Lake on Albanian-Greek Border slowly dying
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Little Prespa Lake
Why in the News?
At the Albanian-Greek border, Little Prespa Lake is slowly drying.
About Little Prespa Lake
|
Impact of Little Prespa Lake’s Drying
- The drying has led to the collapse of the fishing industry, depriving locals of their primary livelihood.
- The once-thriving aquatic ecosystem has transformed into a marshland, resulting in biodiversity loss as fish populations vanish.
- The diversion of the Devoll River for agricultural purposes has exacerbated the lake’s decline.
- The lake could completely disappear if current trends continue, threatening the region’s environmental and economic stability.
PYQ:[2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities? 1. Aral Sea 2. Black Sea 3. Lake Baikal Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 2 only (d) 1 and 3 |
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The La Nina and North India’s pollution
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Climate change; Pollution; Impact of La-Nina;
Why in the News?
The delayed onset of La Niña and the late retreat of the monsoon have diminished hopes that Delhi’s residents might enjoy improved air quality this winter compared to previous years.
What is Triple-dip La- Nina?Triple-dip La Niña refers to the rare occurrence of La Niña persisting for three consecutive years, causing prolonged cooler ocean temperatures in the Pacific and influencing global weather patterns, including stronger monsoons. |
How has the triple-dip La Niña phenomenon influenced air quality in North India?
- No dispersion of pollutants: The delayed onset of La Niña has led to stagnant air and calm winds, preventing the dispersion of pollutants. In previous winters, La Niña helped improve air quality with stronger winds and atmospheric circulation.
- Trapped air pollutants: The slower monsoon retreat resulted in extended periods of high humidity, reduced atmospheric mixing, and trapped pollutants near the surface, contributing to deteriorated air quality.
What meteorological factors contributed to the observed anomalies in air quality?
- Monsoon Retreat and Humidity: The delayed retreat of the monsoon contributes to prolonged periods of high humidity and calm winds. These conditions reduce atmospheric mixing, trapping pollutants near the surface and leading to elevated levels of PM2.5 and PM10.
- Stagnant Winds: The absence of La Niña conditions results in stagnant surface winds, which hinder the dispersion of pollutants. This stagnation is particularly problematic given the regional emissions from stubble burning and other sources.
- Stubble Burning: With prevailing north-north-westerly winds, stubble burning in Punjab and Haryana could significantly worsen Delhi’s air quality if it occurs at even half the intensity seen in previous years.
What implications does this have for future climate and air quality management strategies?
- Need for Broader Focus: There is a growing recognition that air quality management must shift from a localized emission-centric approach to one that considers larger meteorological patterns and regional airsheds.
- Policy Recommendations: Policymakers should prioritize mitigating PM2.5 emissions over PM10, as PM2.5 poses greater health risks.
- Integration of Climate Factors: Future air quality strategies should integrate climate change considerations, recognizing that local emissions are only part of the equation.
Way forward:
- Adopt Regional Airshed Management: Shift from a localized approach to a broader airshed strategy, accounting for meteorological patterns and regional pollution sources to improve air quality management.
- Prioritize PM2.5 Mitigation and Climate Integration: Focus on reducing PM2.5 emissions, which pose higher health risks, and incorporate climate change factors into long-term air quality policies for comprehensive solutions.
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Dead Coral Skeletons hinder Reef Regeneration
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coral Bleaching and Coral Regeneration
Why in the News?
A study conducted at Moorea, French Polynesia, has revealed that the network of dead coral skeletons left behind by bleaching events prevents reefs from regenerating.
About Corals
|
Challenges due to Dead Corals
- Shelter for Seaweed: Dead coral skeletons create a complex structure that offers protection to macroalgae (seaweed) from herbivores. This allows seaweed to colonize the reef quickly, outcompeting young coral.
- Impeded Herbivory: The complex landscape of dead corals prevents herbivores, which normally graze on algae, from accessing the macroalgae effectively. This leads to unchecked algae growth.
- Increased Competition: Macroalgae grow faster and reproduce more frequently than coral, leading to increased competition for space, light, and nutrients, which further inhibits young coral from settling and growing.
- Annual Coral Reproduction: Coral typically spawns only once a year, while algae reproduce continuously. This gives algae a competitive advantage in newly available spaces left by dead coral skeletons.
- Altered Ecosystem Balance: The presence of dead coral shifts the balance between herbivores, algae, and coral, making it difficult for the reef to regenerate naturally.
Conditions for Reef Regeneration
- Flat Substrate: After events like cyclones, which remove coral but leave behind a flat surface, reefs tend to recover more easily, as young coral can settle and regrow without much competition from macroalgae.
- Herbivore Activity: Active herbivory is crucial for reef recovery, as herbivores control the growth of macroalgae, allowing space for coral recruits to settle and thrive.
- Clear Space for Coral Recruits: To regenerate effectively, coral needs open space free from excessive algae. Removing dead coral skeletons might help create these conditions.
- Frequent Disturbances: Coral reefs are better adapted to recover from frequent but non-lethal disturbances like storms, which scrape off coral and allow for fresh regrowth, compared to bleaching events, which leave the dead coral structure intact.
- Water Quality and Temperature: Coral recovery depends on optimal water conditions, including the absence of pollutants and suitable temperatures.
PYQ:[2018] Consider the following statements
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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How global warming affect forecasting?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Impact of Climate change;
Why in the News?
The record warming of 2023-2024 is offering a clearer view of the impacts of global warming. The range of extreme events experienced globally has spanned from deadly heatwaves to devastating cyclones and floods, as well as droughts and wildfires.
Impact of Warming on Predictability:
- Increased Variability: The record warming of 2023-2024 highlights the unpredictability of climate systems under global warming, complicating forecasts for natural phenomena like El Niño, monsoons, and hurricanes.
- Natural Variability: Warming may extend the timescale of natural decadal variability, making it harder to distinguish between short-term fluctuations and long-term trends in climate behaviour.
- Model Limitations: Despite advances, climate models are imperfect in capturing changes in dominant climate modes due to warming, leading to inconsistencies in predicting events like monsoon trends.
Types of Climate Models to forecast the weather:
|
Challenges in Forecasting Extreme Weather:
- Inconsistent Predictions: Predictions for extreme weather events in 2023, such as the monsoon and hurricane seasons, were less accurate, revealing the limitations of current models and observational networks.
- Unforeseen Factors: Unanticipated contributions, like the impact of the Hunga Tonga volcano or wildfire-induced CO2 emissions, exacerbated warming in ways models failed to predict, illustrating the unpredictability of new factors.
- Censorship Concerns: The rapid response required from social media platforms to act on content flagged as misleading within 36 hours created concerns about censorship and freedom of expression.
Future of Weather Prediction Models:
- Need for Model Improvements: There is ongoing work to refine models and incorporate the latest technologies, including AI and machine learning, to improve weather prediction accuracy at hyperlocal scales.
- Natural Modes and Uncertainty: The predictability of natural modes (El Niño, La Niña, IOD) may decrease with relentless warming, making future climate forecasts increasingly uncertain.
- Short-Term Focus: A shift toward short-term predictions (up to a decade or two) may offer more reliable projections due to the inherent difficulty in predicting long-term scenarios under continuous global warming.
Way forward:
- Enhanced Climate Models: Invest in improving climate models with cutting-edge technologies like AI, machine learning, and advanced sensors to increase the accuracy of short-term forecasts and better capture the impact of natural variability under warming.
- Localized Early Warning Systems: Develop robust, hyperlocal early warning systems to better prepare for extreme weather events, focusing on disaster management and reducing vulnerabilities in high-risk communities.
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A climate crisis agenda remains urgent
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Challenges due to climate change;
Why in the News?
Although voters voiced concerns about the climate crisis, it was overlooked during the Lok Sabha election campaign.
2023 Climate Targets of Indian Government
|
Why is addressing the climate crisis an urgent priority for policymakers and the global community?
- The Paris Agreement includes a commitment for developed countries to mobilize $100 billion per year by 2020 to support climate action in developing countries. This target was extended until 2025, with new financial goals.
- The next five years are crucial for India’s climate action to meet its ambitious 2030 targets, as the Roadmap for 2025 Climate Change Funds are about to end.
- India’s heavy dependence on coal, with clean energy contributing only 22% of the electricity mix, underscores the need for an urgent transition.
- Immediate attention is required to manage heat stress, improve air quality, handle waste, and enhance energy efficiency.
What specific actions or policies can be implemented?
- Enhanced Carbon Markets: Launching the ‘India Carbon Market’ in 2026 aims to help achieve Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and could become the world’s largest emissions trading system by 2030.
- Mitigating Pollutants: Focus on reducing CO2 and short-lived superpollutants like methane, black carbon, and hydrofluorocarbons, which have significant short-term warming effects.
- Integrating specific treaties into the Paris Agreement, similar to the Montreal Protocol, with a new treaty targeting methane reductions by 2030 would be helpful.
- Financial Incentives: Developing financial mechanisms and nuanced carbon trading approaches to encourage faster climate action and effective pollutant management.
What challenges or barriers exist in the implementation of a comprehensive climate crisis agenda?
- Governance and Coordination: Need for a Constitutional nodal authority to ensure coordinated climate action across various government levels and stakeholders.
- Economic and Social Factors: Rising temperatures and associated crises like unemployment and high living costs contribute to public disengagement from climate issues.
- Political and Voter Engagement: The 2024 Lok Sabha election’s lack of focus on climate issues highlights the challenge of integrating climate action into mainstream political agendas and addressing voter concerns.
Way forward:
- Create a Constitutional Nodal Authority: Form a central body with the authority to oversee, coordinate, and enforce climate policies across various government levels, ensuring effective and unified action.
- Prioritize Climate Issues in Political Platforms: Make climate action a central theme in political campaigns and public discussions to boost awareness, engagement, and support for climate policies and initiatives.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
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Post-glacial ecosystems could help slow down climate change – Study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glacier Retreat;
Mains level: Climate Change; Impact of Glacier Retreat;
Why in the News?
The retreat of glaciers is one of the most visible indicators of climate change, but it also creates new ecosystems that could play a role in mitigating its effects, according to a global study titled ‘The Development of Terrestrial Ecosystems Emerging After Glacier Retreat’ published in “Nature”.
How are Glaciers Formed?
- Glaciers form when snowfall accumulates over time in a particular area where temperatures are consistently cold enough for snow to remain year-round.
- Over the years, the weight of accumulating snow compresses the lower layers, turning them into firn (a dense snowpack). Further compression transforms firn into ice.
- Once thick enough, glaciers begin to move under the force of gravity, flowing slowly like rivers of ice. The glacier’s movement is driven by the internal deformation of the ice and sliding at its base, leading to the formation of crevasses and other glacial features.
What is Glacier Retreat?
|
Key Highlights of the Recent Study
The recent study titled “The Development of Terrestrial Ecosystems Emerging After Glacier Retreat,” published in Nature, presents several significant findings:
- Ecosystem Development: The study indicates that while glacier retreat is a clear sign of climate change, it also leads to the emergence of new ecosystems that can mitigate climate change effects because of it can enhance carbon capture and storage through biogeochemical processes.
- Microbial Colonization: Following glacier retreat, microorganisms such as bacteria and algae are the first to colonize the barren landscapes, which helps in soil formation.
- Within a decade, hardy plants like lichens and grasses establish themselves, further enriching the soil and enabling more complex life forms to thrive.
- Management Importance: The study emphasizes that with appropriate strategies to manage it because, these areas can quickly develop, providing habitats for species threatened by climate change and contributing to biodiversity conservation.
- Water Regulation: In regions like the Himalayas, post-glacial ecosystems are vital for regulating water availability, impacting rivers that support millions of people.
- Potential for Discoveries: The biodiversity in these areas may lead to new agricultural and medicinal discoveries, highlighting the ecological benefits of protecting and studying these ecosystems
Way forward:
- Ecosystem Management: Implement strategies for managing emerging post-glacial ecosystems to enhance their carbon capture potential and biodiversity conservation, supporting climate change mitigation efforts.
- Research and Conservation: Prioritize research on these ecosystems, particularly in regions like the Himalayas, to safeguard water resources and explore potential agricultural and medicinal discoveries, benefiting both the environment and local economies.
Mains PYQ:
Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (UPSC IAS/2014)
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On uncommon cyclones in the Arabian Sea
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Tropical and temperate cyclone;
Mains level: Impact of climate change on cyclone;
Why in the News?
A rare August cyclone, named ‘Asna’, currently positioned off the Kutch coast is even more remarkable for having originated over land.
Why was there a lot of excitement over Asna?
|
Why does the North Indian Ocean have two cyclone seasons?
The North Indian Ocean has two distinct cyclone seasons due to the unique monsoonal circulation patterns in the region:
- Pre-monsoon season (March-May): The Arabian Sea warms rapidly during this time as the sun crosses over to the Northern Hemisphere. The Bay of Bengal is relatively warmer and begins producing atmospheric convection and rainfall. This leads to cyclogenesis in both the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.
- Post-monsoon season (October-December): This is the northeast monsoon season for India. The Arabian Sea cools due to the strong southwesterly winds and mixing of cold subsurface waters. However, the Bay of Bengal remains favourable for cyclogenesis. The post-monsoon season is the major cyclone season in the North Indian Ocean
How is climate change affecting the region?
- Warming of the Indian Ocean: Climate change is amplifying the warming of the Indian Ocean, with more heat being transferred from the Pacific Ocean and Southern Ocean. This increases the overall sea surface temperature (SST), crucial for cyclone formation.
- Monsoon and cyclones: The warming affects the monsoon patterns and has the potential to change cyclone intensity. More heat and moisture from the warming seas lead to more energy available for cyclones.
- Impact on global ocean circulation: The warming of the Indian Ocean is also affecting global ocean currents, impacting heat uptake by the Pacific Ocean and water sinking in the North Atlantic. The Indian Ocean is playing a central role in global climate change processes.
Way forward:
- Strengthening Early Warning Systems: Enhance real-time monitoring and forecasting of cyclones, particularly in the pre- and post-monsoon seasons, using satellite data and advanced models.
- Building Climate Resilience: Implement climate adaptation strategies, especially for coastal communities, by improving infrastructure and disaster preparedness to cope with increasing cyclone intensity due to climate change.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the meaning of colour-coded weather warnings for cyclone prone areas given by India Meteorological Department. (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Madeira River in Amazon’s State of Brazil
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Madeira River
Why in the News?
Communities near Brazil’s Madeira River in the Amazon rainforest are experiencing record low water levels due to a severe drought.
About Madeira River
| Details | |
| Formation | Formed by the confluence of the Mamore and Beni rivers at Villa Bella, Bolivia.
Meets the Amazon River 145 km east of Manaus, Brazil. |
| Length | 3,352 km from the upper reaches of the Mamore. |
| Geographic Path | Flows along the Bolivia-Brazil border for 100 km, then through Rondonia and Amazonas states in Brazil. |
| Navigability | Navigable by seagoing vessels for 1,300 km upstream until Cachoeira de Santo Antonio. |
| Climate | Varies from arid to humid, with the river overflowing during the rainy season, submerging nearby forests. |
| Historical Inhabitants | Traditionally inhabited by indigenous communities and mestizos; later joined by farmers and ranchers. |
| Name Origin | Named “Madeira” (Portuguese for “Wood River“), previously called the Cuyari River. |
PYQ:[2020] Consider the following pairs? River: Flows into 1. Mekong: Andaman sea 2. Thames: Irish Sea 3. Volga: Caspian Sea 4. Zambezi: Indian Ocean Which of the pairs above is/are correctly matched? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) None of the above/More than one of the above |
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Methane’s Contribution in Climate Change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Methane emission
Why in the News?
The European Union introduced a new regulation in May 2024 requiring fossil fuel companies to routinely measure, report, and reduce methane emissions.
About Methane Emissions:
| Details | |
| Nature | Colorless, Odourless.
Considered a short-lived climate pollutant due to its shorter atmospheric lifetime compared to CO2. |
| Global Warming Potential (GWP) | 80 times more potent than carbon dioxide over a short term. GWP100: 28 (over 100 years)Accounts for approximately 30% of global warming. |
| Atmospheric Lifetime | Breaks down in about 12 years; shorter-lived compared to CO2. |
| Major Sources | – Cattle farming: 32% of human-caused methane emissions (includes manure and enteric fermentation) – Landfills: Approximately 20% – Wastewater treatment: Around 8% – Rice cultivation: About 10% – Industrial processes: Varied but significant |
| Natural Non-Human Sources | Includes wetlands and permafrost, which release methane through natural processes. |
| Impact Compared to CO2 | Traps 84 times as much heat as CO2 over a 20-year period. CO2 has a longer-term warming effect but is less potent. |
| Key Initiatives | Global Methane Pledge: Launched at UN COP26, signed by over 90 countries, led by the US and EU.
India did not sign. |
PYQ:[2019] Consider the following:
Which of the above are released into atmosphere due to the burning of crop/biomass residue? (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Cold War nuke tests light up a bug in present-day climate models
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Couse of CO2 emission and carbon sequestration;
Why in the News?
A new calculation suggests that climate models might be overestimating how long plants keep carbon before releasing it as per the recent study published in Science by an international research team.
Study by an International Team of Researchers:
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Study from the Relics of the Cold War:
- The nuclear bomb tests conducted during the Cold War inadvertently provided scientists with valuable data for climate research.
- The tests released significant amounts of radiocarbon into the atmosphere, allowing researchers to study its movement and absorption by vegetation.
- The presence of radiocarbon in the atmosphere serves as a marker for understanding carbon dynamics.
- The study analyzed the radiocarbon levels before and after the 1963 Limited Test Ban Treaty, which halted atmospheric nuclear testing, providing insights into how carbon is cycled between the atmosphere and vegetation.
- The study highlights that many climate models have not incorporated radiocarbon data, which could lead to inaccuracies in predicting carbon cycling and its impact on climate change.
- Only one model, the Community Earth System Model 2, has accounted for radiocarbon, but it predicted lower absorption levels than the study found.
How the Whole System is Cycling Faster?
- Accelerated Carbon Exchange: The researchers concluded that the entire carbon cycle is operating faster than previously understood.
- This means that while plants absorb more CO2, they also release it back into the atmosphere more quickly, leading to a more dynamic and less stable carbon storage system.
- Implications for Climate Mitigation: The findings suggest that strategies relying on plant carbon sequestration to offset fossil fuel emissions may need to be reevaluated.
- If plants are releasing carbon sooner than expected, the potential for mitigating climate change through natural carbon sinks could be less effective than previously thought.
Way forward:
- Incorporate Radiocarbon Data: Integrate radiocarbon data into existing and future climate models to more accurately predict carbon cycling and the role of vegetation in carbon sequestration. This will lead to more reliable forecasts of climate change impacts and inform better policy decisions.
- Develop Dynamic Carbon Cycle Models: Improve models to account for the faster carbon cycling observed, ensuring they reflect the actual pace at which carbon is absorbed and released by plants. This will help in refining strategies for climate mitigation.
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Why A23a is spinning in its place?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: A23a Iceberg
Why in the News?
- A23a, the world’s largest iceberg, has recently started spinning in place after drifting away from Antarctica in 2020.
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- Now it is near South Orkney Islands, about northeast of the Antarctic Peninsula.
What is A23a?
- A23a is an iceberg, about 3,855 square kilometers in area, which is 5 times the size of New York City.
- It was originally part of an even larger iceberg called A23.
- It broke off from the Filchner Ice Shelf in Antarctica in 1986.
What is happening with A23a?
- It is now trapped over a seamount, and is spinning slowly in place.
- It is completing a full spin approximately in 24 days.
- Reason behind the spinning: Icebergs spin in Iceberg Alley because they get pulled by the strong Antarctic Circumpolar Current, moving into warmer waters where they melt.
Implications
- A23a’s melting does not contribute to global sea level rise since it is already floating.
- Its extended stay in this vortex could impact marine life in the area, especially plankton and other organisms in the food chain.
- The situation also provides a unique opportunity for scientists to study how such large icebergs behave in the ocean.
PYQ:[2021] With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements: 1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater. 2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater. Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
[2021] How do the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. |
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Underwater mapping reveals insights into melting of ice shelves
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: About the Dotson Ice Shelf (DIS) in the Amundsen Sea
Mains level: Reasons behind ocean warming
Why in the News?
New research has documented previously unseen shapes at the base of a West Antarctic ice shelf.
Base of a West Antarctic Ice Shelf
- Basal Melt Dynamics: The base of West Antarctic ice shelves, including the Dotson Ice Shelf, experiences basal melt driven by warm ocean water. This process leads to thinning and hollows out cavities beneath the ice, reducing structural support for the grounded ice above.
- Autonomous Underwater Vehicle (AUV) Research: Recent research utilized an AUV equipped with multibeam sonar to explore the topography of the basal melt cavity beneath the Dotson Ice Shelf, revealing previously unquantified melt mechanisms and unique formations at the ice shelf’s base.
- Warm salty water, which is transported through ocean currents, significantly contributes to the melting of ice shelves. This bottom-up melting is critical to understanding the dynamics of ice loss and its implications for global sea level rise.
- The AUV discovered tear-shaped indents and other unique shapes at the base of the ice shelf, indicating diverse melting patterns influenced by the flow of warm water.
About the Dotson Ice Shelf (DIS) in Amundsen Sea
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Reasons behind ocean warming
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities such as burning fossil fuels have significantly increased greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere, including carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gases trap heat, leading to global warming.
- Heat Absorption: The oceans have absorbed more than 93% of the excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions since the 1970s. This resulted in an average increase in ocean temperature of about 1°F (0.6°C) over the past century.
- Impact of El Niño: The El Niño weather pattern, characterized by the abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, contributes to both ocean warming and rising global surface temperatures.
International Efforts and Agreements
- The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) was signed by 166 countries in 1992, acknowledging humanity’s role in climate change.
- The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, sets the international community the goal of limiting global warming to “well below” 2°C in this century.
- The Green Climate Fund, established in 2010, aims to help developing countries adopt initiatives to combat climate change and deforestation
Way forward:
- Enhanced Global Commitments: Nations need to reinforce their commitments under international agreements like the Paris Agreement. This includes setting more ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions and adhering to these goals through stringent policies and regulations.
- Funding and Technology Transfer: Developed countries should increase financial contributions to climate funds such as the Green Climate Fund to support mitigation and adaptation efforts in developing countries.
Mains Question for practice:
Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (2014)
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Himachal witnesses gradual snowfall pattern shift
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Shift in snowfall patterns in Himachal, Rivers and glaciers located
Why in the News?
- Himachal Pradesh is experiencing a reducing snow cover over the years.
- There is a noticeable shift in snowfall occurrence from winter months towards early summer months.
Findings from the Latest Study:
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Impact on Water Availability
- The decrease in snow cover during peak winter months (December and January) is especially alarming.
- Snowfall during these months sustains longer and enhances the discharge dependability of major river basins during summer.
- Reduced snow cover in winter could affect water availability during the summer months.
Concerns and Implications
- Environmentalists and scientists are concerned about the shifting snowfall patterns.
- Depleting snow cover and changing snowfall patterns have significant impacts on hydro-power, water sources, people, livestock, forests, farms, and infrastructure.
Back2Basics: Rivers of Himachal Pradesh
| Description | |
| Satluj |
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| Beas |
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| Ravi |
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| Chenab |
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| Yamuna |
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| Spiti |
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| Parbati |
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What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy, announced by FM Sitharaman?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Finance Taxonomy
Why in the News?
- The 2024 Union Budget, presented by Finance Minister, includes developing a taxonomy for climate finance.
- The aim is to enhance the availability of capital for climate adaptation and mitigation.
What is a Climate Finance Taxonomy?
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Significance of a Climate Finance Taxonomy
- Net-Zero Economy: With global temperatures rising and the adverse effects of climate change worsening, countries need to transition to a net-zero economy.
- Alignment with Transition Pathways: Taxonomies help ascertain if economic activities are aligned with credible, science-based transition pathways.
- Deployment of Climate Capital: They provide an impetus for the deployment of climate capital by directing investments towards sustainable projects.
- Reduction of Greenwashing Risks: Taxonomies help reduce the risks of greenwashing by providing clear criteria for what constitutes a sustainable investment.
Why does India need a Green Taxonomy?
- According to the IFC, India needs an estimated $10.1 trillion to achieve net-zero by 2070.
- Public investments alone can’t match this goal, calling for standardization in investments.
Benefits for India
- For India, a taxonomy could attract more climate funds from international sources.
- Currently, green finance flows in India are falling short of the country’s needs, accounting for only around 3% of total FDI inflows, according to the Landscape of Green Finance in India 2022 report by the Climate Policy Initiative.
- A lack of clarity on what constitutes sustainable activity is a significant reason for the low green finance flows. A taxonomy would address this issue.
India’s Climate Commitments:
Steps taken by India:
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Potential for Green Investments in India
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- According to a report by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), India has a climate-smart investment potential of $3.1 trillion from 2018 to 2030.
- The largest investment opportunity lies in the electric vehicle segment, with a potential of $667 billion as India aims to electrify all new vehicles by 2030.
- The renewable energy sector also presents a substantial investment opportunity, estimated at $403.7 billion.
International Adoption of Taxonomies
- Many countries have either started developing or have finalized their taxonomies.
- Countries with developed taxonomies include South Africa, Colombia, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore, Canada, and Mexico.
- The European Union has also developed its own taxonomy.
PYQ:[2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 1 and 3 only |
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Delhi Preservation of Trees Act (DPTA), 1994
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: DPTA, 1994; Definition of tree and tree felling.
Why in the News?
The Supreme Court and the Delhi government are at loggerheads due to alleged felling of trees in the Asola-Bhati Wildlife Sanctuary under the Delhi Preservation of Trees Act (DPTA), 1994.
Forest Cover in Delhi: ISFR Report Findings
- Largest Cover: According to the ‘India State of Forest Report 2021’ (ISFR) published by the Forest Survey of India (FSI), Delhi has the largest forest cover among seven major megacities, with 195 sq. km, followed by Mumbai (110.77 sq. km) and Bengaluru (89.02 sq. km).
- Delhi’s forest cover constitutes 13.15% of its geographical area, while its tree cover spans 147 sq. km (9.91%).
- Growth over Time: Despite extensive urban development, the city’s overall green cover (forest and tree cover) has increased from 151 sq. km (10.2%) in 2001 to 342 sq. km (23.6%) in 2021.
What is the case against the DDA?
- The Supreme Court is hearing a contempt petition against DDA’s Vice Chairman for the felling of about 1,100 trees, in violation of the SC’s orders, for road expansion in the ridge area, which falls under the eco-sensitive zone around Asola-Bhati Wildlife Sanctuary.
- On March 4, the DDA submitted an application to the SC seeking permission to cut trees for the construction of the Gaushala Road. The court directed the DDA to re-examine the proposal with the help of field experts.
- An affidavit from the DDA’s Vice Chairman revealed that tree felling had already begun in February and continued for ten days. By February 26, all intended trees were cut down even before the application reached the SC. This material fact was not disclosed when the court heard the application on March 4.
- The Bench reprimanded DDA for not providing records of the Delhi LG’s (Chairman of the DDA) February 3 visit to the site, which allegedly led to the tree felling order. The Delhi government was also reprimanded for usurping the Tree Officer’s authority in granting permission.
- The apex court has halted the DDA’s work and directed a team from the FSI to assess the number of trees cut and the environmental damage.
Law governing Tree Protection in Delhi:
Delhi Preservation of Trees Act (DPTA), 1994 provides legal protection to trees in the national capital against actions that could harm their growth or regeneration.
- The Act defines a tree as “a woody plant that has branches supported by a trunk or a body of at least 5cm diameter and is at least 1 metre high from the ground”.
- Section 2 (h) of the Act defines “to fell a tree” to include severing the trunk from the roots, uprooting, bulldozing, cutting, girdling, lopping, pollarding, applying arboricides, burning, or any other damaging method.
- Under Section 8, no tree or forest produce can be removed on any land without prior permission from the ‘Tree Officer’, even on privately owned property. The ‘Tree Officer’ must respond within 60 days after inspection.
- Violations of this Act may result in imprisonment for up to one year, a fine up to ₹1,000, or both.
- The Act outlines a ‘Tree Authority’ responsible for conducting tree censuses, managing nurseries, and reviewing government and private construction proposals.
- Delhi’s Tree Transplantation Policy, 2020 mandates that 80% of identified trees slated for felling must be transplanted. However, an affidavit submitted by the government to the Delhi High Court in 2022 disclosed that only 33.33% of transplanted trees had survived.
About Asola Bhatti WLSSituated in the southern part of Delhi and extends into Faridabad and Gurugram districts of Haryana.
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Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s directive to enhance Delhi’s green cover is a crucial step towards mitigating the impacts of extreme heat waves and improving the city’s air quality.
| PYQ:
[2022] “The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws. |
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[8th July 2024] The Hindu Op-ed: A law around low-carbon climate-resilient development
| PYQ Relevance:
Mains: Q) Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC CSE 2017) Q) ‘Clean energy is the order of the day.’ Describe briefly India’s changing policy towards climate change in various international fora in the context of geopolitics. (UPSC CSE 2022) |
Note4Students:
Prelims: Supreme court judgements related to climate change impact,
Mains: Role of state and local Government to address the impact of climate change,
Mentor comment: Climate change poses grave threats to human rights, including the rights to life, health, food, water, housing, and an adequate standard of living. Extreme weather events, sea-level rise, and environmental degradation disproportionately impact vulnerable populations. Governments have a legal obligation to curb climate change, and corporations must respect human rights by reducing emissions and adapting to climate impacts. Addressing climate change is crucial to upholding human rights and ensuring a sustainable future for all.
Let’s learn!
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Why in the news?
In a landmark judgment, the Supreme Court of India recently recognized a right to be “free from the adverse impacts of climate change” in “M.K. Ranjitsinh and Others vs Union of India”, deriving it from the right to life and the right to equality.
Law to inform development choices
- Integrating Climate Objectives into Development: Ensure that low-carbon and climate-resilient futures are prioritized in routine decision-making at all levels of development. Embed climate objectives in the legal framework to guide sustainable development choices.
- Grounding Climate Action in Social Justice: Design laws to protect vulnerable populations disproportionately affected by climate change. Ensure the energy transition is just and equitable, advancing social justice and inclusive development.
- Adopting a Comprehensive and Flexible Approach: Move beyond top-down emission targets to address broader developmental choices and their long-term impacts. Establish well-defined legal procedures that promote continuous consideration of low-carbon and climate-resilient futures.
- Building a Robust Institutional Framework: Create an institutional structure to strategize, prioritize, troubleshoot, and evaluate climate policies. Enhance governance capacity to ensure credible and accountable climate action across all levels of government.
- Tailoring Framework Climate Laws to the Indian Context: Adapt elements of global framework climate laws to suit India’s specific needs, focusing on maximising development per unit of carbon emitted. Emphasize climate resilience and social equity, ensuring development progresses in a low-carbon direction while building resilience to pervasive climate impacts.
Need for a Low-Carbon Development Body
- Rigorous Policy Analysis and Knowledge Generation: Establish a knowledge body in government to rigorously analyze policy options and their potential futures. Enable informed decision-making through a comprehensive understanding of low-carbon development and resilience strategies.
- Expertise and Technical Guidance: Create an independent ‘low-carbon development commission’ staffed with experts and technical personnel. Provide national and state governments with practical guidance on achieving low-carbon growth and resilience.
- Deliberative Decision-Making and Stakeholder Consultation: Facilitate a platform for deliberative decision-making involving multiple stakeholders. Systematically consult vulnerable communities and those adversely affected by technological changes to ensure their concerns are heard and integrated, leading to more sustainable and inclusive policy outcomes.
- Strategic Direction and Whole-of-Government Coordination: Form a high-level strategic body, or ‘climate cabinet,’ comprising key Ministers and representation from State Chief Ministers to drive climate strategy across government. Address the challenge of siloed decision-making by promoting a whole-of-government approach with dedicated coordination mechanisms.
- Enhanced Governance and Legal Empowerment: Complement the role of the Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change with higher-level coordination bodies. Reinforce existing structures like the Executive Committee on Climate Change with clearly defined legal powers and duties to ensure effective implementation and accountability in climate governance.
Role of State and Local Governments in Climate Law
- Engagement with Federal Structure: Recognize the importance of India’s federal structure in climate governance. Acknowledge that crucial areas for emission reduction and resilience improvement, such as electricity, agriculture, water, health, and soil, are managed by State and local governments.
- First Responders to Climate Impacts: Understand that climate impacts are felt first and most intensely at local levels. Ensure that any institutional structure or regulatory instrument engages meaningfully with subnational governments.
- Access to National Scientific Capacity: Establish channels for subnational governments to access national scientific resources and expertise. Utilize the low-carbon development commission as an intermediary to enhance local climate scientific capacity.
- Financing Local Action: Develop mechanisms for financing local climate actions. Align centrally-sponsored schemes with climate goals and require national departments to climate-tag expenditures to enhance local climate resilience.
- Coordination Mechanisms and Unified Goals: Create coordination mechanisms for the Centre and States to consult on major climate decisions. Require periodic updates of medium-term climate plans from both Centre and States, built around unified climate goals.
- State-Specific Solutions and Institutions: Enable States to develop complementary institutions to those at the Centre, providing local knowledge, strategy-setting, deliberation, and coordination functions. Foster the development of State-specific solutions that address unique local climate challenges.
Steps taken by Government to address the impact of climate change:
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Institutional and Legal Frameworks: Establish robust institutions like an independent low-carbon development commission to provide expert guidance, facilitate stakeholder consultations, and ensure informed decision-making.
- Promote Inclusive and Equitable Climate Action: Integrate social equity considerations into climate policies by systematically consulting vulnerable communities and those affected by technological changes.
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The shape of a five-year climate agenda for India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Initiative related to climate change
Mains level: Role of Federal Entities in Enhancing Climate Action
Why in the news?
The new government’s climate actions will impact all sectors, shaping India’s sustainable economic path, global leadership, and fight for climate finance and justice.
Initiatives Taken by the Indian Government in the Last Decade and Their Significant Results
- International Solar Alliance (ISA): Promotes the widespread adoption of solar energy, enhancing global cooperation in renewable energy.
- Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure (CDRI): Focuses on building resilient infrastructure to withstand climate-induced disasters.
- Net-Zero by 2070: India’s commitment to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070 marks a significant shift towards absolute emission reductions.
- Enhanced Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Setting ambitious targets for reducing emissions intensity and increasing renewable energy capacity.
- Indian Emissions Carbon Trading Scheme: Establishing a carbon trading system to incentivize emission reductions and support sustainable economic growth.
- Significant Growth in Renewable Energy Capacity: Rapid expansion in solar and wind energy installations, contributing to India’s international non-fossil fuel energy targets.
- Green Development Pact under G-20 Presidency: Integrating green development principles into global economic practices, showcasing India’s leadership in sustainable development.
How India can enhance it’s Global negotiations wrt Climate change?
- Hosting International Climate Summits: India should aim to host a major international climate summit like the United Nations Conference of Parties (COP) in 2028. This would provide a platform to showcase its climate leadership and set ambitious global climate agendas. Successful hosting, akin to its G-20 Presidency, would strengthen India’s influence in global climate policy.
- Advocacy and Consensus Building: India should start early to build consensus on critical climate issues, such as ending new investments in oil and gas post-2030 and securing significant commitments for adaptation finance. Proactively engaging in dialogues, forming alliances, and addressing concerns of other nations will help India lead negotiations and drive meaningful outcomes.
- Promoting Equity and Climate Finance: India should continue to emphasize equity in climate action and finance in international forums. Advocating for fair treatment of developing countries and pushing for enhanced climate finance mechanisms will strengthen India’s position as a leader of the Global South.
Role of Federal Entities in Enhancing Climate Action
- Collaboration on Long-Term Climate Strategies: Federal entities can work with state governments to develop and implement long-term climate and energy models. Examples include supporting states like Tamil Nadu and Bihar in crafting their net-zero plans.
- Enhanced Coordination and Policy Alignment: Forming a Centre-State coordination group can ensure better synchronization of climate actions across states. This group can facilitate regular communication and policy alignment while respecting the autonomy of each state.
- Financial Incentives through the Sixteenth Finance Commission: Federal entities can use financial mechanisms like the Finance Commission to incentivize states for their climate initiatives. This can include grants or additional funding for states that demonstrate significant progress in climate action.
- Integration of Scientific Capabilities in Policymaking: Encouraging states to incorporate scientific modelling and data analysis into their climate policies. Federal support can enhance the technical capabilities of states, ensuring data-driven and effective climate strategies.
- Consistent and Accurate Climate Data Management: Developing a unified MRV architecture at the state level to standardize data collection and reporting. This system can help track progress, ensure accountability, and facilitate better policy adjustments based on reliable data.
The Indian government has taken several initiatives to address climate change, but their effectiveness is still being evaluated:
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Conclusion: India should expand its climate targets beyond the power sector to include other key areas such as transportation, industry, and agriculture. Clear and ambitious targets for zero-carbon two- and four-wheelers, as well as other sectors, will drive comprehensive decarbonization efforts.
Mains PYQ:
Q Explain the purpose of the Green Grid Initiative launched at World Leaders Summit of the COP26 UN Climate Change Conference in Glasgow in November 2021. When was this idea first floated in the International Solar Alliance (ISA)? (UPSC IAS/2021)
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Climate change forces Panama islanders to relocate
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Location of Gardi Sugdub
Mains level: How fast is the global sea level rising?
Why in the news?
In early June, approximately 300 families were relocated from the island of Gardi Sugdub in Panama’s Guna Yala province due to concerns about rising sea levels.
What is happening in Gardi Sugdub?
- Location and Community: Gardi Sugdub, home to about 1,300 members of the Guna community, is an island in Panama’s Guna Yala province.
- Sea Level Rise: The Caribbean region, where Panama is situated, is experiencing sea level rise at an average rate of 3 to 4 millimetres per year. This rate is expected to accelerate to 1 centimetre per year or more by 2100.
- Flooding: Annually, particularly in November and December, seawater floods houses and streets on Gardi Sugdub, despite efforts to fortify the island.
- Relocation: The Panamanian government constructed 300 new houses on the mainland in a development called Nuevo Cartí to relocate affected families.
How are other island nations affected by sea level rise?
- Small island developing states (SIDS) are particularly vulnerable due to their low elevation and reliance on marine resources. SIDS in the Caribbean, Pacific, Atlantic, Indian Ocean, and South China Sea face existential threats from rising sea levels.
- Examples of Impact: Islands such as Tuvalu, the Marshall Islands, and Kiribati are experiencing significant land loss and threats to their culture and economies.
- Consequences: Coastal erosion, salinization of freshwater resources, and increased vulnerability to extreme weather events due to rising sea levels, storm surges, and ‘king tides.’
How fast is the global sea level rising?
- Since 1880, global sea levels have risen by approximately 21–24 centimeters. The rate of increase has accelerated in recent decades.
- Causes: The primary drivers are global warming, thermal expansion of seawater, and the melting of land-based ice such as glaciers and ice sheets.
- Due to the Global Temperature Increase: The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880, contributing to rising sea levels.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Coastal and Environmental Defenses: Construct seawalls, breakwaters, and other barriers to protect against storm surges and coastal erosion. Restore and preserve natural coastal barriers such as mangroves, coral reefs, and wetlands to enhance natural protection.
- Develop and Implement Climate Adaptation Strategies: Create comprehensive climate adaptation plans that include relocation strategies for vulnerable communities.
Mains PYQ:
Q Explain the causes and effects of coastal erosion in India. What are the available coastal management techniques for combating the hazard? (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Why the Thar Desert on the borders of India and Pakistan is getting greener?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thar Desert, Desert National Park;
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Rajasthan’s barren Thar Desert may turn green, says a recent study in the journal Earth’s Future.
About Thar Desert
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Why the thar desert getting greener?
- Climate Change Effects:
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- Alteration of Weather Patterns: Climate change is causing shifts in rainfall distribution in the thar desert area.
- Potential for Vegetation Growth: The increased precipitation could provide favorable conditions for vegetation growth, contributing to the greening of the desert.
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- Indian Monsoon Dynamics:
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- Westward Extension of Indian Monsoon: The Indian monsoon, known for bringing heavy rainfall to eastern India, is now extending further westward into regions like the Thar Desert.
- Impact on Moisture and Rainfall: This change in monsoon dynamics could lead to increased moisture and rainfall in the desert region, facilitating the growth of vegetation.
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- Expansion of Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP):
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- Influence on Monsoon Patterns: The Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP) influences monsoon patterns and rainfall distribution over the Indian subcontinent.
- Westward Expansion due to Climate Change: Climate change is causing the IOWP to expand westward, potentially resulting in increased rainfall over semi-arid regions like the Thar Desert and promoting greening.
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- Water Management Practices:
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- Contribution to Greening: Effective water management practices, such as rainwater harvesting and irrigation techniques like johad, kuis, and kunds, may be playing a role in the greening of the Thar Desert.
- Utilization of Water Resources: By harnessing and efficiently utilizing available water resources, local communities and authorities can support vegetation growth and ecosystem restoration efforts in the desert.
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- Introduction of Irrigation
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- Commercial Cropping: Irrigation was introduced during British colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries to convert arid and semi-arid ecosystems into cropland.
- Restrictions on Grazing: The right to graze animals was restricted to landowners who cultivated crops, leading to the transformation of nomadic pastoralists into sedentary agropastoralists.
Sustainability of this transformation
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| PYQ:
[2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 [2020] The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples. [2013] Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of the continents. Why? |
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Create the space for governance with a green heart
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Present Himalayan states
Mains level: Problems Associated with Lack of Political Will on Environmental Governance
Why in the news?
As a new term begins for the government and the Lok Sabha, it must prioritize environmental concerns. No government has ever truly prioritized the environment, and the last one, focused on development, actively harmed it.
Present Himalayan states
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Problems Associated with Lack of Political Will on Environmental Governance
- Neglect of Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation: Inadequate actions to reduce carbon emissions and build climate resilience.And failure to address the remediation aspects of climate change, such as food security and disaster preparedness.
- Degradation of Forest Cover: Significant decline in both quantitative and qualitative forest cover.Recent legislation weakening forest protections, leading to further environmental damage.
- Deteriorating Urban Environments: Severe air pollution and water scarcity in major cities, adversely affect public health.Poor sewage treatment infrastructure, resulting in heavily polluted rivers and water bodies.
- Environmental Degradation in the Himalayas: Rapid glacial melting and altered weather patterns threatening water and food security. Government inaction on local environmental protests and concerns highlights a disconnect between policy and grassroots needs.
- Ineffective Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA): EIAs are reduced to mere formalities, failing to prevent environmentally harmful projects.Dilution of EIA regulations and lack of meaningful stakeholder engagement, compromising environmental protection efforts.
How This Can Be Restored?
- Enhanced Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA): Strengthen EIA mechanisms, elevate them to statutory status, and ensure they are thorough and transparent to prevent projects from causing environmental harm.
- Restoration Projects: Initiate large-scale conservation and restoration projects for glaciers, forests, and rivers in the Himalayan region.
- Community Involvement: Actively involve local communities and stakeholders in decision-making processes to ensure their concerns and knowledge are integrated into policy-making.
- Strict Enforcement of Environmental Laws: Improve enforcement of existing environmental regulations and increase penalties for violations to deter harmful activities.
- Sustainable Development Policies: Develop and implement policies that balance development with environmental conservation, ensuring long-term ecological health and resilience.
- Revised Legislation: Reassess and amend legislation like the Forest (Conservation) Amendment Bill, 2023, to provide stronger protections for natural habitats.
- Resilience Building: Invest in infrastructure and programs aimed at enhancing resilience against climate change impacts, such as improved water management systems and disaster preparedness plans.
Government steps taken:
- The National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) was launched as part of India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change to holistically address the vulnerabilities of the Himalayan ecosystem.
- Under NMSHE, the government has developed a common framework and methodology for climate vulnerability and risk assessment across 12 Himalayan states.
- The government has also established the “G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment & Development” to focus on sustainable development and environmental conservation in the Indian Himalayan Region.
Conclusion: To achieve Sustainable Development Goal 13 (Climate Action), India must enhance environmental governance, prioritize climate resilience, and enforce robust conservation policies to protect the Indian Himalayan Region and its ecosystems.
Mains PYQ:
Q Climate change is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (15) (UPSC IAS/2017)
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What are the findings of the 2024 Hindu Kush Himalayas snow update? | Explained
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Data related to Low snow persistence
Mains level: Role of climate change in low levels of snowmelt this year
Why in the news?
In 2024, the Hindu Kush Himalaya snow update from the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) reported that the Ganga River basin, India’s largest, experienced its lowest recorded snow persistence.
What does the report by the International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development highlight?
- Record Low Snow Persistence: The Ganga River basin, along with the Brahmaputra and Indus basins, reached record low snow persistence in 2024.
- Significant Declines: The Ganga basin recorded its lowest snow persistence in 22 years, 17% below the long-term historical average. The Brahmaputra basin was 14.6% below normal, and the Indus basin fell 23.3% below normal.
- Broader Impacts: Similar low snow persistence was recorded in the Amu Darya and Helmand river basins, significantly below normal levels.
How important is snow persistence?
- Water Supply: Snow persistence, the fraction of time snow is on the ground, is crucial as its melt provides significant water to streams and ecosystems.
- Runoff Contribution: Snowmelt contributes 23% of the runoff to the HKH region’s 12 major river basins, supporting nearly one-fourth of the world’s population.
- Regional Significance: The HKH mountains, known as the “water towers of Asia,” are vital for 10 major river systems, including the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus, which are essential freshwater sources for millions.
How much of a role does climate change play in river basins receiving low levels of snowmelt this year?
- Weak Western Disturbances: Lower persistence in 2024 was primarily due to weak Western disturbances, which are low-pressure systems bringing rain and snow to the HKH region.
- Global Warming Effects: Climate change and global warming destabilize weather patterns, exacerbating prolonged La Niña–El Niño conditions, and influencing the arrival and intensity of western disturbances.
- High Sea-Surface Temperatures: Persistently high sea-surface temperatures in the regions where western disturbances originate disrupt their formation, leading to reduced snowfall.
- Changed the weather system: The pattern of high temperatures and altered weather systems explains both the record low snow persistence in 2024 and similar historical records.
Way forward:
- Integrated Water Management: Develop comprehensive water management plans that incorporate predictions of reduced snowmelt. This includes optimising reservoir operations, prioritising water allocation, and implementing efficient irrigation practices to mitigate water scarcity risks.
- Transboundary Collaboration: Foster regional cooperation among countries sharing river basins affected by declining snow persistence. Develop joint strategies for sustainable water management, disaster risk reduction, and climate change adaptation. This includes sharing hydrological data, coordinating emergency responses, and implementing mutual benefit agreements.
- Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Strengthen efforts to mitigate climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions at local, national, and international levels. Promote renewable energy sources and sustainable practices to curb global warming, thereby stabilising weather patterns crucial for snowfall.
Mains PYQ:
Q Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (15) (UPSC IAS/2017)
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No outcome in Bonn: why money is key to climate action
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Debate Over Contribution and suggest measures
Why in the news?
The Bonn climate meeting failed to define a new climate finance goal, crucial for finalizing a sum exceeding $100 billion annually by the end of 2024.
Key Highlights of the Climate Meeting in Bonn, Germany
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Search for a New NCQG (New Collective Quantified Goal)
- Importance of Climate Finance: Money is essential for climate action, including mitigation, adaptation, and other tasks like collecting and reporting climate data, which require substantial funds, especially in developing countries.
- Existing Commitment: Developed countries had promised to mobilize $100 billion annually from 2020 to help developing countries fight climate change. This target is now being re-evaluated to increase the amount post-2025.
Previous Assessment
- Current Needs: It is widely recognized that developing countries now require trillions of dollars annually. A UNFCCC assessment indicated that these countries need about $6 trillion by 2030 for climate actions, with adaptation needs alone requiring $215 billion to $387 billion annually.
- Energy Transition: The global shift to clean energy requires investments of about $4.3 trillion per year until 2030 and around $5 trillion annually thereafter until 2050 to achieve global net-zero emissions.
- Developing Countries’ Demands: India has proposed that developed countries should provide at least $1 trillion annually after 2025, while Arab and African countries have suggested figures of $1.1 trillion and $1.3 trillion, respectively.
Debate Over Contribution
- Original Responsibility: According to the UNFCCC and Paris Agreement, only the 25 countries listed in Annexure 2, along with the European Economic Community, are responsible for providing climate finance to developing countries.
- Shifting Responsibility: These countries argue that other nations, such as China, Gulf countries, and South Korea, are now economically capable and should also contribute. However, countries like China have stated they do not intend to take on additional responsibilities beyond their current efforts.
- Developed Countries’ Stance: While acknowledging that the new target must be higher than the existing $100 billion per year, developed countries have not made any specific offers publicly.
Way forward:
- Clear Definition of Climate Finance: Establish a universally accepted definition of climate finance to prevent discrepancies in reporting and ensure transparency.
- Precise Targets and Timelines: Set clear, incremental targets leading up to the final goal, with defined timelines for achieving these targets. This will provide a roadmap for both developed and developing countries.
Mains PYQ:
Q Describe the major outcomes of the 26th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). What are the commitments made by India in this conference? (UPSC IAS/2021)
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A call to action for a sustainable future
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Environment Day 2024
Mains level: How COVID-19 Shows Us the Way Forward
Why in the news?
World Environment Day (WED) on June 5th is a global event where people come together to celebrate the importance of environmental conservation and sustainability, emphasizing the urgent need to tackle environmental challenges.
World Environment Day 2024 Theme
Theme: “Land Restoration, Desertification, and Drought Resilience”
- Highlighting Critical Issues: Focuses on the significant threats posed by land degradation and desertification, which impact food security, biodiversity, and climate change. For example, the United Nations estimate that about 30% of land is degraded worldwide
- The urgency for Action: Emphasizes the need for immediate actions in the face of the triple planetary crisis: Climate Change, Nature and Biodiversity Loss, and Pollution and Waste.
- Shared Responsibility: Stresses collective action and individual responsibility in restoring ecosystems, urging everyone to contribute to solutions.
- Empowering Youth: Encourages young people to lead the change towards a sustainable future with the #GenerationRestoration slogan.
- Alignment with Global Goals: Supports the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) and the Sustainable Development Goals, promoting a comprehensive approach to environmental protection.
India’s Ambitious Renewable Targets
- Renewable Energy Goals: India aims to achieve 450 GW of renewable energy capacity by 2030, emphasizing solar and wind energy.
- Solar Energy Initiatives: Major solar projects, including the world’s largest solar park in Karnataka and the International Solar Alliance (ISA), aim to promote solar energy adoption.
- Wind Energy: India is one of the world’s largest producers of wind energy, with significant wind farms in Tamil Nadu and Gujarat.
- Policy Support: The government has introduced various policies and incentives to encourage investment in renewable energy, including subsidies, tax benefits, and easier land acquisition processes.
- Sustainable Development: These initiatives align with India’s commitments under the Paris Agreement to reduce carbon emissions and promote sustainable development.
How COVID-19 Shows Us the Way Forward
- Environmental Awareness: The pandemic has heightened awareness of the interconnectedness between human health and the environment, highlighting the importance of preserving natural habitats to prevent zoonotic diseases.
- Reduction in Pollution: Lockdowns and reduced industrial activities during the pandemic led to significant decreases in air and water pollution, demonstrating the impact of human activities on the environment.
- Green Recovery: The concept of building back better suggests incorporating green recovery strategies into post-pandemic economic plans, focusing on sustainable practices and renewable energy investments.
- Resilient Systems: Emphasizes the need for resilient and adaptive systems that can withstand future shocks, including those caused by climate change and environmental degradation.
- Global Cooperation: COVID-19 underscored the importance of international cooperation and collective action to tackle global challenges, a principle that is equally applicable to environmental issues.
Conclusion: By embracing the lessons from the pandemic, setting ambitious renewable energy targets, and focusing on land restoration and resilience, the global community can work towards a sustainable and resilient future. World Environment Day 2024 serves as a pivotal moment to reflect on these goals and renew our commitment to environmental stewardship.
Mains PYQ:
Q Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is the sine qua non to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)”.Comment on the progress made in India in this regard. (150 Words, 10 Marks) (UPSC IAS/2018)
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Is climate change behind more frequent and severe turbulence faced by aircraft?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Types of Flight Turbulence and Causes of Flight Turbulence
Mains level: Impact of Climate Change on Flight Turbulence
Why in the news?
On May 21, severe turbulence over Myanmar caused one death and 70 injuries on a Singapore Airlines flight. Qatar Airways had 12 minor injuries on May 26.
What is Turbulence?
- Turbulence, unpredictable air motion caused by eddies and vertical currents, ranges from minor bumps to severe disruptions, often associated with fronts and thunderstorms.
Flight Turbulence
Types of Flight Turbulence
Note: Attitude is the angular difference measured between an aeroplane’s axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon.
- Light Turbulence: Slight erratic changes in the aircraft’s orientation.
- Moderate Turbulence: Notable changes in altitude and attitude, but the aircraft remains under control.
- Severe Turbulence: Significant and sudden changes of altitude and attitude, momentarily losing control.
- Extreme Turbulence: The aircraft is violently tossed about and is almost impossible to control.
Causes of Flight Turbulence
- Mechanical Turbulence: Caused by friction between the air and the ground, especially over irregular terrain and man-made obstacles. Includes ‘mountain waves’ over mountain ranges.
- Convective/Thermal Turbulence: Resulting from hot air rising rapidly and cooler air descending, creating convective air currents. Often occurs during the approach.
- Frontal Turbulence: Created by the lifting of warm air by a sloping frontal surface and friction between opposing air masses, commonly near thunderstorms.
- Wind Shear: Caused by changes in wind direction and/or speed over specific distances, found in temperature inversion areas, troughs, lows, and around jet streams.
- Clear Air Turbulence (CAT): Occurs at high altitudes outside of clouds, often near jet streams, and is difficult to predict or see.
Impact of Climate Change on Flight Turbulence
- Increased Incidence: Studies indicate a rise in severe turbulence, particularly CAT, with the growth in air traffic and climate change.
- Jet Stream Intensification: Climate change strengthens jet streams, increasing the frequency and severity of turbulence.
- Mountain Wave and Near-Cloud Turbulence: Predictions suggest these types of turbulence will also intensify with climate change, leading to more frequent and severe occurrences globally.
Way forward:
- Safety Measures: Continuous improvement in aircraft design, weather forecasting, and pilot training helps mitigate the risks associated with turbulence.
- Passenger Advice: Passengers are advised to keep their seat belts fastened as much as possible to avoid injuries during unexpected turbulence.
- Regulatory Recommendations: Aviation authorities recommend better communication, real-time information sharing, and enhanced training to prevent turbulence-related incidents.
Mains PYQ:
Q Most of the unusual climatic happenings are explained as an outcome of the El-Nino effect. Do you agree? (UPSC IAS/2014)
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Antarctic Parliament meets in Kochi: What’s on the table?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ATCM 46, Antarctic Treaty, India in Antarctica.
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
- India is hosting the 46th Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM 46), also known as the Antarctic Parliament, from May 20-30 in Kochi.
- The National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research, Goa, through the Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), has organised the meeting, which will be attended by the 56 member countries of the Antarctic Treaty.
What is the Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting (ATCM)?
- ATCM is the primary forum for discussing and coordinating activities related to the Antarctic Treaty System.
- It was established under the Antarctic Treaty, which was signed in 1959 and entered into force in 1961.
- It serves as the annual meeting of the parties to the Antarctic Treaty, known as Consultative Parties.
- The ATCM adopts legally binding agreements, known as Antarctic Treaty Measures (ATMs), as well as non-binding recommendations on various matters.
- Decisions within the ATCM are made by consensus among the Consultative Parties.
- The ATCM established the Committee for Environmental Protection (CEP) as a subsidiary body to provide advice and recommendations on environmental matters.
- India had last hosted the ATCM in New Delhi in 2007.
India’s Agenda at ATCM 46
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About Antarctic Treaty
| Details | |
| Signing and Entry into Force |
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| Objective | Ensure Antarctica remains exclusively for peaceful purposes, free from international discord. |
| Key Provisions |
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| Territorial Claims |
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| Disarmament |
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| Consultative Meetings |
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| Environmental Protection |
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| Mineral Resource Exploitation |
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| Membership |
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| Madrid Protocol |
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India in Antarctica1. Governance:
2. Scientific Expeditions:
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About the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR)
- NCPOR is an Indian research and development institution, situated in Vasco da Gama, Goa.
- It is an autonomous institution of the Department of the Ministry of Earth Sciences, established in 1998.
- It is responsible for scientific and strategic endeavors in the Polar Regions (Arctic and Antarctic), the Himalayas, and the Southern Ocean.
PYQ:[2015] The term ‘IndARC’ sometimes seen in the news is the name of (a) An indigenously developed radar system inducted into Indian Defence. (b) India’s satellite to provide services to the countries of Indian Ocean Rim. (c) A scientific establishment set up by India in Antarctic region. (d) India’s underwater observatory to scientifically study the Arctic region. |
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Going glacier gone: How Venezuela lost its last glacier, why this matters?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glaciers;
Mains level: Climate change; Issue of rise in Temperatures;
Why in the News?
Venezuela has likely become the first country to lose all its glaciers, with its last Humboldt glacier melting faster than anticipated. While scientists projected it to last another decade, its rapid melting exceeded expectations.
Background:
- Venezuela was home to six glaciers about 5,000 meters above sea level in the Andes mountains.
- By 2011, five of them had vanished. Scientists expected the Humboldt glacier to last another decade.
What are glaciers?
- Glaciers are large masses of ice that form on land over long periods through the accumulation and compaction of snow. They flow like slow rivers and typically develop in regions with near-freezing temperatures, significant snowfall, and minimal summer melting.
- According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS), they usually exist and form in areas where mean annual temperatures reach near the freezing point; winter precipitation leads to significant snow accumulations; and temperatures throughout the remaining year do not cause the complete loss of the previous winter’s snow accumulation.
Why are Glaciers disappearing?
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels since the Industrial Revolution have released large amounts of GHGs like carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere.
- Heat Trapping: The greenhouse gases act as a blanket, trapping heat in the atmosphere. While they allow sunlight to pass through, they prevent the heat from escaping back into space, leading to a rise in global temperatures.
- The global average temperature has increased by at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880 due to the skyrocketing emissions of GHGs in recent decades.
- Consequences of Temperature Rise: The temperature rise has resulted in devastating consequences such as more frequent and intense heatwaves, floods, droughts, and a rise in sea levels.
- Accelerated Melting: Glaciers, like ice cubes exposed to heat, are melting at accelerated rates due to the warmer temperatures caused by global warming.
- Natural Climate Phenomena: Natural climate phenomena like El Nino can exacerbate glacier melting by causing abnormal warming of surface waters, as observed in the case of the Humboldt glacier in Venezuela.
What are the impacts of Glacier Loss?
- Freshwater Source: Glaciers are crucial sources of freshwater, especially during hot and dry periods, providing water for local communities, plants, and animals. Their disappearance would increase dependence on sporadic rainfall for freshwater supply.
- Temperature Regulation: Glacial runoff helps regulate downstream water temperatures, particularly keeping them cooler. This is essential for many aquatic species that require cold water temperatures to survive, impacting the entire ecosystem.
- Ecosystem Impact: Glacier loss directly affects aquatic species, disrupting the food web and potentially leading to declines in biodiversity.
- Contribution to Sea Level Rise: Melting glaciers contribute to rising sea levels, although smaller glaciers like Venezuela’s Humboldt glacier may not substantially impact sea levels.
- Cultural Impact: The loss of glaciers has significant cultural implications, particularly for communities where glaciers are part of their cultural identity. Activities such as mountaineering and tourism, which rely on glaciers, would be affected.
- Tourism and Recreation: Glaciers are often major tourist attractions, drawing visitors for activities like mountaineering and sightseeing. The disappearance of glaciers would impact tourism and recreational activities in affected regions.
Way Forward:
- International Cooperation: Foster collaboration among countries to tackle climate change on a global scale. Support international agreements such as the Paris Agreement, aimed at limiting global warming and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
- Protect and Preserve Glacier Areas: Establish and enforce conservation measures to protect glacier regions from further degradation. This can involve creating protected areas, implementing zoning regulations, and promoting sustainable tourism practices.
Mains PYQ:
Q Bring out the relationship between the shrinking Himalayan glaciers and the symptoms of climate change in the Indian sub-continent. (UPSC IAS/2014)
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Explained Climate: Heatwaves and Climate Change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Change; Heat Waves;
Mains level: Impacts of Climate change;
Why in the News?
According to the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD), heatwave conditions are affecting either the smaller regions or the larger geographical areas in India at every 26 days of the month.
What are the Heat Waves?
- The “World Meteorological Organization” defines a heat wave as five or more consecutive days during which the daily maximum temperature exceeds the average maximum temperature by five degrees Celsius.
- If the maximum temperature of any place continues to be more than 45 Degree Celsius consecutively for two days, it is called a heat wave condition.
Heatwaves in India:
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Impact of Heatwaves:
- Impact on Resource Availability:
- Water Resources: It exacerbates water scarcity by drying up of water bodies, reducing water availability for agriculture and domestic use, and increasing competition for resources. This can lead to conflicts over water, affect irrigation practices, and impact water-dependent industries.
- Energy Resources: It increases electricity demand for cooling purposes, leading to strain on power grids and potential blackouts. This can disrupt economic activities, affect productivity, and impact vulnerable populations.
- Impact on Health:
- Prolonged exposure to heat can lead to Dehydration and Cardiovascular and Respiratory diseases.
- Rapid rises in heat gain can compromise the body’s ability to regulate temperature and can result in a cascade of illnesses, including heat cramps, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, and hyperthermia.
- Health Ministry reported 264 heat-related deaths in the first six months of 2023. NCRB reported 730 heat-related deaths in the same year.
However, data collected and maintained by IMD and NDMA (National Disaster Management Authority) showed a sharp decline in heat-related deaths ever since state governments and district administrations began implementing heat action plans.
Mitigation of Heatwaves:
- Need to establish an Early Warning System: The Inter-Agency Coordination needs to alert residents on predicted high and extreme temperatures. Who will do what, when, and how is made clear to individuals and units of key departments, especially for health.
- Increase Public Awareness and Community Outreach: Disseminating public awareness messages on how to protect against the extreme heat – wave through social media and advertisements. Additionally, the government needs to aware the general public through Television programs the Do’s and Dont’s for heat-related illnesses.
Conclusion: Need to improve collaboration with Non-governmental organizations and Civil society organizations to improve public spaces wherever necessary, improve water delivery systems in public areas, and other innovative measures to tackle heatwave conditions.
Mains PYQ:
Q ‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
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Why the Thar Desert on the borders of India and Pakistan is getting greener?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thar Desert, Desert National Park;
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Rajasthan’s barren Thar Desert may turn green, says a recent study in the journal Earth’s Future.
Thar Desert
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Why is the Thar desert getting greener?
- Climate Change Effects:
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- Alteration of Weather Patterns: Climate change is causing shifts in rainfall distribution in the thar desert area.
- Potential for Vegetation Growth: The increased precipitation could provide favorable conditions for vegetation growth, contributing to the greening of the desert.
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- Indian Monsoon Dynamics:
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- Westward Extension of Indian Monsoon: The Indian monsoon, known for bringing heavy rainfall to eastern India, is now extending further westward into regions like the Thar Desert.
- Impact on Moisture and Rainfall: This change in monsoon dynamics could lead to increased moisture and rainfall in the desert region, facilitating the growth of vegetation.
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- Expansion of Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP):
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- Influence on Monsoon Patterns: The Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP) influences monsoon patterns and rainfall distribution over the Indian subcontinent.
- Westward Expansion due to Climate Change: Climate change is causing the IOWP to expand westward, potentially resulting in increased rainfall over semi-arid regions like the Thar Desert and promoting greening.
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- Water Management Practices:
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- Contribution to Greening: Effective water management practices, such as rainwater harvesting and irrigation techniques like johad, kuis, and kunds, may be playing a role in the greening of the Thar Desert.
- Utilization of Water Resources: By harnessing and efficiently utilizing available water resources, local communities and authorities can support vegetation growth and ecosystem restoration efforts in the desert.
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- Introduction of Irrigation
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- Commercial Cropping: Irrigation was introduced during British colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries to convert arid and semi-arid ecosystems into cropland.
- Restrictions on Grazing: The right to graze animals was restricted to landowners who cultivated crops, leading to the transformation of nomadic pastoralists into sedentary agro-pastoralists.
PYQ:[2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss?
Select the correct answer using the code given below: (a) 2 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 [2020] The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples. [2013] Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of the continents. Why? |
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Icequakes on Ross Ice Shelf
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ross Ice Shelf, Whillans Ice Stream
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
- Scientists found out that the huge Ross Ice Shelf, almost as big as France, moves forward a few centimetres daily.
- This happens because of the Whillans Ice Stream, a fast-moving river of ice that sometimes gets stuck and then suddenly moves forward.
About Ross Ice Shelf
- Ross Ice Shelf is the largest ice shelf of Antarctica roughly the size of France.
- It was discovered by Sir James Clark Ross on 28 January 1841.
- The shelf spans an area of roughly 500,809 square kilometers, about the size of France or the Yukon Territory in Canada.
- It is several hundred meters thick. In the shelf’s southern reaches, nearest the True South Pole, the ice can be as thick as 750m.
- The nearly vertical ice front to the open sea is more than 600 km long, and between 15 and 50 meters high above the water surface. However, 90% of the floating ice is below the water surface.
- It is fed primarily by giant glaciers, or ice streams, that transport ice down to it from the high polar ice sheet of East and West Antarctica.
- Most of Ross Ice Shelf is in the Ross Dependency claimed by New Zealand.
- It floats in, and covers, a large southern portion of the Ross Sea and the entire Roosevelt Island located in the east of the Ross Sea.
Spotlight: Icequakes on Ross Ice Shelf
- Influence of Ice Stream: Most glaciers move slowly, but the Whillans Ice Stream stops and starts suddenly. This might happen because there isn’t enough water below to help it move smoothly.
- Sudden Movements: These sudden movements, like tiny earthquakes, push against the Ross Ice Shelf.
- Threat to Stability: Even though these daily shifts aren’t caused by humans, they could make the Ross Ice Shelf weaker over time. Ice shelves slow down the flow of ice into the ocean.
- Retreat of Glacier: If the Ross Ice Shelf gets weaker or breaks, it could speed up melting and raise sea levels.
PYQ:[2013] On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater, the largest proportion (a) Is found in the atmosphere as moisture and clouds (b) Is found in freshwater lakes and rivers (c) Exists as groundwater (d) Exists as soil moisture |
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ISRO’s Findings on Glacial Lake Dynamics in Himalaya
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ghepang/Ghepan Ghat and other Glacial Lake, GLOF Glacial Landforms etc.
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
- The Satellite images by ISRO show an increase in the size of Gepang Gath Lake amidst rising concerns about Climate Change.
- Gepang Gath Lake (one of the biggest Glacial lakes in the Chandra basin) is located in the Western Indian Himalaya at the terminus of the Gepan Gath glacier.
ISRO’s Findings on Glacial Lakes in HimalayasExpansion of Glacial Lakes
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What are Glacial Lakes?
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- Glacial lakes are bodies of water formed in depressions on the surface of glaciers or in moraines left behind by retreating glaciers.
- Glacial lakes were categorized based on their formation process into four broad categories:
- Moraine-dammed,
- Ice-dammed,
- Erosion, and
- Other glacial lakes.
- Among the expanding lakes, the majority are Moraine-dammed (307), followed by Erosion (265), other (96), and Ice-dammed (8) glacial lakes.
- Formation Process: Glacial lakes form through the accumulation of meltwater from the melting ice of glaciers. As glaciers move, they carve out depressions in the landscape, which may fill with water to form lakes.
- When glaciers retreat, they leave behind moraines, which can act as natural dams, trapping meltwater and forming lakes.
- Characteristics:
- Vary in size, depending on the size and activity of the glacier.
- Found in mountainous regions and polar areas where glaciers are present.
- The primary source of water is melting glacial ice, precipitation and runoff.
- Significance of Glacial Lakes:
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- Glacial lakes play a crucial role in regulating water flow in glacier-fed rivers, particularly during the dry season.
- Provides habitat for unique aquatic species adapted to cold, high-altitude environments.
- Contributes to landscape evolution and the formation of landforms such as cirques and tarns.
- Present Ecological Challenges:
- Glacial Outburst Floods: The sudden release of water from glacial lakes, known as glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), can pose significant hazards to downstream communities and infrastructure. Ex. Chamoli Disaster.
- Rapid Expansion: Glacial lakes can rapidly expand due to the increased melting of glaciers, leading to the risk of flooding and landslides in surrounding areas.
Important Glacial Lakes in India:
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| PYQ:
[2020] Siachen Glacier is situated to the (a) East of Aksai Chin (b) East of Leh (c) North of Gilgit (d) North of Nubra Valley |
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NABARD Unveils Climate Strategy 2030 for Green Financing
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NABARD, ‘Climate Strategy 2030’;
Mains level: Climate Strategy 2030’;
Why in the news?
The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) revealed its ‘Climate Strategy 2030’ document, aiming to address India’s need for enhanced green financing.
Key Pillars of Climate Strategy 2030:
- The strategy focuses on four key pillars:
- Accelerating green lending across sectors,
- Playing a broader market-making role,
- Internal green transformation, and
- Strategic resource mobilization.
Green Financing Scenario in India
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About NABARD:
- It was established on July 12, 1982, based on the recommendation of the Sivaraman Committee to promote sustainable rural development and agricultural growth in India.
- Aim: To facilitate credit flow for the promotion and development of agriculture, small-scale industries, cottage and village industries, handicrafts, and other rural crafts.
- It operates as a statutory body under the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Act, 1934, with its headquarters located in Mumbai.
- It is governed by a Board of Directors appointed by the GoI:
- Representatives from the RBI;
- Central and state governments;
- Experts from various fields related to Rural Development and Finance.
Functions of NABARD:
- Refinance Support: NABARD provides refinance facilities to banks and financial institutions for agricultural and rural development activities, including crop loans and rural infrastructure projects.
- Financial Inclusion: It promotes financial inclusion by expanding banking services in rural areas, supporting SHGs, FPOs, and MFIs, and facilitating access to credit for rural communities.
- Priority Sector Lending: NABARD plays a crucial role in channelling credit to priority sectors such as agriculture, small-scale industries, and rural infrastructure, in alignment with the Reserve Bank of India’s priority sector lending guidelines.
- Direct Lending: It extends direct loans to institutions for specific rural development projects, such as agricultural production, rural infrastructure development, and agri-processing units.
- Scheme Implementation: The organization administers government schemes and funds like Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), Watershed Development Fund (WDF) to finance rural infrastructure projects and watershed development activities.
- Credit Planning: NABARD collaborates with central and state governments, RBI, and other stakeholders to formulate credit policies and plans for agriculture and rural sectors.
- Research and Training: NABARD promotes research and development in agriculture, supports capacity building and training programs for rural stakeholders, and facilitates technology transfer initiatives.
PYQ:[2013] Which of the following grants/grants direct credit assistance to rural households?
Select the correct answer using the codes given below: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Sustaining our Earth and Nourishing our Bodies
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Climate Change;
Why in the news?
The women from a Self-Help Group in Kanker district (Chhattisgarh), have spared 10 decimals of land for multi-layer farming to mitigate land degradation and under-nutrition, and to secure round-the-year incomes.
How does the relationship between Climate Change and Nutrition result in Food insecurity?
- Impact on Food Chain: Climate change affects food value chains, agricultural yields, nutritional quality, food access, and energy-intensive processes, exacerbating existing challenges in food security and nutrition.
- Lack of Access: The Rome Declaration on Nutrition highlights the global challenges in providing sufficient, safe, diverse, and nutrient-rich food for everyone, with approximately 800 million people lacking reliable access to food and two billion suffering from iron and zinc deficiencies.
- Disparities in Diets: Disparities in production systems and individual dietary choices lead to populations being unable to maintain balanced diets, contributing to malnutrition and the prevalence of non-communicable diseases.
- Results into Gender Disparities: Women are disproportionately affected by climate change and poor nutrition, but gender-just food systems, where women have equal rights and access to resources, contribute to resilience against shocks like drought.
Suggestive measures for reducing Emissions
- Plant-Based Diet: A diet higher in plant-based foods is more environmentally sustainable than one with more animal foods. Substituting animal products with plant-based meats and dairy alternatives can lower emissions.
- Mitigating CO2 Concentration: Higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations can lead to lower concentrations of protein, iron, and zinc in crops, highlighting the need to mitigate climate change impacts on food nutrition.
- Value-Chain Approach: Adopting a value-chain approach can optimize dietary choices while lowering emissions, benefiting communities at the household level.
- For Example, Initiatives like the Millet Mission in Chhattisgarh aim to promote millet cultivation, showcasing its nutritional value, low water footprint, climate resilience, and potential to address both nutritional and environmental concerns.
- Scaling up diversified Food Production: Scaling up and decentralizing diversified food production systems can reduce emissions by promoting underutilized indigenous foods and improving resilience to climate change.
- Monitoring Emissions: Continuous and extensive monitoring of emissions linked to food production and distribution is necessary, with accessible assessment tools for local communities to actively participate in emission reduction efforts.
Conclusion: Crops grown in regenerative and sustainable systems tend to have higher levels of vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, and other beneficial phytochemicals compared to conventionally grown counterparts. By prioritizing soil health and biodiversity, regenerative and sustainable agriculture systems government and farmers can collaboratively promote nutrient-dense foods that nourish our bodies and support overall health and well-being.
Mains PYQ:
Q Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change? (UPSC IAS/2017)
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The citizen’s ‘climate rights’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Fundamental Rights; Article 14 and 21;
Mains level: Judiciary;
Why in the news?
The Supreme Court recently held that people have a fundamental right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change while emphasizing that countries like India must uphold their international obligations for healthy and sustainable development [M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. vs Union of India].
Background of M K Ranjitsinh & Ors. vs Union of India Case:
-
- The case was related to the conservation of the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard (GIB).
- In 2021, a writ petition was filed by retired government official and conservationist M K Ranjitsinh, seeking protection for the GIB and the Lesser Florican, which are on the verge of extinction.
- On April 19, 2021 order by SC was imposed restricting the setting up of overhead transmission lines in a territory of about 99,000 sq km in the GIB habitat in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
- The Supreme Court has ruled that people have a “right to be free from the adverse effects of climate change”, which should be recognized by Articles 14 and 21 of the Constitution.
- This judgment was by a three-judge Bench of Chief Justice of India (CJI) D Y Chandrachud and Justices J B Pardiwala and Manoj Misra.
The Recent Modification over Earlier Judgement given by the SC:
Who applied for modification of an earlier case?
- The Ministry of Power, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change, and the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy had applied to modify the 2021 order on grounds that
- It had adverse implications for India’s power sector, and undergrounding power lines was not possible
- The Paris Climate Treaty (2015) is one of the key grounds for seeking a modification of the 2021 order.
What SC did say in this case?
- Underground powerlines: The apex court modified its April 2021 order giving directions for underground high-voltage and low-voltage power lines, and directed experts to assess the feasibility of undergrounding power lines in specific areas after considering factors such as terrain, population density, and infrastructure requirements
- The earlier direction was not feasible: The ruling acknowledged that its earlier directions, “besides not being feasible to implement, would also not result in achieving its stated purpose, i.e., the conservation of the GIB”.
- Suitable relationship between FR and DPSP: The court emphasized that when addressing environmental concerns outlined in the Directive Principles of State Policy, they must be interpreted in conjunction with the right to life and personal liberty as enshrined in Article 21.
How have the Courts interpreted Article 21 earlier?
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What are the implications of the judgment for environmental jurisprudence?
- Strengthening Environmental and Climate Justice: The judgment emphasizes bolstering environmental and climate justice by recognizing the multifaceted impacts of climate change on various communities.
- Expansion of Article 14 and Right to Life: The judgment expands the scope of Article 14 of the Constitution, which guarantees equality before the law, to encompass environmental concerns.
- Influence on Public Discourse and Government Policies: The judgment is expected to influence public discourse on environmental issues, shaping perceptions and priorities regarding environmental protection.
- Establishment of Legal Precedent: By acknowledging the “right against adverse effects of climate change,” the judgment establishes a significant legal precedent.
Conclusion: The Supreme Court’s recognition of citizens’ “right to be free from adverse effects of climate change” expands constitutional protections, strengthens environmental justice, influences policy discourse, and sets a crucial legal precedent.
Mains PYQ
Q Does the right to clean environment entail legal regulation on burning crackers during Diwali? Discus in the light of Article 21 of Indian Constitution and judgements of the apex in this regard.(UPSC IAS/2015)
Q The most significant achievement of modern law in India is the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court.” Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws. (UPSC IAS/2022)
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Why Uttarakhand govt wants to evaluate the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Change; GLOFS;
Mains level: Climate change and concerns;
Why in the news?
Recently, the Uttarakhand government has constituted two teams of experts to evaluate the risk posed by five potentially hazardous glacial lakes in the region.
Context:
- The Hazardous Glacial Lakes are prone to Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs), the kind of events that have resulted in several disasters in the Himalayan states in recent years.
- The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), which operates under the Union Ministry of Home Affairs, has identified 188 glacial lakes in the Himalayan states that can potentially be breached because of heavy rainfall. Thirteen of them are in Uttarakhand.
About Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs):GLOFs are disaster events caused by the abrupt discharge of water from glacial lakes large bodies of water that sit in front of, on top of, or beneath a melting glacier. As a glacier withdraws, it leaves behind a depression that gets filled with meltwater, thereby forming a lake. Example: 4 october 2023 GLOFs in Sikkim. |
Factors behind the GLOFs:
- Avalanches or Landslides: Incidents such as avalanches or landslides can also impact the stability of the boundary around a glacial lake, leading to its failure, and the rapid discharge of water.
- Due to climate change: Rising surface temperatures across the globe, including India, have increased the risk of GLOFs. Studies have shown that around 15 million people face the risk of sudden and deadly flooding from glacial lakes, which are expanding and rising in numbers due to global warming.
- Rapid infrastructure development in vulnerable areas has also contributed to the spike in such incidents.
- Sizable ice chunks in the lake: GLOFs can be triggered by various reasons, including glacial calving, where sizable ice chunks detach from the glacier into the lake, inducing sudden water displacement.
Why are GLOFs under the spotlight?
- Increased Frequency of GLOFs: Since 1980, GLOFs have become more frequent in the Himalayan region, particularly in southeastern Tibet and the China-Nepal border area. This indicates a concerning trend of glacial melting and lake formation as per Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research in China
- Extent of Potential Risk: The analysis by Institute of Tibetan Plateau Research in China suggests that approximately 6,353 sq km of land could be at risk from potential GLOFs.
- Regional Impacts: Another analysis conducted by Caroline Taylor, Rachel Carr, Stuart Dunning (Newcastle University, UK), Tom Robinson (University of Canterbury, New Zealand), and Matthew Westoby (Northumbria University, UK) indicates that GLOFs are not just a localized issue but have broader regional impacts.
- Around 3 million people in India and 2 million in Pakistan are identified as facing the risk of GLOFs, highlighting the potential humanitarian consequences of these events.
What is the situation in Uttarakhand?
- Past GLOF events: Uttarakhand has experienced two major GLOF events in recent years. The first occurred in June 2013, affecting large parts of the state, particularly the Kedarnath valley, resulting in significant loss of life.
- The second event happened in February 2021 in Chamoli district, leading to flash floods due to the bursting of a glacier lake.
- Categorization of Glacial Lakes: Uttarakhand has 13 glacial lakes categorized into three risk levels: ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’.
- Five highly sensitive lakes fall into the ‘A’ category, including Vasudhara Tal in the Dhauliganga basin (Chamoli district), Maban Lake, Pyungru Lake, and two unclassified lakes in Pithoragarh district.
- Size and Elevation of High-Risk Lakes: The lakes in the ‘A’ category have areas ranging from 0.02 to 0.50 sq km and are situated at elevations between 4,351 to 4,868 meters above sea level. These characteristics make them particularly vulnerable to glacial lake outburst events.
- Impact of Rising Temperatures: A 2021 study by the Potsdam Institute for Climate Research (PIK) and The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) suggests that rising surface temperatures could worsen the situation in Uttarakhand.
- The state’s annual average maximum temperature may increase by 1.6-1.9 degrees Celsius between 2021-2050, potentially exacerbating the risk of GLOFs.
Conclusion: Uttarakhand government forms expert teams to assess risk from 5 hazardous glacial lakes prone to GLOFs. With rising temperatures and past disasters, urgent action is needed to mitigate potential catastrophic flooding.
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On Sustainable Building Materials | Explained
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Residential Envelope Transmittance Value (RETV)
Mains level: Measures to improve sustainable material
Why in the News?
Recently, post COVID-19, India is experiencing a sudden increase in construction. Although expansion offers economic prospects and enhanced living conditions, yet it also presents notable environmental hurdles.
The Major Environmental Concerns Due to the Construction Sector:
- The cement sector is a hard-to-abate sector in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, but it is an equally critical contributor to the economic development of the country.
- India is the second largest producer of cement in the world and plans to almost double its production by 2030. It accounts for over 33% of India’s electricity usage, contributing to environmental degradation and climate change.
- Globally, about 37% of global greenhouse gas emissions can be traced back to the built environment sector, which includes buildings, the distribution systems that supply water and electricity, and the roads, bridges, and transportation systems.
- The UNEP report makes a case for “Avoid-Shift-Improve” strategies to reduce emissions.
Government Initiatives to make the Construction Sector become energy efficient:
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Materials used in the Construction sector
- Popular Building Materials: Autoclaved Aerated Concrete (AAC) blocks, red bricks, fly ash, and monolithic concrete (Mivan) are commonly used materials in construction.
- Preference for Monolithic Concrete: Despite sustainability concerns, monolithic concrete construction is favored by developers for its speed, strength, quality, and scalability, particularly in high-rise buildings and skyscrapers.
- AAC Blocks as Thermally Efficient: RETV evaluation shows AAC blocks consistently have the lowest RETV across all climatic conditions, indicating their potential as a thermally efficient material.
- Embodied Energy Differences: The literature review reveals substantial differences in embodied energy among materials, with monolithic concrete having an embodied energy 75 times greater than AAC blocks.
- Sustainability Concerns: Sustainability concerns are prominent across all materials. Red bricks contribute to resource depletion, emissions, and waste, while AAC blocks and monolithic concrete also have environmental impacts
Measures to improve sustainable material
- Adopt “Avoid-Shift-Improve”: Implement policies and regulations that incentivize the use of sustainable building materials and practices, such as tax incentives, subsidies, and green building certifications.
- Investing in R&D: Allocate resources for research and development initiatives aimed at creating new, sustainable building materials with improved thermal performance, reduced embodied carbon, and enhanced climate resilience.
- Promote Market Collaborations: Foster partnerships between academia, government agencies, and industry stakeholders, in sustainable construction practices and materials development.
- Awareness: Create consumer awareness campaigns to highlight the benefits of sustainable construction and encourage demand for eco-friendly building materials, driving market demand and adoption.
Conclusion: India’s construction boom poses environmental challenges. Initiatives like Eco-Niwas Samhita improve energy efficiency. AAC blocks show promise for thermal efficiency. Future steps include R&D, industry collaboration, policy support, and fostering market demand for sustainable materials.
Mains PYQ
Q) Adoption of PPP model for infrastructure development of the country has not been free of criticism. Critically discuss the pros and cons of the model. (UPSC IAS/2013)
Q) Smart cities in India cannot sustain without smart vilages. Discuss this statement in the backdrop of rural urban integration. (UPSC IAS/2015)
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Live Coral cover in Gulf of Mannar down to 27%
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Corals, Coral bleaching, Gulf of Mannar
Mains level: NA
What is the news?
- Rising sea temperatures have triggered severe bleaching events, leading to significant coral mortality in Gulf of Mannar.
- Annual surveys show a decline in live coral cover from 37% in 2005 to 27.3% in 2021.
Corals in Gulf of Mannar
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About Corals
- Coral are made up of genetically identical organisms called polyps.
- These polyps have microscopic algae called zooxanthellae living within their tissues in a mutualistic relationship.
- The coral provides the zooxanthellae with the compounds necessary for photosynthesis.
- In return, the zooxanthellae supply the coral with organic products of photosynthesis, like carbohydrates, which are utilized by the coral polyps for synthesis of their calcium carbonate skeletons.
- Corals are marine invertebrates or animals which do not possess a spine.
- They are the largest living structures on the planet.
- Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grow when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.
- Coral reefs are also called the “rainforests of the seas”.
Types of Coral
Corals are of two types — hard corals and soft corals:
- Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition of coral reefs.
- Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years. These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.
Conditions needed for Corals to Flourish
- Extensive submarine platforms for the formation of colonies by the coral polyps (not more than 90m below sea level).
- High mean annual temperature ranging 20-21 degree Celsius.
- Clean sediment-free water because muddy water or turbid water clogs the mouths of coral polyps resulting into their death.
- Oceanic salinity ranging between 27-30 ppt.
- Ocean currents and waves, as they bring food supply for the polyps.
How do corals bleach?
- When exposed to conditions like heat stress, pollution, or high levels of ocean acidity, the zooxanthellae start producing reactive oxygen species not beneficial to the corals.
- So, the corals kick out the colour-giving algae from their polyps, exposing their pale white exoskeleton and leading to coral starvation as corals cannot produce their own food.
- Severe bleaching and prolonged stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.
Reasons for the Decline
- Climatic Vagaries: Predicted coral bleaching events pose a dire threat to the already fragile ecosystem of the Gulf of Mannar. The IPCC predicts a decline of 70-90% in global coral reefs with a warming of 1.5°C.
- Ocean Acidification: Increased acidity levels in the ocean due to carbon dioxide absorption exacerbate coral stress and hinder their ability to calcify.
PYQ:
2014: Which of the following have coral reefs?
- Andaman and Nicobar Islands
- Gulf of Kachchh
- Gulf of Mannar
- Sunderbans
Select the correct answer using the code given below.
- 1, 2 and 3 only
- 2 and 4 only
- 1 and 3 only
- 1, 2, 3 and 4
2018: Consider the following statements
- Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
- More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines.
- Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
- 1 and 2 only
- 3 only
- 1and 3 only
- 1, 2 and 3
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Navigating the global Waterscape, its challenges
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Water Day
Mains level: Issues related to water in rural areas and key measures
Why in the news?
Today, March 22, 2024, is the 31st World Water Day, with the theme, “Leveraging water for peace”
Context-
- In the context of climate change-related pressures, the world also needs to foster improved cooperation over water-sharing
- The global challenge for securing access to clean water persists for about two billion people and its demand keeps rising. Beyond threatening our basic human needs, this scarcity also risks our collective prosperity and peace.
Water diplomacy in a time of extremities-
- Climate Crisis Impact: Meteorological extremities like heat waves and floods exacerbate concerns about the climate crisis. In India, erratic monsoons affect agriculture, crucial for the $3 trillion economy.
- Need for Improved Cooperation: Amid climate change pressures, fostering cooperation over water-sharing and embracing universal principles of International Water Law is imperative.
- Water Diplomacy: Effective governance of shared waters and sustainable water use are essential for better water diplomacy, promoting peace and stability regionally and internationally.
- Collaborative Governance: Collaborative governance ensures equitable water allocation among nations, fostering regional stability and peace.
- Inclusive Approaches: Water diplomacy should include indigenous and local communities’ cross-border networks and involve civil society and academic networks to prevent, mitigate, and resolve water-related disputes.
- Water Quality Data Shortage: There’s a general shortage of water quality data globally, with a significant urban-rural divide, highlighting the need for better access to basic drinking water services, particularly in rural areas.
Addressing rural India’s needs-
70% of India’s rural population relies on water for household activities, with agriculture being the primary livelihood source. Globally, agriculture accounts for 70% of freshwater use.
- Water Accessibility: Improved water accessibility in rural areas can lead to positive outcomes in health, education, employment, and basic human needs and dignity.
- Water Investments: Increased water investments in rural areas can yield positive outcomes across various sectors, benefiting communities in multiple ways.
- AI Technology in Agriculture: The efficient use of emerging artificial intelligence (AI) technology in agriculture can aid in water conservation efforts. AI can help tackle crop and food loss, minimize chemical and fertilizer usage, and optimize water usage for sustainable and productive outputs.
The issue of transboundary waters
- Water Pollution: Transboundary rivers like the Meghna, Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Indus are experiencing worsening water pollution, posing significant environmental and health risks to communities relying on these water sources.
- Lack of Governance: There is a need for sophisticated cross-border water governance to address issues related to equitable water allocation, pollution control, and sustainable management of shared water resources among neighboring countries.
- Cooperation Challenges: Despite the importance of transboundary water cooperation, many countries face challenges in reaching agreements and implementing effective mechanisms for managing shared water resources. Disputes over water usage, infrastructure development, and environmental impacts hinder cooperation efforts.
- Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Transboundary water management is crucial for achieving the SDGs, particularly Goal 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). However, inadequate cooperation and governance frameworks pose obstacles to fulfilling SDG targets related to water security, environmental sustainability, and poverty alleviation.
- Peace and Security: Scarcity of freshwater in transboundary river basins can exacerbate tensions and conflicts among riparian states. Effective management and cooperation on shared water resources are essential for promoting regional stability and preventing water-related conflicts.
- Ecosystem Services: Transboundary rivers support diverse ecosystems and provide essential ecosystem services such as water purification, habitat for biodiversity, and regulation of water flow. Pollution and overexploitation of these waters threaten the integrity of ecosystems and the services they provide.
- Climate Change Impacts: Climate change exacerbates challenges related to transboundary water management by altering precipitation patterns, increasing the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, and affecting water availability and quality. Adaptation and resilience-building measures are needed to address climate-related risks in transboundary river basins.
Suggestive Measures to Resolve Transboundary Water Issues:
- Strengthen Governance Structures: Establish comprehensive cross-border water governance frameworks, including bilateral or multilateral agreements, to facilitate equitable water allocation, pollution control, and sustainable management of shared water resources.
- Enhance Cooperation Mechanisms: Foster dialogue and collaboration among riparian states through platforms such as joint commissions, river basin organizations, and diplomatic negotiations to address disputes and promote mutual understanding of water management challenges.
- Implement Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): Adopt IWRM approaches that consider social, economic, and environmental factors to promote sustainable development and ensure the efficient use of transboundary water resources while minimizing negative impacts on ecosystems and communities.
- Enhance Monitoring and Data Sharing: Improve monitoring systems and data-sharing mechanisms to assess water quality, quantity, and usage trends in transboundary river basins. Enhanced transparency and information exchange can facilitate informed decision-making and cooperation among riparian states.
- Promote Community Engagement: Involve local communities, indigenous groups, and civil society organizations in decision-making processes related to transboundary water management. Empowering stakeholders at the grassroots level can enhance accountability, foster cooperation, and promote sustainable practices.
- Strengthen Legal Frameworks: Develop and enforce robust legal frameworks at national and international levels to regulate transboundary water resources effectively. Clear and enforceable laws can provide a basis for resolving disputes and ensuring compliance with agreed-upon water management principles.
- Build Climate Resilience: Implement adaptation measures to address climate change impacts on transboundary water resources, such as enhancing water storage infrastructure, promoting water-efficient technologies, and integrating climate resilience into water management strategies.
Conclusion-
Navigating the global waterscape’s challenges requires robust governance, enhanced cooperation, and sustainable practices. By addressing transboundary water issues collectively, we can promote peace, ensure water security, and achieve sustainable development goals.
Mains PYQ-
Q- The interlinking of rivers can provide viable solutions to the multi-dimensional inter-related problems of droughts, floods, and interrupted navigation. Critically examine. (UPSC IAS/2020)
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Insights from the WMO’s State of the Climate Report, 2023
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: State of the Climate Report, 2023, Key Highlights
Mains level: Surging impact of Climate Change
What is the news-
- The World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) recent State of the Climate report highlights unprecedented climatic shifts, with numerous indicators reaching record levels.
About World Meteorological Organization
- It is an intergovernmental organization and a specialized agency of the UN for meteorology (weather and climate), operational hydrology and related geophysical sciences.
- It was established in 1950 and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland.
- It origin traces to the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), which was founded in 1873.
- Currently it has a membership of 191 countries. India is also a member.
Key Highlights of the State of the Climate Report, 2023
[1] Greenhouse Gases (GHGs)
- Record-High Concentrations: GHGs like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide reached record levels in 2022, contributing to global warming. The concentration of GHGs observed in 2022 is the latest year for which consolidated global values are available (1984–2022).
- Long-term Trend: The rise in GHG concentrations underscores the urgent need for concerted efforts to mitigate their impact.
[2] Surface Temperature
- Historic Spike: Global surface temperatures in 2023 surged to 1.45 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, marking the highest recorded temperature. This temperature rise is attributed to the combined effects of rising GHG concentrations and the onset of El Nino in 2023.
- El Nino Influence: The onset of El Nino exacerbated temperature extremes globally, amplifying the impacts of climate change.
[3] Ocean Heat Content (OHC)
- Unprecedented Heat: Ocean heat content reached its highest level in the observational record of 2023. The ocean heat content (OHC) refers to the total amount of heat the oceans store.
- Long-term Trend: The continual increase in OHC underscores the ongoing challenge of ocean warming and its implications for marine ecosystems.
[4] Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)
- Widespread Occurrence: The global ocean experienced a significant increase in marine heatwave (MHW) coverage in 2023. The average daily marine heatwave coverage reached 32%, surpassing previous records set in 2016.
- Duration and Intensity: Prolonged MHWs pose threats to marine biodiversity, ecosystems, and fisheries, highlighting the urgency of climate action.
[5] Antarctic Sea-Ice Extent
- Record Low: Antarctic sea-ice extent plummeted to 1.79 million km2 in February 2023, the lowest since satellite observations began in 1979. The extent remained below average throughout the year, signalling ongoing trends of sea-ice loss in the Antarctic region.
- Persistent Decline: The continued decline in Antarctic sea-ice extent underscores the vulnerability of Polar Regions to climate change.
[6] Glacier Mass Balance
- Unprecedented Loss: Glaciers worldwide experienced the largest annual loss of ice on record in 2022-2023. The annual mass balance, which measures the amount of mass gained or lost by glaciers, dropped to a new low of ‘–1.2 metre water equivalent’.
- Regional Disparities: Glacial mass balance varied across regions, with North American and European glaciers particularly affected by ice loss.
Significance of the report
- The figures presented in the WMO report underscore the magnitude of climate change impacts on various Earth systems.
- Urgent action is needed to address rising GHG emissions, mitigate temperature extremes, protect marine environments, and preserve critical cryospheric regions.
PYQ:
2018: “Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
- The UNEP Secretariat
- The UNFCCC Secretariat
- The World Meteorological Organisation
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[pib] Mission LiFE
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mission LiFE
Mains level: Not Much
Why in the news-
- Recently an EIACP Event (Environment Information, awareness, capacity building and livelihood Programme) was held on the ‘Mission Life’.
About Mission LiFE
- Mission LiFE, or Lifestyle for Environment, is a global mass movement initiated by India to encourage individual and community action towards environmental protection and preservation.
- It was inaugurated by the PM Modi at the 26th UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow in November 2021.
- The program aims to mobilize one billion Indians and individuals worldwide to adopt sustainable lifestyles.
Salient Features of Mission LiFE
- It serves as a platform to showcase sustainable goals and climate actions implemented by countries and individuals globally.
- It aligns with the P3 model, promoting Pro Planet People and fostering a sense of collective responsibility.
- It operates based on the principles of ‘Lifestyle of the planet, for the planet, and by the planet’.
Strategy of Mission LiFE
- Mission LiFE adopts a three-pronged strategy to shift people’s collective approach towards sustainability:
-
- Nudging individuals to practice simple yet effective environment-friendly actions in their daily lives (demand).
- Enabling industries and markets to respond swiftly to the changing demand (supply).
- Influencing government and industrial policy to support both sustainable consumption and production (policy).
Practice MCQ:
With reference to the Mission LiFE, consider the following statements:
- It is a mass movement initiated by India to encourage individual and community action towards environmental protection and preservation.
- It was inaugurated at the UN Climate Change Conference of the Parties (COP26) in Glasgow in November 2021.
Which of the given statements is/are correct?
- Only 1
- Only 2
- Both 1 and 2
- Neither 1 nor 2
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The problem of equity in IPCC reports | Explained
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Important Reports and Analysis;
Mains level: Conservation and Mediation; Government Initiatives; IPCC Reports;
Why in the news?
In a study published on March 4, researchers analyzed more than 500 future emissions scenarios the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) assessed in its latest reports.
Context-
- These scenarios relate to mitigation actions like reducing carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels and increasing carbon sequestration through forestry.
- It found that across all 556 scenarios, income, energy use, and emissions disparities between developed and developing countries are projected to continue up to 2050.
What are IPCC assessment reports?
- The IPCC’s Seventh Assessment Cycle (AR7) includes three Working Group reports covering physical science, climate adaptation, and mitigation action, along with a synthesis report consolidating their findings.
- Thematic special reports are also issued, all aimed at assessing climate-related scientific literature to provide comprehensive knowledge on climate change.
How does it assess future scenarios?
- Modeled Pathways: The IPCC utilizes “modeled pathways” to estimate the measures necessary to limit the warming of the Earth’s surface. These pathways are constructed using Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs), which analyze human and earth systems.
- Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs): IAMs are sophisticated models that encompass various disciplines, including macroeconomics, energy, vegetation, and earth systems. They provide insights into potential futures of the energy and climate system, as well as economies.
- Components of IAMs: IAMs include macroeconomic models that forecast GDP growth, energy models that project consumption patterns, vegetation models that assess land-use changes, and earth-system models that predict climate evolution based on physical laws.
- Policy-Relevant Guidelines: IAMs aim to offer policy-relevant guidance on climate action by integrating insights from diverse disciplines. They help policymakers understand the potential implications of various mitigation strategies and inform decision-making processes.
- Shortcomings of IAMs: Despite their usefulness, IAMs have limitations. They primarily prioritize least-cost assessments, which may not adequately address equity concerns. For example, the cost of implementing climate mitigation measures varies across countries and regions.
- Equitable Burden Sharing: Experts suggest that IAMs could be modified to enable countries to equitably share the burden of climate action. This approach could involve wealthier nations undertaking more substantial mitigation efforts, considering their greater capacity to bear the costs.
- Global Cooperation: Addressing climate change requires global cooperation and equitable distribution of responsibilities. IAMs can play a crucial role in informing international climate negotiations and agreements by providing insights into the potential impacts of different policy scenarios.
What did the new study find?
- Projection of Inequities in GDP: The scenarios indicate that per-capita GDP in regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, West Asia, and the rest of Asia will remain below the global average even by 2050. These regions collectively represent 60% of the world’s population.
- Inequities in Consumption and Energy Use: The study identifies disparities between the Global North and the Global South in terms of consumption of goods and services, as well as energy and fossil fuel consumption.
- Carbon Sequestration and Mitigation Burden: Developing countries are projected to have higher carbon sequestration from land-based carbon sinks (e.g., forests) and greater deployment of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies compared to developed countries. This indicates that poorer countries would bear the burden of both mitigation action and carbon dioxide removal.
- Disregard for Historical Responsibility: The study highlights that the scenarios disregard the historical responsibility of the Global North in contributing to climate change.
- Neglect of Future Energy Needs: The scenarios also overlook the future energy requirements of the Global South to achieve development goals, indicating a lack of consideration for the development needs of these regions in the models.
Why does equity matter?
- Principles of Equity and Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR): Enshrined in the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), these principles emphasize that climate action should be guided by equity and recognize the differing responsibilities and capabilities of countries.
- Article 3 of UNFCCC: Article 3 underscores the obligation to protect the climate system for the benefit of present and future generations based on equity and common but differentiated responsibilities. Developed countries are urged to take the lead in combating climate change.
- Differential Responsibilities: The principles acknowledge that while addressing climate change is a global imperative, developed nations, being wealthier and more technologically advanced, should bear a greater burden of climate action compared to developing nations.
- Equity Considerations in Climate Action: Researchers argue that mitigation pathways modeled using Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) often neglect equity considerations. These models may not align with the principle of equity, as they may not prioritize the responsibility of developed regions to accelerate towards net negative emissions and support less developed regions.
- Contradictory Scenarios: Despite the principles of equity and CBDR, the scenarios projected by IAMs may indicate the opposite, with developed regions not accelerating towards net negative emissions and potentially exacerbating global inequalities in climate action.
- Need for Redistribution of Carbon Budget: Equity principles imply that developed regions should expedite efforts towards achieving net negative emissions and allocate the remaining carbon budget to less developed regions. However, IAM scenarios may not reflect this redistribution of responsibility.
To address the equity issues highlighted in IPCC reports, several measures can be suggested: (Way Forward)
- Equity-Centered Modeling: Modify Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) to prioritize equity considerations, ensuring that mitigation pathways promote fair burden-sharing between developed and developing countries.
- Redistribution of Resources: Advocate for the redistribution of financial resources and technology transfer from developed to developing countries to support their climate mitigation and adaptation efforts.
- Climate Finance: Increase funding for climate adaptation and mitigation projects in developing countries through mechanisms such as the Green Climate Fund, ensuring that resources are allocated equitably and reach the most vulnerable communities.
- Technology Transfer: Facilitate the transfer of clean and sustainable technologies to developing countries at affordable rates, enabling them to transition to low-carbon development pathways.
- Policy Coordination: Strengthen international cooperation and coordination on climate policies to ensure coherence and alignment with equity principles, fostering trust and collaboration among countries.
- Empowerment of Marginalized Communities: Prioritize the inclusion and empowerment of marginalized communities, including indigenous peoples and women, in climate decision-making processes to ensure their voices are heard and their needs addressed.
- Public Awareness and Education: Promote public awareness and education on the importance of equity in climate action, fostering a sense of shared responsibility and solidarity across countries and communities.
Conclusion:
The study on IPCC’s AR6 scenarios reveals persistent inequities in GDP, consumption, and mitigation burden between developed and developing countries. It underscores the importance of integrating equity considerations into climate action to address historical responsibilities and promote fair burden-sharing.
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Early Bloom of Jacaranda sparks Climate Debate in Mexico
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Jacaranda Trees
Mains level: Impact of climate change on plants blossoms
Introduction
- Mexico City’s iconic jacaranda trees, known for their stunning purple blooms in spring, are experiencing an unusual phenomenon this year, with some trees blooming as early as January instead of their typical spring awakening.
About Jacaranda Trees
- Jacaranda is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Bignoniaceae.
- Native to tropical and subtropical regions of Central and South America, with some species found in the Caribbean and Africa.
- Known for its stunning clusters of trumpet-shaped flowers in shades of purple, blue, or white, Jacaranda trees are prized as ornamental plants in parks, gardens, and urban landscapes worldwide.
- Jacaranda trees hold cultural significance in various regions, such as Brazil, where their blooming heralds the arrival of spring, and South Africa, where they are commonly planted in urban areas.
- Some species of Jacaranda produce valuable timber, prized for its lightweight nature, durability, and attractive grain pattern, suitable for furniture and decorative woodworking.
- While generally not invasive, Jacaranda trees can become weedy in introduced regions, though their ornamental value often outweighs any negative impacts, making them well-tolerated in urban landscapes.
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What are IPCC’s Assessment Reports?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: AR6 Report, IPCC, Global Stocktake
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- Since 1988, the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has been pivotal in assessing climate science and guiding global responses to climate change through its assessment reports and special publications.
- Last years’ Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) underscores the urgency of addressing climate change, highlighting the need to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
About IPCC
| Description | |
| Establishment | Established in 1988 by WMO and UNEP |
| Membership | 195 member countries. |
| Objective | Assess scientific info on human-induced climate change, impacts, and mitigation/adaptation options. |
| Main Activity | Prepares assessment, special, and methodology reports, crucial for international climate negotiations. |
| Scientific Research | Relies on global scientific community for literature review and conclusions. |
| Working Groups | Comprises three groups:
|
| Reports | Each group issues reports, compiled into a synthesis report. |
Key Findings of AR6
- Urgent Warning: AR6 warns that time is running out to limit global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius and stresses the need for immediate action to mitigate climate change impacts.
- Adaptation Challenges: The report highlights challenges in adapting to climate change and offers strategies to enhance resilience in natural and human-made systems.
Initiation of AR7 Cycle
- IPCC Bureau Meeting: In January 2024, the IPCC initiated its seventh assessment cycle (AR7) with a bureau meeting in Turkey to discuss budgeting, timelines, and the work program.
- Lessons from AR6: Insights from the AR6 cycle, along with member country submissions, informed discussions on the structure and focus of the upcoming reports.
Global Stocktake and IPCC’s Role
- Assessing Progress: The global stocktake (GST) evaluates progress towards the Paris Agreement goals, with the IPCC playing a crucial role in providing scientific input.
- Alignment with Stocktake: Member countries request IPCC reports to align with the GST, facilitating comprehensive assessments of climate action effectiveness.
Scope and Timeline of AR7 Cycle
- Report Components: The AR7 cycle will include full assessment reports, synthesis reports, methodology reports, and a special report on climate change and cities.
- Revised Guidelines: Methodology reports will cover short-lived climate forcers and carbon removal, while technical guidelines on impacts and adaptation will be updated.
- Publication Timeline: The bureau aims to publish special and methodology reports by 2027, with the timeline for assessment reports pending further discussion.
Challenges and Considerations
- Time Constraints: Balancing the need for timely reports with the rigorous review process and evolving climate research poses challenges.
- Content Integrity: Shortened timelines may affect the depth and breadth of the reports, potentially compromising their scientific rigor and inclusivity.
- Engagement Complexity: Limited timeframes may hinder effective engagement with under-represented communities and stakeholders, impacting report quality.
Conclusion
- The initiation of IPCC’s AR7 cycle marks a critical juncture in global climate science, emphasizing the urgency of addressing climate change.
- Despite challenges, the IPCC remains committed to delivering comprehensive and scientifically robust assessments to guide climate action.
- Collaboration between scientists, policymakers, and stakeholders will be essential in navigating the complexities of climate science and fostering sustainable solutions for a resilient future.
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Collapse of the Gulf Stream System
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gulf Stream System
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Recent research warns that the Gulf Stream System, known as the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), faces a critical threat of collapse due to unabated global carbon emissions.
- If left unchecked, this collapse could occur between 2025 and 2095, with a central estimate of 2050.
What is Gulf Stream System?
| Description | |
| Origin | Begins in the Gulf of Mexico, merging warm waters from the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico. |
| Flow | Flows northward along the eastern coast of the United States. |
| Current | Carries warm waters from the tropics towards higher latitudes. |
| Speed and Volume | Swift ocean currents with speeds of 2 to 5 miles per hour, transporting 30 million cubic meters per second. |
| Function | Redistributes heat towards the North Atlantic region, influencing climate and weather patterns. |
| Climate Impact | Moderates the climate of Western Europe, keeping it relatively warmer than other regions at similar latitudes. |
| Interaction with Atmosphere | Releases heat and moisture, influencing weather and precipitation. |
| Importance for Marine Life | Supports diverse marine life, serving as a migratory route for fish and marine mammals. |
Gulf Stream’s Vulnerability
- Gulf Stream, currently at its feeblest point in 1,600 years, is grappling with the consequences of global heating.
- Alarming signals of a tipping point were already observed back in 2021.
- Past collapses during ice ages have triggered rapid temperature shifts of up to 10 degrees Celsius in just a few decades, underlining the immense climatic impact it holds.
Implications of Collapse
The potential collapse of Gulf Stream could lead to dire consequences worldwide, including:
- Disrupted Rainfall Patterns: Billions of people in regions like India, South America, and West Africa, reliant on these patterns for food production, would face food insecurity.
- Intensified Storms and Colder Temperatures: Europe would experience increased storm activity and colder temperatures.
- Rising Sea Levels: The eastern coast of North America would be at risk of rising sea levels, posing threats to coastal communities.
- Endangered Ecosystems: The Amazon rainforest and Antarctic ice sheets could face severe endangerment.
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Why fashion industry’s ‘recycling’ methods are not saving the planet?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Emissions from Fashion Industry
Introduction
- From fast-fashion giants to luxury brands, many have embraced recycled fabrics and eco-friendly messaging as part of their marketing strategies.
- However, a closer look reveals that these recycling methods often fall short of delivering meaningful environmental benefits.
Challenges in Fashion Industry Recycling
[1] Greenhouse Gas Emissions:
- Polyester, a ubiquitous fabric, contributes substantially to emissions, with 28.2 million tonnes used in 2016 alone, emitting nearly triple the CO2 compared to cotton.
- Nylon production generates nitrous oxide, a potent greenhouse gas, exacerbating climate change.
[2] Water Intensity:
- Cotton cultivation, vital for clothing production, consumes vast amounts of water, with estimates suggesting up to 20,000 liters required for a pair of jeans and a t-shirt.
- Predictions indicate potential water crises by 2030 due to escalating water consumption in clothing production.
[3] Water Pollution:
- Chemical dyeing, essential for vibrant textiles, ranks as the second-largest polluter of clean water globally, introducing harmful substances into waterways.
- Cotton cultivation’s heavy reliance on chemicals poses health risks and environmental degradation.
[4] Plastics and Microfibers:
- Polyester clothing sheds microfibers during washing, contaminating oceans and endangering marine life, with significant quantities entering waterways annually.
- Non-biodegradable microfibers pose risks to human health and ecosystems, persisting in the environment indefinitely.
[5] Landfill Waste:
- The fashion industry contributes substantially to landfill waste, with discarded clothing doubling over the past two decades due to fast fashion trends.
- Limited textile recycling exacerbates the landfill problem, with less than 1% of clothing material being reused.
[6] Inability to Recycle:
- Complex fabric blends and non-biodegradable materials like polyester and nylon present challenges to recycling technologies, hindering effective reuse.
- China’s ban on recycled textile imports exacerbates recycling issues, limiting disposal options.
[7] Economic and Ethical Considerations:
- Economic incentives often prioritize short-term profits over sustainability, perpetuating greenwashing tactics and undermining genuine recycling efforts.
- Unethical labor practices compound sustainability challenges, highlighting systemic issues in the fashion industry’s supply chain.
Methods for Recycling
- Mechanical recycling: It breaks down textiles into fibers without altering their chemical composition, suitable for natural fibers like cotton.
- Chemical recycling: It breaks down textiles into basic chemical components, ideal for synthetic fibers like polyester.
- Steps involved: Both methods involve sorting, shredding, cleaning, processing, and quality control to produce new fabrics or products, reducing waste in the fashion industry.
Moving Towards True Sustainability
- Research and Development: Invest in innovative recycling technologies capable of processing complex fabric blends.
- Transparency and Standards: Implement transparent supply chains and rigorous recycling standards to ensure accountability.
- Consumer Education: Educate consumers about the true environmental and ethical impact of their clothing choices.
- Regulation and Accountability: Enforce regulations and industry standards to hold fashion brands accountable for sustainability commitments.
- Circular Economy Promotion: Embrace circular economy principles, such as extended producer responsibility and product lifecycle management, to minimize waste and resource consumption.
Conclusion
- While recycling initiatives in the fashion industry offer some benefits, they fall short of addressing the sector’s overarching environmental and ethical challenges.
- Achieving true sustainability demands systemic changes, including technological innovation, transparent practices, consumer awareness, regulatory enforcement, and circular economy promotion.
- By embracing these principles, the fashion industry can pave the way towards a genuinely sustainable and equitable future.
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India set to transition to Hyperlocal Extreme Weather Forecasting
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: History of IMD
Mains level: Hyperlocal Extreme Weather: Prediction Challenges
Introduction
- Weather forecasting is vital for disaster management and decision-making in India, where extreme weather events like rain, cyclones, heatwaves, and droughts pose significant challenges.
- The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) specializes in predicting weather patterns using sophisticated observation, modelling, and interpretation techniques.
About the Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)
| Details | |
| About |
|
| Ministry | Ministry of Earth Sciences, Government of India |
| Objectives |
|
| Evolution |
|
| Advancements |
|
| Diversified Roles |
|
| Global Recognition |
|
| Major Initiatives |
|
Challenges in Weather Forecasting
- Variability in Tropical Regions: Tropical countries like India face inherently higher weather variability.
- Hurdles: Despite advancements, IMD forecasts still encounter inaccuracies, particularly during winter and summer monsoons.
- Insufficient Ground Stations: The limited number of ground stations hinders accurate monitoring, with only around 800 automatic weather stations (AWS) and 37 doppler weather radars (DWR) against the required thousands.
Transition to Modern Technologies
- Prediction Software: Current forecasting software relies on global forecasting and weather research models, which are not the most modern.
- Emerging Technologies: Start-ups are adopting artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) for predictions, necessitating an integrated data system to fill existing gaps.
Initiatives for Improvement
- WINDS Program: The Weather Information Network and Data System (WINDS) aim to install over 200,000 ground stations (AWS and ARG) to enhance weather data utilization and promote wider applications in agriculture and other sectors.
- Air Quality Monitoring: Make in India initiatives facilitate the production of low-cost, reliable sensor-based air quality monitoring systems, aiding in quick installations, particularly in urban areas.
Addressing Air Pollution Challenges
- Fog and Air Pollution: Dense fog exacerbates air pollution issues, trapping pollutants and posing health risks. Initiatives to manufacture affordable air quality sensors and establish nationwide networks are underway.
- Role of AI/ML: Integrated AI/ML-based models leveraging data from new sensors can improve fog prediction and aid in timely decision-making regarding transportation and health impacts.
Towards a Comprehensive Infrastructure
- Advancements: India is on track to establish a robust air quality and weather information network.
- Integration and Collaboration: Seamless data sharing and system integration among stakeholders are crucial for achieving this national infrastructure.
- Potential Impact: A unified information gateway will play a vital role in addressing climate and environmental challenges.
Conclusion
- India’s strides in weather forecasting and air quality monitoring underscore its commitment to enhancing disaster preparedness and environmental sustainability.
- With concerted efforts and technological advancements, India is poised to establish a world-class infrastructure crucial for tackling climate-related issues.
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Equity concerns in banning fossil fuel extraction
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COP28
Mains level: urgent need for action on climate change and the challenges associated with transitioning away from fossil fuels
Central Idea:
The inadequate response from governments and corporations to address climate change is fueling a rise in climate change litigation and a push for phasing out fossil fuel subsidies and extraction. This momentum is underscored by proposals like a coal elimination treaty by 2030 due to the significant gap between planned fossil fuel production and Paris Agreement goals. However, challenges exist in aligning these proposals with existing climate change principles, particularly regarding equitable transitions for heavily dependent fossil fuel economies like India.
Key Highlights:
- Rise in climate change litigation due to insufficient action from governments and corporations.
- Growing momentum to phase out fossil fuel subsidies and extraction, exemplified by proposals such as a coal elimination treaty by 2030.
- Challenges in aligning proposals with existing climate change principles like Common but Differentiated Responsibilities.
- Heavily dependent fossil fuel economies, such as India, face difficulties transitioning due to economic reliance on fossil fuels.
Key Challenges:
- Balancing the need for transitioning away from fossil fuels with the economic dependence of certain countries on fossil fuel revenues.
- Ensuring equitable transitions for heavily dependent fossil fuel economies.
- Aligning proposals for phasing out fossil fuels with existing climate change principles like Common but Differentiated Responsibilities.
- Addressing the discrepancy between planned fossil fuel production and Paris Agreement goals.
Key Terms/Phrases:
- Climate change litigation
- Fossil fuel subsidies
- Coal elimination treaty
- Production Gap Report
- Common but Differentiated Responsibilities
- Nationally Determined Contributions
- Equitable transitions
- Heavily dependent fossil fuel economies
Case Studies/Best Practices:
- India’s reliance on fossil fuels despite progress in renewable energy.
- The transition strategy of countries like Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom with more diversified economies.
- COP26 and COP28 decisions regarding phasing out coal and transitioning away from fossil fuels.
Key Quotes/Anecdotes/Statements:
- “The inadequate response from governments and corporations in dealing with the issue of climate change is leading to… dramatic rise in climate change litigation.”
- “Those countries that are heavily dependent on revenues and employment in the fossil fuel sector are likely to experience serious difficulties in transitioning away from fossil fuel.”
- “India’s subsidies on kerosene oil have come under scrutiny in the West as it is found to be inconsistent with Article 2(1)(c) of the Paris Agreement and is also considered as inefficient subsidies.”
Key Examples/References/Facts/Data:
- The Production Gap Report indicating a significant gap between planned fossil fuel production and Paris Agreement goals.
- India’s reliance on fossil fuels dominating its power sector despite progress in renewable energy.
- COP26 and COP28 decisions regarding phasing out coal and transitioning away from fossil fuels.
Critical Analysis:
The article highlights the urgent need for action on climate change and the challenges associated with transitioning away from fossil fuels. It underscores the discrepancy between proposed fossil fuel production and climate goals, as well as the economic dependence of certain countries on fossil fuel revenues. However, it also acknowledges the need for equitable transitions and the complexities of aligning proposals with existing climate change principles.
Way Forward:
- Implementing equitable transition strategies for heavily dependent fossil fuel economies.
- Strengthening international cooperation and commitments to phase out fossil fuel subsidies and extraction.
- Addressing discrepancies between proposed fossil fuel production and climate goals.
- Integrating principles of Common but Differentiated Responsibilities into transition strategies.
- Providing support and creating economic opportunities for those affected by the transition away from fossil fuels.
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Alarm Bells for Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) Region
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hindu Kush Himalayas
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) called for ‘bold action’ and ‘urgent finance’ to prevent collapse of Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH).
About Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH)
| Description | |
| Geographic Location | South Asia, spanning Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan. |
| Area | Approximately 3,500,000 square kilometers |
| “Water Tower of Asia” | At least 12 rivers fan out in every direction across the Asian continent from it, including:
– Syr Darya and Amu Darya towards the now-dead Aral Sea – Tarim toward the Taklamakan – Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra towards the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal – Yellow river towards the Gulf of Bohai – Yangtze towards the East China Sea – Mekong towards the South China Sea – Chindwin, Salween, and Irrawaddy towards the Andaman Sea |
| Glaciers | Home to thousands of glaciers, including Mount Everest and K2. |
A Region on the Brink
- Biodiversity Hotspot: The HKH region, characterized by its remarkable biodiversity, is described as a ‘biosphere on the brink’ by experts.
- Scope of Crisis: The speed and scale of habitat and nature loss in the HKH region are deemed ‘catastrophic,’ and urgent action is required.
Alarming Statistics
- Biodiversity Richness: The HKH region boasts four of the world’s 36 global biodiversity hotspots, 575 Protected Areas, and 335 important bird areas.
- Biodiversity Loss: Despite conservation efforts, the region has witnessed the loss of 70% of its original biodiversity over the last century.
- Human Dependence: 85% of mountain communities in the HKH region rely on this biodiversity for food, water, flood control, and cultural identity.
- Population Pressure: With 241 million people residing in the HKH region, 31% face food insecurity, and half experience various forms of malnutrition.
Human Impact
- Threat to Humanity: The declining nature in the HKH region now endangers not only animal and plant life but also human societies.
- Water Tower of Asia: This region, known as the ‘Water Tower of Asia,’ supplies essential ecosystem services, including clean water for one-third of the global population.
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1.5 degree Celsius Threshold: Is Climate Change real?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: 1.5 degree Celsius Threshold
Mains level: Read the attached story
Introduction
- The year 2023 witnessed alarming signs of climate change, from record-breaking summer temperatures to shrinking Antarctic sea ice and extreme weather events across the globe.
- Despite the overwhelming scientific consensus on climate change, there remains confusion and misinformation on this critical issue.
Is the Earth Becoming Warmer?
- Temperature Measurement: Temperature measurements since the late 1880s show global warming trends. Satellite data confirms an increase of at least 1.1 degrees Celsius since 1880.
- Indirect Verification: Analyzing natural indicators like tree rings and ice cores. Observing effects such as warming oceans, shrinking ice cover, and rising sea levels. Multiple monitoring systems enhance confidence in global-scale warming.
- Acceleration of Warming: Recent decades witness unprecedented rapid warming. The majority of warming observed since 1975. 2022 marked the 46th consecutive year of temperatures above the 20th-century average.
Role of Human Activities
- Natural Factors: Throughout Earth’s history, natural factors like solar variations and volcanic activity influenced climate.
- Current Acceleration: However, natural factors exert too little influence and operate too slowly to account for recent rapid warming, as acknowledged by NASA.
- Greenhouse Gases: The primary driver of global warming is the increasing concentration of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and water vapor.
- Human Influence: Since the Industrial Revolution, human activities, especially the burning of fossil fuels, have released substantial greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
- Unprecedented Change: Changes that would typically occur over hundreds of thousands of years are now happening within decades.
Overwhelming Evidence
- Scientific Consensus: The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has stated that “human influence on the climate system is clear and growing.”
- Unprecedented Warmth: 2022 marked the 46th consecutive year with global temperatures exceeding the 20th-century average, with the last nine years ranking among the warmest.
1.5 Degree Celsius Threshold
- Paris Agreement: 195 countries pledge to limit warming to “well below 2 degrees Celsius” and aim to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
- Baseline Year: Pre-industrial levels based on measurements from 1850 to 1900, providing a reliable historical reference.
- Reason for 1.5 Degrees: Scientific consensus: 1.5 degrees is a defense line against severe climate impacts. It avoids extreme and irreversible consequences associated with 2 degrees warming.
- Continuous Improvement: Lowering the target reduces climate risks further. Science supports aiming for the lowest possible temperature increase.
Consequences of Breaching the Threshold
- Increased Extreme Weather: More frequent and intense heavy precipitation. Elevated drought intensity and frequency in some regions.
- Warmer Oceans: Higher number of strong hurricanes with rapid strengthening.
- Intensified Wildfires: Longer-lasting and more intense wildfires.
- Rapid Sea Ice Melt: Accelerated sea-level rise.
- Emerging Consequences: Many of these impacts are already underway. Breaching the threshold exacerbates these effects.
How Close Are We to Breaching the Threshold?
- WMO Warning: World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) warns of a 66% chance of crossing the 1.5-degree limit between 2023 and 2027.
- Hottest Year: 2023 declared the hottest year on record, 1.48 degrees Celsius warmer than pre-industrial levels.
- Daily Fluctuations: Daily temperatures occasionally exceed 1.5 degrees Celsius, but long-term trends are the focus.
Conclusion
- The evidence of climate change and global warming is undeniable.
- Human activities, primarily the release of greenhouse gases, are driving these changes at an unprecedented rate.
- Understanding the science behind climate change is crucial in addressing this real global crisis.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Extinction of Gigantopithecus Blacki: Environmental Adaptation Challenges
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gigantopithecus Blacki
Mains level: Not Much
Introduction
- A recent study published in Nature sheds light on the extinction of Gigantopithecus blacki, the largest known primate species.
- This research provides crucial insights into the species’ inability to survive environmental changes, contrasting with the adaptability of other similar primates.
About Gigantopithecus Blacki
- Species Description: Gigantopithecus blacki was a great ape species that inhabited China between 2 million and 330 thousand years ago.
- Physical Attributes: Estimated to stand 3 meters tall and weigh between 200–300 kg, it is considered the largest primate ever to have existed on Earth.
- Geographical Range and Extinction: The species experienced a significant reduction in geographical range before its extinction, with the most recent fossils indicating a marked decline.
Research Methodology
- Fossil Analysis: Researchers analyzed fossils from 22 caves in southern China, focusing on dental samples of G. blacki and its closest relative, Pongo weidenreichi.
- Environmental Reconstruction: The study employed pollen and stable isotope analysis to reconstruct the environmental conditions during the species’ existence.
- Diet and Behavior Assessment: Changes in diet and behavior within the extinction window were inferred from dental analyses.
Findings on Environmental Changes and Adaptation
- Initial Habitat: Around 2.3 million years ago, G. blacki thrived in dense forests with heavy cover.
- Transition in Environment: During the extinction window (295–215,000 years ago), there was a shift to open forests, indicating significant changes in forest plant communities.
- Dietary and Stress Responses: Dental analysis revealed a less diverse diet and reduced water consumption for G. blacki, alongside signs of increased chronic stress. In contrast, P. weidenreichi showed better adaptation to these environmental changes.
- Fossil Record Decline: The number and geographical spread of G. blacki fossils declined relative to P. weidenreichi by 300 thousand years ago, supporting the hypothesis of its struggle to adapt.
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To combat climate challenges, the Finance Commission needs to step up
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: National Determined Contributions (NDCs):
Mains level: 16th Finance Commission should prioritize incorporating climate vulnerability and emission intensity into tax devolution formulas
Central Idea:
The article emphasizes the pivotal role that fiscal federalism, particularly through Finance Commissions (FC), plays in India’s efforts to combat climate change by promoting forest conservation. It highlights the need for the 16th Finance Commission to adopt innovative approaches, such as incorporating climate vulnerability and emission intensity into tax distribution formulas, to align with India’s environmental goals.
Key Highlights:
- India actively participates in global initiatives to enhance forest cover, combat climate change, and build community resilience.
- Finance Commissions have historically allocated funds for forest conservation, evolving from grants to a dedicated share of the central tax pool.
- The 15th Finance Commission became the world’s largest payment for ecosystem services (PES) system, distributing funds based on both forest cover and density.
- The 16th Finance Commission, appointed in 2021, is crucial for shaping tax distribution principles for 2026-31, coinciding with India’s commitments under the Paris Agreement.
- The article suggests incorporating climate vulnerability and emission intensity as key parameters in the tax devolution formula to drive action toward India’s National Determined Contributions (NDCs).
Key Challenges:
- Balancing conservation efforts with opportunity costs, which can be substantial and potentially prohibitive.
- Addressing pollution challenges, especially the need for funds to tackle issues like crop burning and mangrove restoration.
- Adapting to changing climate patterns leading to forest fires, necessitating innovative solutions and funding.
Key Terms:
- Fiscal federalism: The distribution of fiscal responsibilities and resources between different levels of government.
- National Determined Contributions (NDCs): Commitments made by countries under the Paris Agreement to mitigate climate change.
- Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES): Systems where individuals or entities are compensated for protecting or enhancing ecosystem services.
- Tax devolution: The distribution of tax revenues among different levels of government.
Key Phrases:
- “Largest payment for ecosystem services (PES) system in the world.”
- “Tax devolution formula as a tool to align with India’s NDCs.”
- “Finance Commission evolving from a fiscal arbitrator to an orchestrator of climate readiness.”
Key Quotes:
- “The 16th FC can be pivotal in creating a basis for market instruments like National Carbon Market and National Green Credit Market to succeed.”
- “The Commission needs to metamorphose from a conventional fiscal arbitrator to an orchestrator of India’s climate readiness.”
Key Statements:
- “The 15th FC effectively became the largest payment for ecosystem services (PES) system in the world.”
- “The 16th FC can be pivotal in creating a basis for these market instruments to succeed.”
Key Facts:
- India’s commitment to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 33-35% and building an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 by 2030.
- The role of Finance Commissions in mobilizing and distributing funds to states for forest conservation and combating air pollution.
Critical Analysis:
The article underscores the evolving role of Finance Commissions in environmental conservation and suggests innovative approaches for the 16th FC. However, challenges such as balancing conservation with opportunity costs and addressing pollution issues require careful consideration.
Way Forward:
The 16th Finance Commission should prioritize incorporating climate vulnerability and emission intensity into tax devolution formulas. It must transform into a key player in India’s climate readiness by aligning economic growth with environmental imperatives, supporting clean energy initiatives, and addressing regional climate challenges.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Understanding the EU’s carbon border tax
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Credit Trading System (CCTS)
Mains level: A concerning development for India is the European Union (EU)’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).
Central Idea:
The European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) poses a significant challenge to India’s manufacturing sector. This policy aims to tax carbon-intensive imports into the EU, impacting key sectors like steel. India’s response involves considering legal challenges and negotiating with the EU while simultaneously developing its own carbon trading mechanisms.
Key Highlights:
- The CBAM is part of the EU’s strategy to achieve a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030.
- It aims to be climate-neutral by 2050 – an economy with net-zero greenhouse gas emissions.
- India, a top exporter to the EU, is expected to be adversely affected, particularly in sectors like steel.
- India is developing its own Carbon Credit Trading System (CCTS) to combat climate change and incentivize clean energy investments.
Key Challenges:
- India faces the challenge of protecting its industries from the potential negative impacts of CBAM.
- Limited time to formulate and implement effective carbon taxation measures aligning with the Paris Agreement.
- The EU’s failure to consider factors like cheap labor and alternative production modes influencing industry shifts.
Key Terms:
- Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
- Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions
- Carbon Credit Trading System (CCTS)
- Paris Agreement
- Special and Differential Treatment provisions
Key Phrases:
- “Ill-conceived move” – Referring to the Commerce and Industry Minister’s criticism of the CBAM.
- “Death knell for India’s manufacturing sector” – Describing the potential impact of the carbon tax on Indian industries.
- “Common but differentiated responsibilities” – Principle agreed upon under the Paris Agreement.
- “Carbon leakage” – The risk of carbon-intensive production moving from the EU to countries with lax environmental regulations.
Key Quotes:
- “Proposed carbon tax on imports is an ill-conceived move… death knell for India’s manufacturing sector.” – Commerce and Industry Minister.
- “India has challenged the CBAM before the World Trade Organization under the special and differential treatment provisions.”
Key Statements:
- The CBAM is seen as a threat to India’s manufacturing sector and competitiveness in the EU market.
- India is working on its own carbon trading mechanisms, including the CCTS and the Green Credit Programme Rules.
Key Examples and References:
- UK’s plan to enforce its own CBAM by 2027, adding to the challenges faced by India’s exports.
Key Facts:
- 27% of India’s exports of iron, steel, and aluminum products worth $8.2 billion went to the EU in 2022.
Critical Analysis:
- The EU’s focus on reducing carbon emissions should consider broader factors influencing industry shifts.
- India’s challenge lies in balancing environmental concerns with protecting its industries and economic interests.
Way Forward:
- India should actively negotiate with the EU to explore pragmatic solutions, such as returning tax funds for green technologies.
- Swift action is crucial for India to formulate and implement its own carbon taxation measures aligned with the Paris Agreement.
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Self-pollination in Field Pansy Flower
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Field Pansy Flower
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Researchers have found that a flower species in Paris, the field pansy (Viola arvensis), is evolving rapidly, exhibiting reduced nectar production and smaller flower sizes.
- This study aims to understand the impact of these evolutionary changes on plant-pollinator interactions.
Changing Nature of Field Pansy
- Decreased Nectar and Size: The wild pansy variety in Paris showed a 20% reduction in nectar production and a 10% decrease in flower size.
- Comparative Analysis: Scientists compared current flower growth with seeds from 20-30 years ago, observing notable changes.
- Adaptation to Pollinator Decline: The evolution towards self-pollination in field pansies is attributed to the decreasing availability of insect pollinators.
- Experimental Design: The study employed the “resurrection ecology” method, planting seeds from the 1990s and 2000s alongside their 2021 descendants.
Implications of Self-Pollination and Evolutionary Shifts
- Contrast with Angiosperm Convention: The move towards self-pollination deviates from the typical reliance of angiosperms on insects for pollination.
- Long-Term Coevolution: The traditional plant-insect relationship, involving nectar production for pollination, has evolved over 100 million years.
- Genetic Analysis: Population genetics analysis revealed a 27% increase in selfing rates, with consistent trait shifts across studied populations.
Concerns and Potential Consequences
- Short-Term Benefits, Long-Term Risks: While self-pollination may offer short-term advantages, it poses long-term survival threats to plants amid environmental changes.
- Feedback Loop Risks: Reduced nectar production could lead to further declines in pollinator populations, creating a detrimental eco-evolutionary feedback loop.
- Network Degradation: The study highlights the degradation of plant-pollinator networks, as observed in previous research.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Outcomes of COP28: Progress and Challenges in Climate Action
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COP28
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Annual Climate Summit: The 28th session of the Conference of the Parties (COP28) was held in Dubai, under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
- High Expectations: There were significant expectations for countries to take decisive steps in addressing the climate crisis.
- Key Focus Areas: Discussions at COP28 revolved around mitigation, adaptation, finance, and the differing responsibilities of developed and developing nations.
Early Developments: Loss and Damage Fund
- COP27 Agreement Follow-up: After agreeing to create the ‘Loss and Damage’ (L&D) fund at COP27, COP28 focused on its operationalization.
- Funding Challenges: Despite the need for substantial funding, contributions have been limited, with the U.S. pledging only $17.5 million.
- Administration and Access Concerns: The World Bank’s role in overseeing the fund raised issues regarding access, legal autonomy, and responsiveness to emergencies.
Emissions Reduction and Energy Transition
- Global Stocktake Findings: The first global stocktake (GST) assessed progress towards the Paris Agreement goals.
- Fossil Fuel Transition: A commitment was made to move away from fossil fuels in energy systems, to triple renewable and nuclear energy capacity by 2030.
- Continued Use in Other Sectors: Fossil fuels remain in use in sectors like plastics, transport, and agriculture.
- Transitional Fuels and Climate Justice: The acceptance of natural gas as a transitional fuel was seen as a compromise on climate justice.
Financial Mechanisms for Climate Action
- Developed Nations’ Responsibility: The GST framework emphasized the leading role of developed nations in climate finance.
- Private Sector Involvement: The role of private investment in addressing financial gaps was acknowledged.
- Green Finance Initiatives: New mechanisms, including a $3.5 billion boost to the Green Climate Fund, were established to support sustainable practices in developing countries.
India’s Stance on Climate and Health Declaration
- UAE Declaration on Climate and Health: This declaration, partnered with the World Health Organisation, was signed by 123 countries but not by India.
- India’s Concerns: India refrained from signing due to potential impacts on its growing healthcare infrastructure and the need to prioritize healthcare requirements.
Global Methane Pledge and India’s Position
- Renewed Focus on Methane: The pledge received attention with over $1 billion in new grants for methane reduction projects.
- India’s Non-Participation: India did not sign the pledge, focusing instead on carbon dioxide emissions and considering the livelihood implications of methane reduction in agriculture.
Assessment of COP28: Achievements and Shortcomings
- Positive Developments: Notable achievements included the climate and health declaration, emphasis on nature-based solutions, and commitments to sustainable food systems.
- Contentious Issues: Disagreements persisted over fossil-fuel subsidies, the role of the World Bank in the L&D fund, and private sector engagement in climate action.
- Mixed Outcomes: While renewable energy targets marked progress, unresolved issues regarding L&D, fossil fuel use, and transitional fuels indicated ongoing challenges.
Conclusion
- Balancing Act: COP28 showcased the intricate balance between ambitious climate goals and the practical realities of economic and social factors.
- Continued Dialogue: The outcomes reflect the need for ongoing dialogue and collaboration to address the multifaceted aspects of climate change and sustainable development.
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Climate action needs an updated lexicon
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cyclone Michaung
Mains level: impact of shifting baseline syndrome on our perception of environmental changes
Central idea
The article discusses the impact of shifting baseline syndrome on our perception of environmental changes, particularly in the context of unprecedented rainfall in south Tamil Nadu. It emphasizes the importance of officialese, or official vocabulary, in effectively communicating climate scenarios, addressing challenges in aligning definitions with lived experiences. The article also explores the global implications of terminological precision in climate negotiations and highlights the need for updated language to navigate evolving climate realities.
Key Highlights:
- South Tamil Nadu experiences unprecedented rainfall, reversing a northeast monsoon deficit to a 5% excess within 24 hours.
- Shifting baseline syndrome distorts perceptions of environmental changes, impacting our understanding of losses and resource availability.
- Climate change introduces a future-oriented shifting baseline, challenging language and memorialization of evolving climate scenarios.
Key Challenges:
- The deceptive simplicity of defining ‘devastating’ events, influenced by shifting baseline syndrome and community memory.
- Official vocabulary and definitions, such as those for extreme weather events, may not align with lived experiences and evolving climate realities.
- The role of officialese in communication, accountability, and global negotiations faces challenges in updating and aligning with ground realities.
Key Terms and Phrases:
- Shifting baseline syndrome
- Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs)
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
- Officialese
- Medical certificate of cause of death (MCCD)
- Loss and damage fund
Key Quotes and Statements:
- “What we consider to be ‘devastating’ is deceptively simple because of the shifting baseline syndrome.”
- “As the impacts of climate change become clearer, we confront a different kind of shifting baseline, one that stretches into the future.”
Key Examples and References:
- Reference to unprecedented rainfall in Thoothukudi and Tiruchendur compared to Chennai’s Cyclone Michaung-induced rainfall.
- Examples of official vocabulary limitations, like classifying both Chennai and Thoothukudi under ‘extremely heavy’ rainfall despite varying impacts.
Key Facts and Data:
- Rainfall data: Thoothukudi recorded 361.4 mm, Tiruchendur 679 mm, and Chennai 500 mm within specific periods.
- Impact of shifting baseline syndrome on underestimating environmental losses over time.
Critical Analysis:
- Discussion on the challenge of aligning lived experiences with official definitions, impacting trust in institutions.
- The importance of updating officialese to bridge the gap between evolving climate scenarios and language used in official reports.
- Global implications of officialese in climate negotiations, particularly related to the ‘loss and damage’ fund.
Way Forward:
- Advocacy for localized officialese that reflects State-level laws and community context.
- Emphasis on the need for new official words to describe unprecedented climate events to ensure effective communication and global cooperation.
- Acknowledgment of the human toll in defining ‘devastation,’ including challenges in medical certifications and disaster responses.
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How the Hottest Summer ever affected the Arctic?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Arctic Warming
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Unprecedented Warmth: The Arctic experienced its warmest summer on record in 2023, warming nearly four times faster than the global average since 1979.
- NOAA’s Comprehensive Study: The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration’s (NOAA) Arctic Report Card, a peer-reviewed analysis by 82 scientists from 13 countries, details the critical impacts of this warming.
Key Findings and Consequences of the Arctic Warming
[1] Thawing of Subsea Permafrost
- Accelerated Thawing Process: Warmer ocean temperatures are causing a faster thawing of subsea permafrost, which contains organic matter.
- Release of Greenhouse Gases: This thawing leads to the decay of organic matter and the release of methane and carbon dioxide, intensifying global warming and ocean acidification.
- Research Challenges: The extent of greenhouse gas release from subsea permafrost and its future impact on global warming remains uncertain due to limited research.
[2] Food Insecurity
- Decline in Salmon Populations: In Western Alaska, populations of Chinook and chum salmon were 81% and 92% below the 30-year mean, respectively.
- Size Reduction and Species Variation: The size of adult salmon has decreased, and while Chinook and chum salmon declined, sockeye salmon numbers were 98% above the 30-year mean.
- Impact on Indigenous Communities: These changes have led to fishery closures and significant cultural and food security impacts in Indigenous communities.
[3] Raging Wildfires
- Canada’s Severe Wildfire Season: Canada experienced its worst wildfire season, with over 10 million acres burned in the Northwest Territories.
- Evacuations and Air Quality Impact: The fires led to mass evacuations and affected air quality, reaching as far as the southern United States.
[4] Severe Flooding
- Mendenhall Glacier Thinning: The Mendenhall Glacier in Alaska has thinned dramatically, causing annual floods.
- Significant Flooding Event: In August 2023, a glacial lake burst through its ice dam, leading to unprecedented flooding and severe property damage in Juneau.
[5] Greenland Ice Sheet Melting
- Rare Melting Events: The highest point on Greenland’s ice sheet experienced melting for only the fifth time in 34 years.
- Continued Mass Loss: Despite above-average winter snow accumulation, the ice sheet lost approximately 350 trillion pounds of mass between August 2022 and September 2023.
- Contribution to Sea-Level Rise: Greenland’s ice sheet melting is the second-largest contributor to global sea-level rise.
Conclusion
- Immediate and Long-Term Impacts: The record-breaking temperatures in the Arctic have immediate consequences for local communities and long-term implications for global climate patterns.
- Need for Further Research: Enhanced research is crucial to understand the full scope of Arctic warming and to develop effective mitigation strategies.
- Global Responsibility: The findings highlight the urgent need for concerted global efforts to address climate change and its far-reaching impacts.
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Is India doing enough to tackle climate change?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Loss and Damage Fund (LDF)
Mains level: global climate justice movements
Key Highlights:
- Shift in Focus: COP28 saw a historic shift as all 198 signatories agreed to “transition away” from all fossil fuels, moving beyond the earlier emphasis on coal.
- India’s Role: India played a crucial role in modifying language at COP26 and supported the UAE Consensus at COP28, signaling a departure from coal-centric agreements.
Key Challenges:
- Loopholes and Criticism: The COP28 outcome faced criticism for not achieving a complete fossil fuel phase-out, with concerns about loopholes such as nuclear abatement and carbon capture.
- Developing Country Struggles: Developing countries, lacking expertise, face challenges in effectively de-carbonizing sectors and raising ambition due to financial constraints.
Key Terms:
- COP28: The 28th United Nations’ Conference of the Parties.
- UAE Consensus: The agreement to transition away from fossil fuels in a just, orderly, and equitable manner.
- Loss and Damage Fund (LDF): Operationalized at COP28, the fund addresses climate impacts but currently falls short in funding.
Key Phrases:
- “Transitioning away from fossil fuels in a just, orderly, and equitable manner.”
- “Compromise after 30 years” regarding the LDF funding.
- “Deep, rapid, and sustained reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.”
Key Quotes:
- Harjeet Singh: “The outcomes have been unprecedented and historic.”
- Karthik Ganesan: “It’s a maze of words. What is clear is that subsidies for fossil fuels must go.”
Key Statements:
- Developing countries insist on technology transfer and removal of trade barriers for effective renewable energy transition.
- India faces a dilemma in balancing economic growth, environmental concerns, and contributions to global climate initiatives.
Key Examples and References:
- India’s role in modifying language at COP26 and supporting the UAE Consensus at COP28.
- Comparison of the economic value of coal and solar sectors in India.
Key Facts and Data:
- The LDF has raised $700 million, falling short of the trillions needed to address climate impacts.
- India is the third-largest emitter of greenhouse gases with a significantly smaller per capita emission rate.
Critical Analysis:
- The COP28 outcome is criticized for loopholes and a lack of ambition, emphasizing the need for a balance between economic growth and environmental concerns.
- The dichotomy of India’s role as a regional power, emerging economy, and its responsibility to contribute to global climate initiatives is highlighted.
Way Forward:
- Developing countries must focus on technology transfer and removing trade barriers for effective renewable energy transition.
- India needs to reassess its economic paradigm, prioritizing environmental concerns and adopting a sustainable growth model.
- Continued engagement, contribution, and learning from large countries like India are essential for global climate justice movements.
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COP28 : Understanding CCS and CDR
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COP28
Mains level: CCS and CCD
Central Idea
- At the COP28 climate talks in Dubai, discussions have centered on carbon capture and storage (CCS) and carbon-dioxide removal (CDR) technologies.
- The interpretation of ‘abatement’ is crucial in understanding the role and limitations of CCS and CDR in climate action.
Understanding CCS and CDR
- CCS: This involves capturing CO₂ emissions at their source, such as in the fossil fuel industry and industrial processes, and storing them to prevent atmospheric release.
- CDR: Encompasses natural methods like afforestation and technological approaches like direct air capture for absorbing and storing atmospheric CO₂.
- COP28 Discussions: The term “unabated fossil fuels” in the draft texts refers to fossil fuel combustion without CCS. The texts advocate phasing out such fuels and enhancing emission removal technologies.
Scale and Efficacy of CCS and CDR
- IPCC’s AR6 Report: Heavily reliant on CDR for meeting the 1.5 degrees C temperature limit, assuming significant CO₂ sequestration by 2040.
- Challenges: Direct mitigation to reduce emissions is daunting, making CDR crucial.
- CCS Limitations: Effective CCS requires high capture rates, permanent storage, and minimal methane leakage from upstream processes.
Concerns and Implications of CCS and CDR
- Land Use for CDR: Large-scale CDR methods, especially technological ones, require significant land, raising equity, biodiversity, and food security concerns.
- Impact on the Global South: CDR projects in the Global South could infringe on indigenous land rights and compete with agricultural land use.
- Financial and Ethical Questions: The cost and responsibility of implementing CDR at scale raise questions about who should bear these burdens.
Pitfalls of CCS and CDR
- Potential for Increased Emissions: CCS and CDR could inadvertently create leeway for continued or increased greenhouse gas emissions.
- IPCC Emission Scenarios: To limit warming to 1.5 degrees C, significant reductions in coal, oil, and gas use are required by 2050, with or without CCS.
- Gas Emissions Pathways: Higher reliance on CCS and CDR could lead to emission pathways with a greater contribution from gas.
Conclusion
- Critical Decade Ahead: The next decade is pivotal in determining the viability and scalability of CDR methods.
- Balancing Act: While CCS and CDR offer potential solutions for emission reduction, their implementation must be carefully managed to avoid unintended consequences and ensure equitable and effective climate action.
- Future of Climate Negotiations: The discussions and decisions at COP28 regarding CCS and CDR will significantly influence the trajectory of global climate action and the pursuit of the 1.5 degrees C target.
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Private: Case Study: Climate Change Impact on Bluefin Tuna
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bluefin Tuna
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- The study of how animals adapt to their habitat is crucial, especially in the context of climate change.
- Recent research on bluefin tuna provides insights into their energy usage and survival strategies amidst the climate crisis.
Ear Stones study of Bluefin Tuna
- Ear Stones as Biological Records: Scientists use otoliths, a type of stone in fish ears, to analyze a fish’s life history, similar to reading tree rings.
- Chemical Decoding: The team has developed a method to decode the chemicals in these otoliths to measure the energy expenditure of fish when they were alive.
Temperature’s Role in Animal Metabolism
- Metabolic Impact: Temperature affects chemical reaction rates, influencing an animal’s metabolism and energy allocation.
- Energy Allocation Analogy: Rising temperatures can strain an animal’s energy budget, similar to how inflation affects human finances.
Differential Impact of Warming Waters
- Adaptation Range: Animals in the middle of their species’ temperature range can adapt by increasing metabolism, while those at the warmer edge may struggle.
- Energy Debt: Rising temperatures can force species to divert energy from growth to essential life processes, leading to adaptation, migration, or death.
Otolith Analysis and Metabolic Traces
- University of Southampton’s Technique: Researchers have developed a technique to analyze otolith chemistry, revealing the temperature and metabolic rates experienced by fish.
- Fitness Trackers in Ears: Otoliths act as natural fitness trackers, recording crucial biological information.
Case Study: Atlantic Bluefin Tuna
- Species Characteristics: Atlantic bluefin tuna are large, fast, and have a high metabolism, enabling them to thrive in colder waters.
- Population Recovery: Conservation efforts have led to the recovery of bluefin tuna populations in the North Atlantic.
- Differences in Recovery Rates: The study explored why western (Gulf of Mexico) and eastern (Mediterranean) bluefin tuna populations show varying recovery rates.
Temperature’s Impact on Tuna Metabolism
- Metabolic Peak: Young tuna’s metabolic rates peak at around 28°C.
- Effects of Exceeding Optimal Temperature: In the Gulf of Mexico, where temperatures often surpass 28°C, juvenile tuna struggle with higher energy costs, affecting growth.
- Mediterranean Conditions: Currently, the Mediterranean remains below 28°C during summer, offering more suitable conditions for juvenile tuna.
Future Projections and Conservation Challenges
- Climate Model Predictions: Even moderate projections suggest the eastern Mediterranean will exceed the 28°C threshold within 50 years.
- Need for Long-Term Solutions: Protecting tuna requires addressing ocean warming and potential shifts in spawning and nursery areas.
- Bycatch Risks: New spawning areas in colder regions may expose juvenile tuna to increased fishing risks.
- Culinary and Ecological Significance: Beyond their value as a delicacy, tuna serve as indicators of broader marine wildlife challenges.
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Private: Who’s Responsible for the Environmental Impact of What We Eat?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Emission potential of food
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The growing demand for agricultural products is leading to significant social and environmental impacts globally.
- International trade has linked consumers to distant impacts, including carbon emissions, biodiversity loss, freshwater depletion, soil degradation, and labor rights issues.
India’s Role in Global Agricultural Trade
- Market Influence: India, with its vast size and consumer market, plays a pivotal role in the global trade of agricultural products.
- Development and Demand: India’s social and economic development has led to increased demand and supply of agricultural products, impacting national resources and necessitating imports.
Food-Based Impact Accounting
- Production-Based Accounting: Traditionally, environmental impacts are measured where products are produced, but this method has limitations in managing leaks and ensuring accountability and equity.
- Consumption-Based Accounting: This approach attributes all social and environmental impacts to the final products and consumers, urging them to accept responsibility for the impacts.
[A] Demand Perspective
- Consumption Responsibility: Since consumption practices in developed economies largely drive resource pressure, the responsibility for production consequences should fall on these consumers.
- Equity and Justice: This approach aligns with arguments of equity and historical responsibility, shifting substantial impacts from emerging markets like India to developed countries.
[B] Supply Perspective
- Encouraging Cleaner Production: Consumption-based accounting can motivate producer countries to adopt strategies that reduce the environmental footprint of exports.
- Improving Living Standards: It incentivizes raising living standards in agricultural supply chains to maintain access to foreign markets.
Benefits of Environmental Action
- Policy Influence: This approach is gaining traction in policymaking, as seen in the European Commission’s initiative to ensure EU-consumed products do not contribute to deforestation.
- India’s Unique Position: India’s environmental footprint abroad is growing, highlighting the need for shared responsibility for impacts resulting from domestic demand.
Fairness in Impact Attribution
- Shared Responsibilities: Consumption-based emissions accounting can facilitate global environmental action by sharing responsibilities between producers and consumers.
- Balanced Global Action: Developed economies taking responsibility for some impacts can lead to coordinated action, allowing developing economies like India to grow sustainably.
Challenges and Domestic Application
- Implementation Difficulties: While challenging to implement due to liability, monitoring, and compliance concerns, this approach is valuable for diagnosing impact-intensive consumption patterns.
- Domestic Application: It can be applied domestically to shift focus from producers to consumers, encouraging changes in consumption behavior.
Conclusion
- The transition from production to consumption-based accounting represents a significant shift in environmental governance.
- It emphasizes the responsibility of consumers, particularly in developed economies, for the environmental impacts of their consumption habits.
- This approach offers a more equitable framework for addressing global environmental challenges, acknowledging the interconnected nature of production and consumption in our globalized world.
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UAE launches ALTÉRRA Fund for Climate Investments
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ALTÉRRA Fund
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- The United Arab Emirates, as the host of COP-28, has committed US$30 billion to establish ALTÉRRA, a climate investment fund.
What is ALTÉRRA Fund?
- Fund Objective: ALTÉRRA aims to mobilize US$250 billion globally by 2030, aspiring to be the largest fund dedicated to climate investments.
- Focus: The fund is designed to transform emerging markets and developing economies through climate investments.
- Clean Energy in India: An initial portion of the fund is allocated for developing over 6.0 GW of new clean energy capacity in India, including 1,200 MW of wind and solar projects expected to be operational by 2025.
- Financial Requirements: Emerging markets and developing economies reportedly need US$2.4 trillion annually by 2030 to address climate change.
- Key Verticals: ALTÉRRA will focus on four main areas: Energy Transition, Industrial Decarbonisation, Sustainable Living, and Climate Technologies.
Leadership and Management
- Chair: COP-28 President, Sultan Ahmed Al Jaber, will chair the ALTÉRRA fund.
- Management Entity: Lunate, an independent global investment manager, has established ALTÉRRA.
- Domicile: The fund is domiciled in the Abu Dhabi Global Market.
Mission and Impact
- Transformational Solution: ALTÉRRA is positioned as a transformative solution for attracting private capital into climate-focused investments.
- Multiplier Effect: The fund’s scale and structure are expected to create a significant impact in climate investment.
- Reflection of COP Presidency’s Action Agenda: The launch of ALTÉRRA aligns with the UAE’s COP Presidency Action Agenda and efforts to make climate finance more available, accessible, and affordable.
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Antarctica’s Ozone Hole expands mid-spring since 2001
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ozone Layer and Ozone Hole
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Recent research published in the journal Nature Communications has revealed a concerning trend in the Antarctic ozone layer during mid-spring (October).
- Contrary to previously reported recovery trends in total ozone, the core of the Antarctic ozone in mid-spring has experienced a significant 26% reduction since 2004.
Ozone Layer and Ozone Hole
| Location | Stratosphere, approximately 10-30 km above Earth’s surface. |
| Composition | Composed of ozone (O3) molecules.
Unit of measurement: Dobsob Unit (DU) |
| Function | Acts as a protective shield, absorbing and blocking a significant portion of harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. |
| Importance | Essential for protecting life on Earth by preventing excessive UV radiation, which can harm living organisms and the environment. |
| Ozone-depleting Substances | Threatened by ODS like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other synthetic compounds commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosol propellants. |
| Montreal Protocol | An international treaty adopted in 1987 to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, resulting in significant recovery of the ozone layer. |
| Current Status | The ozone layer is in the process of recovery due to the success of the Montreal Protocol. |
| Environmental Impact | Protects ecosystems, prevents skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans. |
| Additional Facts | • The size of the ozone hole over Antarctica varies annually, opening in August and closing in November or December.
• Special winds caused by the Earth’s rotation create a unique climate over Antarctica, preventing mixing with surrounding air. • When these winds subside, the hole closes. |
Shift in Ozone Trends
- Mid-Spring Ozone Depletion: The study’s findings reveal a notable decline in mid-spring (October) ozone levels within the middle stratospheric layer, contrary to previous expectations of recovery.
- Early Spring Recovery: Surprisingly, early spring (September) still shows slight ozone increases or a modest recovery of the ozone hole.
Implications of Ozone Variability
- Antarctic Stratospheric Ozone: Antarctic stratospheric ozone plays a critical role in influencing climate patterns across the Southern Hemisphere.
- Understanding Ozone Variability: Ongoing research aims to understand the reasons behind the observed ozone variability, particularly in the context of the Southern Hemisphere’s atmospheric changes.
Key Findings
- Recovery Trends Re-evaluated: When considering satellite data from 2022, previously reported recovery trends in Antarctic spring total ozone, observed since 2001, no longer hold.
- Middle Stratosphere Impact: The middle stratosphere has witnessed continued, significant ozone reduction since 2004, culminating in a 26% loss within the core of the ozone hole.
- Potential Causes: The study suggests that changes in the mesosphere, the atmospheric layer above the stratosphere and the ozone layer, may be driving this reduction.
- Major triggers: Scientists speculate that the extensive ozone hole this year may be linked to volcanic eruptions in Hunga Tonga, Tonga, between December 2022 and January 2023.
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At COP 28, a chance to get past fear-mongering
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COP 28
Mains level: climate change action is essential for economic sustainability
Central idea
The article emphasizes that climate change action is essential for economic sustainability and counters the notion that it is unaffordable. It highlights the impact of fossil fuels on the cost-of-living crisis and advocates for redirecting funds from fossil fuel subsidies to renewable energy. The author calls for international cooperation at COP28 to triple renewable energy capacity, double energy efficiency, and address climate justice concerns.
Key Highlights:
- Global Cost-of-Living Crisis: Inflation’s widespread impact on billions globally, prompting a false narrative of green initiatives against the interests of the poor.
- Fossil Fuels and Economic Strain: Fossil fuels, a major driver of the cost-of-living crisis, contribute to economic strain, affecting household budgets and impeding growth.
- Worsening Climate Disasters: Amid rising costs, climate disasters intensify, causing economic damage and affecting millions globally.
Key Challenges:
- Fossil Fuel Dependency: Persistent reliance on fossil fuels remains a significant hurdle to addressing the cost-of-living crisis and mitigating climate change.
- Government Spending on Subsidies: Trillions spent on fossil fuel subsidies divert funds from essential services and hinder investments in renewable energy.
Key Terms:
- Cost-of-Living Crisis: Global economic strain exacerbated by inflation.
- Fossil Fuel Subsidies: Government financial support to the fossil fuel industry.
- Renewable Energy: Sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels.
- Climate Disasters: Increasingly severe climate-related events.
- Energy Access: Ensuring access to reliable and affordable energy.
Key Phrases for value addition:
- “Green versus poor” Narrative: Misleading rhetoric obscuring the need for a sustainable future.
- “Fossil fuel taps can’t be turned off overnight”: Recognizing the gradual nature of transitioning from fossil fuels.
- “Global Stocktake on climate action”: Assessment of progress and tools to speed up climate action.
- “Tripling the world’s renewable energy capacity”: Ambitious goals for renewable energy expansion.
- “Fear Mongering”: Misleading tactics to discourage climate action.
Key Examples and References:
- Impact of Fossil Fuel Prices: Household bills rising up to $1,000 in 2022.
- Government Spending: Trillions spent globally on fossil fuel subsidies in 2022.
Key Facts:
- Climate Predictions: This year projected to be the hottest in 125,000 years.
- Inflation Impact: Disproportionately affecting the poorest households.
- Fossil Fuel Subsidies: Diverting funds from essential services and renewable energy projects.
Key Data:
- Global Spending on Subsidies: Trillions allocated to fossil fuel subsidies.
- Climate Impact: Economic damage and lives affected by escalating climate disasters.
Critical Analysis:
- The article underscores the interconnected challenges of inflation, fossil fuel dependency, and climate change.
- Governments’ hesitation to phase out subsidies is identified as a critical obstacle.
- Emphasis on the imperative shift to renewable energy for economic growth and effective climate action.
Way Forward:
- Advocacy: Push for responsible phasing out of fossil fuel subsidies.
- Encouragement: Support governments in investing in renewable energy and energy-efficient solutions.
- Climate Justice: Back initiatives addressing climate justice and adaptation to climate impacts.
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Recognising the impact of climate change on health
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: urban heat island, United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP28)
Mains level: susceptibility to climate change impacts on health
Central idea
As India gets ready for the 28th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (COP28), it is important to examine how climate change affects the country’s health. India’s inadequate health systems make our population particularly vulnerable to the impact of climate risks on health. Climate change affects health directly, causing more sickness and death. In more indirect ways, it affects nutrition, reduces working hours, and increases climate-induced stress.
Key Highlights:
- Vulnerability of Health Systems: Inadequate health infrastructure in India heightens susceptibility to climate change impacts on health.
- Concerns Over Temperature Rise: Failure to cap global temperature rise raises fears of uninhabitable regions with a 2°C increase.
Challenges:
- Double Morbidity Burden: Convergence of communicable and non-communicable diseases worsens health challenges.
- Neglected Non-communicable Diseases: Climate change impact on mental health and non-communicable diseases often overlooked in India.
Key Phrases and Analysis:
- Urban Heat Island Effect: Unplanned urbanization intensifies the urban heat island effect, straining the urban health system.
- Poorly Managed Health Risks: Inadequate recognition and management of health risks associated with climate change-induced factors.
Key Data and Facts:
- Temperature-Related Health Risks: 1% increase above 29°C correlates with an 8% rise in hospitalization rates, emphasizing direct temperature impact.
- Urbanization Challenges: Unplanned urbanization exacerbates climate-related health risks, necessitating interventions in urban planning and public health.
Way Forward:
- Holistic Mitigation Strategies: Mitigation involves understanding climate change pathways, modifying health information systems, and upstream interventions.
- Multi-level Action: Coordinated action at global, regional, and local levels, involving researchers, policymakers, and governments for meaningful change.
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Biosphere reserves are evolving as pockets of hope
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Biosphere Reserve Day
Mains level: global importance of UNESCO-designated reserves in conserving biodiversity and mitigating climate change
Central idea
World Biosphere Reserve Day on November 3 emphasizes the global importance of UNESCO-designated reserves in conserving biodiversity and mitigating climate change. With 748 reserves in 134 countries, challenges like deforestation persist, necessitating local collaboration, sustainable tourism, and international cooperation for effective conservation.
Key Highlights:
- World Biosphere Reserve Day: Annual celebration on November 3 to raise awareness and promote the conservation of biosphere reserves.
- UNESCO Designation: Biosphere reserves designated by UNESCO for biodiversity conservation, sustainable development, and research.
- Global Impact: 748 biosphere reserves in 134 countries, influencing the lives of over 250 million people.
- Transboundary Collaboration: 22 transboundary sites fostering cooperation between neighboring countries.
Key Organizations:
- UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): Initiator and supporter of the Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programm Designates and recognizes biosphere reserves globally, promoting conservation and sustainable development.
- United Nations Development Programme (UNDP): Collaborates with biosphere reserves to support sustainable development initiatives.
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): Engages in activities to enhance environmental sustainability within biosphere reserves.
- International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN): Supports UNESCO in biodiversity conservation efforts and sustainable development.
Prelims focus UNESCO MAB Award:
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- The Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust received the UNESCO Michel Batisse Award for Biosphere Reserve Management in 2023, recognizing exemplary efforts in conservation.
Origin of Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme:
Inception: Established by UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) in 1971.
Inspiration: Evolved from the recommendations of the International Biological Programme (IBP), recognizing the need for a comprehensive approach to address the human-environment relationship.
MAB’s Foundation: Launched during the 16th session of the UNESCO General Conference in 1971, with the primary goal of integrating natural and social sciences for sustainable development and biodiversity conservation.
Key Drivers: Emerged as a response to growing concerns about the impact of human activities on the environment and the need for a coordinated effort to balance conservation and development.
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Challenges and Concerns:
- Anthropogenic Pressures: Human-induced pressures on biosphere reserves, such as pollution, habitat destruction, and overexploitation, pose significant threats to biodiversity.
- Climate Change Impact: The increasing impacts of climate change, including rising temperatures and extreme weather events, challenge the resilience of biosphere reserves and their ability to support diverse ecosystems.
- Lack of Funding: Many biosphere reserves face financial constraints, hindering effective conservation efforts and the implementation of sustainable development projects. Adequate funding is crucial for long-term success.
- Deforestation, invasive species, and land use changes like mining pose significant challenges.
- Urbanization and population growth contribute to increased exploitation.
Analysis:
- Role as Carbon Sinks: Biosphere reserves play a crucial role as carbon sinks, absorbing carbon dioxide and contributing to climate change mitigation.
- Economic and Biodiversity Significance: Provide a foundation for sustainable economic development and protect diverse biodiversity.
Key facts:
- World Biosphere Reserve Day: Celebrated on November 3 annually to raise awareness about biosphere reserves.
- Biosphere Reserves Globally: Currently, 748 biosphere reserves across 134 countries.
- Transboundary Sites: 22 transboundary biosphere reserve sites, fostering cooperation between neighboring countries.
- Global Impact: Biosphere reserves impact the lives of over 250 million people in 134 countries.
- Local Initiatives: Examples include the Sundarban Biosphere Reserve in India, where local communities manage mangrove forests, and the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve, introducing ‘plastic checkpoints’ for waste management.
Key Terms:
- Biosphere Reserves: Designated by UNESCO for conservation, sustainable development, and research.
- Carbon Sinks: Areas like forests and the ocean that absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere.
- World Biosphere Reserve Day: Annual celebration on November 3 to raise awareness about biosphere reserves.
Way Forward:
- Local Collaboration for Conservation: Emphasize the importance of local collaboration for effective conservation efforts. Encourage the active involvement of local communities in biodiversity protection and sustainable practices.
- Addressing Specific Threats: Develop targeted strategies to address diverse threats such as deforestation, invasive species, and land use changes. Implement policies and practices that mitigate the impact of urbanization and population growth on biosphere reserves.
- Promoting Sustainable Tourism: Encourage sustainable tourism practices within biosphere reserves to minimize negative environmental impacts. Educate tourists and local communities about responsible tourism to ensure the long-term well-being of these ecosystems.
- International Cooperation: Strengthen international cooperation for the conservation of transboundary biosphere reserves. Facilitate knowledge exchange and collaborative initiatives to address global environmental challenges.
This World Biosphere Reserve Day serves as a crucial moment to reflect on the significance of these natural treasures and the collective responsibility to ensure their preservation for future generations.
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Stocktaking climate finance a case of circles in red ink
Central idea
The article emphasizes the critical role of climate finance in global trust-building, highlighting challenges such as inequality, mandatory contribution frameworks, and political will. Concerns arise from insufficient funding, voluntary contributions, and disparities between pledged amounts and actual commitments.
Key Highlights:
- Climate Finance Crucial: Climate finance is essential for trust in climate change negotiations, especially in COP 28. The Synthesis Report highlights a 1.1°C temperature increase causing hazardous weather, intensifying demands for mitigation actions by developing countries.
- $100 Billion Commitment: Developed countries committed to mobilize $100 billion per year by 2020, but the Glasgow conference in 2021 reported only $79.6 billion mobilized, leading to concerns about insufficient funding to support developing nations in low-carbon transitions.
- NDC Financial Needs: Developing nations, as per their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), estimate financial needs close to $6 trillion until 2030. India’s NDCs highlight financial requirements of $206 billion for adaptation and $834 billion for mitigation.
Challenges:
- Inequality in Contribution: Developed countries exhibit disparities in fulfilling climate finance commitments, with the U.S. contributing only 5% of its fair share. This inequality hampers the effective mobilization of funds required for climate action.
- Mandatory Contribution Framework: The absence of a mandatory framework for developed nations to contribute poses a significant challenge. The lack of clear criteria for collecting funds creates uncertainty about achieving the set financial goals.
- Discrepancies in Pledged Amounts: The second replenishment of the Green Climate Fund (GCF) revealed contributions from only 25 out of 37 developed countries. The shortfall in meeting pledges raises concerns about the reliability of financial commitments.
- Global Urgency Disparity: Unlike the swift response to the 2009 global financial crisis, there is a notable lack of political will and urgency among developed nations to address climate finance needs. This disparity impedes progress in protecting the global atmosphere.
Concerns:
- Insufficient Funding: The $79.6 billion mobilized falls short of the committed $100 billion annually, hindering the capacity of developing nations to transition to sustainable practices. The insufficiency raises concerns about meeting climate finance goals.
- Voluntary Contributions Challenge: The inclusion of voluntary contributions by nine developing countries in the GCF introduces complexities in defining and accounting for international public climate finance. The challenge lies in establishing uniform criteria for contributions.
- Impact on Developing Nations: Developing nations, as highlighted in their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), express financial needs close to $6 trillion until 2030. The gap between needs and actual mobilized funds poses a significant concern for these nations.
Analysis:
- Crisis of Commitment: Discrepancies between pledged amounts and actual contributions underscore a crisis of commitment among developed countries. This undermines the effectiveness of global climate finance mechanisms, impacting the transition to sustainable practices.
- Political Will Deficiency: The lack of political will and a sense of urgency among developed nations to address climate finance needs reveals a critical deficiency. Urgent action is necessary to bridge the gap between commitments and tangible contributions.
Key Data:
- GCF Replenishment: The second replenishment of the Green Climate Fund gathered pledges of $9.3 billion, with contributions from 25 developed countries out of 37.
- Developed Countries’ $100 Billion Commitment: The actual mobilization reported at the Glasgow conference in 2021 was $79.6 billion, falling short of the committed $100 billion annually.
Key Terms:
- Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs): Country-specific climate action plans submitted under the Paris Agreement outlining mitigation and adaptation goals.
- Global Stocktake: Periodic assessment of collective progress in climate action, informed by scientific findings, as part of the COP meetings.
Way Forward:
- Transparent Burden-Sharing: Establishing a transparent and agreed-upon burden-sharing formula among developed countries is crucial for fair and consistent contributions to climate finance.
- Mandatory Contribution Framework: Implementing a mandatory framework for developed nations to contribute, accompanied by clear criteria for mobilizing funds, is essential to ensure reliability in financial commitments.
- Global Cooperation and Urgency: Fostering a sense of urgency and global cooperation is imperative. A collective and urgent response, similar to past financial crises, is needed to address the critical climate finance needs and fulfill international commitments effectively.
- Capacity Building: Prioritizing capacity building in developing nations to facilitate a smooth transition to sustainable practices. This includes supporting economic opportunities and livelihoods for those entrenched in fossil fuel economies.
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Breaking the ice: How India can help save the Arctic
Central idea
The article highlights India’s pivotal role in the G20 Summit, emphasizing its ability to broker consensus between the Global North and South for climate protection. Focused on the Arctic, it underscores the urgent need to address the region’s environmental challenges and advocates for India’s active involvement in reforming Arctic governance for long-term climate preservation.
Arctic issue
- Global Significance: The Arctic, crucial for the world’s climate, is warming four times faster than the global average, leading to unprecedented environmental changes.
- Disproportionate Impact: Climate change, particularly in the Arctic, disproportionately affects the Global South, as evidenced by intricate correlations with extreme events like Indian summer monsoons.
- Governance Challenges: Rapid development and geopolitical tensions, especially Russia’s focus on commercial exploitation, pose challenges to the current governance mechanism, such as the Arctic Council’s suspension due to the Russian invasion of Ukraine.
India’s Pivotal Role in the G20 Summit:
- Diplomatic Achievement: Hosting the G20 Summit showcases India’s diplomatic prowess, extracting consensus in a multipolar world.
- Counterbalance to Expansionism: India’s role is pivotal in balancing and deterring Chinese expansionism, positioning it as a mediator between the Global North and South.
- Climate Mediator: The nation’s diplomatic efforts extend to climate protection, reflecting its commitment to addressing global challenges.
Addressing Climate Protection:
- Arctic Focus: The article emphasizes India’s crucial link to climate protection, with a specific focus on the rapidly warming Arctic.
- Ecosystem Safeguarding: By brokering consensus at the G20 Summit, India plays a key role in safeguarding ecosystems, especially those vulnerable to climate change.
- Global Impact: India’s involvement highlights its commitment to protecting the environment and contributing to global climate efforts.
Urgent Need to Reform Arctic Governance:
- Challenges Posed by Russia: Russia’s commercial interests in the Arctic pose challenges to environmental preservation, necessitating urgent governance reforms.
- Suspension of the Arctic Council: The article underscores the impact of the Arctic Council’s suspension and highlights India’s potential role in its reinstatement.
- Proactive Indian Involvement: India’s active participation in the Arctic Council is seen as crucial for voicing concerns and advocating reforms.
Environmental Challenges and Potential of India:
- Bridging Historical Divides: India’s potential lies in its ability to bridge historical divides, fostering aligned positions among nations.
- Global South Leadership: India’s active involvement in the Arctic Council positions it as a leader in the Global South, advocating for environmental causes.
- Diplomatic Momentum: Leveraging diplomatic momentum, India can address challenges posed by geopolitical tensions and commercial interests.
Highly important key points from this article
- Arctic warming is four times faster than the global average, resulting in unprecedented sea ice loss and permafrost thawing.
- Continued Arctic change may release carbon, rivaling US cumulative emissions.
- Melting Arctic correlates with extreme rainfall in the Indian monsoon, affecting agriculture crucial to the Global South.
- The Arctic Council governing global commons is suspended due to geopolitical tensions.
- India, part of the Global South, holds observer status in the Arctic Council.
| Arctic Council from a prelims perspective:
Formation and Members: The Arctic Council is an intergovernmental forum established in 1996. It consists of eight Arctic States: the United States, Russia, Canada, Norway, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Iceland. Observer Status: The Council allows for the participation of non-Arctic states, intergovernmental and interparliamentary organizations as observers. India has observer status in the Arctic Council, indicating its interest in Arctic affairs. Focus Areas: The primary focus of the Arctic Council is on issues related to environmental protection, sustainable development, and scientific cooperation in the Arctic region. |
Way Forward and Global Leadership:
- Utilizing Diplomatic Momentum: The way forward involves using India’s diplomatic momentum to lead discussions on climate governance.
- Advocating Reforms: As India proposes a virtual G20 Summit, active advocacy for reforms in Arctic governance is crucial.
- Commitment to Leadership: India’s commitment to global leadership in climate protection aligns with its aspirations and responsibility for sustainable environmental stewardship.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the article highlights India’s dual role as a diplomatic consensus-builder and a champion for environmental causes. By navigating conflicts, proposing reforms, and actively participating in global initiatives, India can lead the charge in addressing urgent climate challenges, especially those posed by the warming Arctic. This approach aligns with India’s aspirations for global leadership and sustainable environmental stewardship.
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Ancient Landscape cut by rivers found deep under Antarctic Ice
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Wilkes Land
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- Scientists have unveiled a vast ancient landscape buried beneath the continent’s ice sheet, offering a glimpse into a time when it was not a frozen wilderness but a land of rivers and forests teeming with life.
- This discovery, located in East Antarctica’s Wilkes Land region, holds clues to Antarctica’s environmental history and the mysteries of its distant past.
What is Wilkes Land?
- Wilkes Land is a region located in Antarctica, on the eastern side of the continent.
- It is one of the largest unclaimed territories in Antarctica, primarily because it is covered by the East Antarctic Ice Sheet, which makes it difficult to access and study.
- It was named after US Navy Officer Charles Wilkes, who led the exploring expedition (1838–1842).
- This expedition was the first to extensively explore and map large parts of the Antarctic coastline, including the area that came to be known as Wilkes Land.
- The East Antarctic Ice Sheet in Wilkes Land, in particular, contains valuable information about the history of climate change and ice sheet dynamics, which are critical for understanding global climate patterns and sea-level rise.
Antarctica’s Geological Journey
- Gondwana Supercontinent: Antarctica was once part of the Gondwana supercontinent, which included modern-day continents like Africa, South America, Australia, and the Indian subcontinent. It later separated due to plate tectonics.
- Evolution of Landscape: Researchers suggest that as Antarctica’s climate warmed, rivers flowed across this newfound landscape toward coastlines formed during continental separation. Subsequent cooling led to glacial erosion, preserving the landscape for millions of years.
About the Under-Glacier Landscape
- Rediscovering Ancient Antarctica: Satellite observations and ice-penetrating radar have unveiled a sprawling ancient landscape beneath Antarctica’s ice sheet.
- Geographic Scope: The discovered landscape spans an area roughly equivalent to Belgium or the U.S. state of Maryland and is situated in East Antarctica’s Wilkes Land region, bordering the Indian Ocean.
- Time Frame: This ancient terrain is estimated to date back to at least 14 million years ago and potentially extend even further, to over 34 million years ago, coinciding with Antarctica’s transition into a frozen continent.
Snapshot of a Different Era
- A Window to the Past: The landscape offers a snapshot of an earlier time when Antarctica enjoyed warmer climates. The specific appearance remains uncertain, but it might have ranged from temperate to even tropical conditions.
- Wildlife Enigma: While it’s likely that this environment supported diverse wildlife, the incomplete fossil record leaves the identity of its inhabitants shrouded in mystery.
Beneath the Ice
- Icy Cover: The ancient landscape lies beneath approximately 2.2 to 3 km of ice, creating an enigmatic world hidden from human view.
- Exploration Challenges: The land beneath Antarctica’s ice remains more enigmatic than the surface of Mars. Researchers propose drilling through the ice to obtain sediment core samples, potentially revealing ancient flora and fauna, much like Greenland samples dating back 2 million years.
How was it identified?
- Scientific Methods: The study employed satellite observations and ice-penetrating radar data gathered from overflight missions.
- Unique Discovery: While previous research uncovered ancient landscapes beneath Antarctica’s ice, this discovery stands out as the first of its kind, shaped by rivers and distinct geological processes.
- Changing Climates: Antarctica’s landscape and climate underwent significant transformations, resembling cold temperate rainforests before cooling to its frozen state.
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Mitigating tragedies in the Himalayan region
Central idea
The article highlights the increasing risks of glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) in the Indian Himalayan Region due to climate change. It emphasizes the need for a comprehensive, multi-disciplinary effort to develop early warning systems and mitigation strategies for high-risk glacial lakes.
Definition of GLOFs:
- Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) are sudden and massive releases of water from glacial lakes, often triggered by the collapse of glacial moraines or other natural events. These floods pose severe threats to downstream areas.
Features of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs)
- Rapid Onset: Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) are characterized by their sudden and rapid onset. These floods can unleash enormous amounts of water in a short period, often catching downstream communities off guard.
- Highly Destructive: GLOFs are highly destructive natural disasters. The massive volume of water released during an outburst can lead to flash floods, causing widespread damage to infrastructure, agriculture, and ecosystems in the affected areas.
- Glacial Lakes as Time Bombs: Glacial lakes, formed by the melting of glaciers, act as reservoirs for potential GLOFs. The increasing rate of glacier melt, attributed to climate change, raises concerns about the growing number of these ‘time bombs’ that could pose threats to downstream regions.
- Global Impact: GLOFs are not confined to specific regions but have a global impact. The risk of GLOFs exists in various mountainous areas worldwide, including the Himalayas, Andes, Alps, and the Rocky Mountains. Climate change exacerbates these risks, making GLOFs a concern on a broader scale.
Consequences of GLOFs:
- Flash Floods: The rapid release of water leads to flash floods downstream, causing immediate and extensive damage.
- Morphological Changes: GLOFs alter the landscape, leading to changes in river courses and topography.
- Loss of Life and Property: Downstream communities face a high risk of casualties, property damage, and loss of livelihoods.
- Permanent Changes: GLOFs bring permanent alterations to the affected areas, impacting their socio-economic fabric.
Challenges in Monitoring and Prediction:
- Monitoring and predicting such cascading events are challenging, requiring an integrated system for early warnings and risk mitigation.
- The Himalayan Region faces a range of hydro-meteorological, tectonic, climate, and human-induced mountain hazards, making monitoring and estimation difficult due to the multitude of glaciers and temporal variations in glacial recession.
Well known examples
- South Lhonak Lake, Sikkim (2023): The recent glacial lake outburst flood in Sikkim resulted in the death of 14 people and left 102 missing. The South Lhonak Lake, situated at 17,000 ft, burst due to incessant rains, causing flash floods in downstream areas along the Teesta river.
- Chorabari Tal, Uttarakhand (2013): In 2013, flash floods and a glacial lake outburst flood were triggered by the Chorabari Tal glacial lake in Uttarakhand’s Kedarnath. The event caused widespread destruction, leading to the loss of thousands of lives.
Government Schemes and Initiatives
- Early Warning Systems: The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) led a preparatory mission, installing automated cameras and monitoring equipment at high-altitude glacial lakes. Despite challenges, this initiative is a step towards developing an end-to-end early warning system.
- Geo-technical Solutions: Globally, measures like excavating channels, drainage systems, spillway construction, and small catchment dams have been attempted. However, implementing these at high altitudes faces formidable challenges, including inaccessibility and harsh conditions.
- National Remote Sensing Centre’s Atlas: The NRSC’s Glacial Lake Atlas of 2023 provides crucial data on the distribution of glacial lakes. It highlights the vast number of high-risk lakes in the Indus, Ganga, and Brahmaputra basins, emphasizing the enormity of the challenge.
Way Forward
- Integrated Efforts: Addressing the GLOF risk requires collaboration across institutions. The NRSC’s remote sensing data, the Central Water Commission’s hydro-dynamic assessments, and the NDMA’s guidelines contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the hazard.
- Comprehensive GLOF Risk Mitigation Plan: A plan is in progress, focusing on installing monitoring and early warning systems. However, the success of this plan depends on the collective efforts of governments and scientific institutions.
Conclusion
Mitigating GLOFs demands immediate attention. The integration of resources and capacities, along with a focus on prevention and mitigation, will reduce the impact on downstream communities. The government’s initiatives and collaborative efforts are crucial steps towards ensuring the stability and resilience of Himalayan communities in the face of increasing climate risks.
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Restoring the ecological health of the Himalayas
Central idea
The Supreme Court is exploring the Himalayan region’s carrying capacity to address environmental concerns. Critics advocate a broader, inclusive approach involving multiple institutes and citizen representation for a sustainable, people-centric strategy. The focus is on engaging local communities and assessing the social dimensions for lasting solutions.
Carrying Capacity Definition
Carrying capacity refers to the maximum sustainable population size an ecosystem can support without significant harm. It’s crucial for balancing human activities with environmental preservation.
Importance of ecological health of Himalaya
- Biodiversity Hub: The Himalayas host diverse flora and fauna, making the region crucial for the conservation of numerous endemic and endangered species.
- Water Source for Asia: As the “Water Tower of Asia,” the Himalayas contribute to major river systems, providing water to millions downstream, emphasizing the importance of ecological health.
- Climate Regulation: The Himalayas play a pivotal role in global climate regulation, influencing weather patterns, monsoons, and serving as a natural buffer against the impacts of climate change.
- Cultural and Spiritual Significance: Beyond ecology, the Himalayas hold cultural and spiritual importance, and their ecological well-being is intertwined with the traditional practices and beliefs of local communities.
| Some interesting facts
The Himalayas harbor over 50% of the world’s plant species. Himalayan glaciers supply water to major rivers, supporting nearly 1.5 billion people. Snow leopards, a rare and endangered species, find refuge in the Himalayan mountain ranges. The Himalayan region is a biodiversity hotspot with unique species like the Himalayan monal, a vibrantly colored pheasant. |
Key Challenges and Ineffective Past Initiatives:
- Despite previous efforts, progress on assessing and implementing carrying capacity plans has been minimal.
- Flawed recommendations from the Ministry, with the same individuals responsible for environmental damage now tasked with finding solutions.
- The suggested reliance on the G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment overlooks the significance of other relevant institutes in policymaking.
- A myopic emphasis on towns and cities, without considering the broader impact of infrastructure, like road networks creating spontaneous settlements.
Government Schemes and Initiatives:
- National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (2010).
- Indian Himalayas Climate Adaptation Programme.
- Secure Himalaya Project.
- Guidelines on ‘Carrying Capacity in the IHR’ circulated on January 30, 2020.
- Ministry’s reminder on May 19, 2023, urging States to submit carrying capacity action plans if not undertaken.
Way Forward:
- Holistic Regional Focus: Include under-explored areas like the Kinnaur district in Himachal Pradesh, where rapid tourism growth may impact the local ecosystem. Similarly, consider the less urbanized parts of Sikkim, such as Dzongu, facing challenges in waste management due to an increase in population.
- Emphasize Sustainable Population: Prioritize assessing the carrying capacity with a focus on “Sustainable Population.” For instance, examine the impact of population growth on water sources in regions like Lachen in Sikkim, known for its pristine lakes and rivers.
- Citizen Representation: Include citizens from diverse backgrounds, like the Gaddis in Himachal Pradesh or the Lepchas in Sikkim, ensuring that indigenous knowledge contributes to sustainable solutions.
- Biological Diversity: Evaluate the overall sustainable capacity by considering the rich biological diversity in areas like the Valley of Flowers National Park in Uttarakhand. Understand the delicate balance in ecosystems supporting various species.
- Water Management: Assess the sustainable capacity of water resources, acknowledging concerns raised by citizens in regions like Tawang in Arunachal Pradesh. Here, water plays a crucial role in agriculture, and any disruption affects the livelihoods of the Monpa community.
Conclusion:
The imperative for sustainable development in the Himalayan region requires a comprehensive assessment of carrying capacity. The Supreme Court’s intervention serves as a catalyst for a people-centric, inclusive, and holistic approach, emphasizing long-term environmental health and citizen involvement. With united efforts we will restore Himalayan glory again
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Disruption in Earth’s Water Cycle
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Evapotranspiration, Water Cycle
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) issued a report highlighting the significant impact of climate change and human activities on Earth’s water circulation systems.
- This has direct consequences leading to droughts, extreme rainfall events, and disruptions in water cycles.
What is the Water Cycle?
- The water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, is the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the Earth’s surface.
- It involves various processes that allow water to circulate between the atmosphere, land, oceans, and other bodies of water:
| Evaporation | Sun’s heat turns surface water into vapor. |
| Condensation | Vapor forms clouds as it cools in the atmosphere. |
| Precipitation | Clouds release moisture as rain, snow, or hail. |
| Runoff & Infiltration | Water flows over land or seeps into the ground. |
| Transpiration | Plants absorb and release water vapor. |
| Sublimation | Ice transforms directly into vapor in specific conditions. |
| Transport | Winds move moisture globally. |
| Collection | Water gathers in oceans, lakes, and underground sources. |
Why is it under stress?
- Diverse Impact: Climate change and human activities have led to an erratic hydrological cycle, resulting in both droughts and extreme rainfall events, causing widespread disruptions affecting livelihoods and economies.
- Melting Snow and Glaciers: Ongoing melting of snow, ice, and glaciers further exacerbates the risk of extreme weather events, such as floods, posing long-term threats to water security, particularly for millions already facing severe water scarcity.
Global Impact
- Global Deviations: Over 50% of global catchment areas experienced deviations from normal river discharge conditions in 2022, primarily due to climate anomalies, such as heatwaves, droughts, La Nina, and El Nino events.
- Horn of Africa Drought: Severe drought in the Horn of Africa led to reduced river discharge, affecting food security for 21 million people, while other regions, like the Niger Basin, saw above-average discharge and major floods.
- Water Reservoirs Affected: More than 60% of major water reservoirs experienced below-normal inflow, posing challenges to water availability in a changing climate.
Impact on Asian Water Tower
- The term “Asian Water Tower (AWT)” typically refers to the vast network of high mountain regions across Asia, particularly in countries like India, China, Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of Central Asia.
- These high mountain regions are the source of many major rivers in Asia, such as the Ganges, Brahmaputra, Yangtze, Mekong, Indus, and Amu Darya.
- The melting snow and glaciers in these mountains provide a continuous supply of freshwater to downstream areas.
- This AWT witnessed substantial glacial melting in 2022.
- Rising temperatures accelerate water cycle disruptions, leading to heavier precipitation, flooding, and intensified droughts, significantly impacting the water balance.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Centre launches Green Credit Program (GCP)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Credit Program
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The Centre has introduced a Green Credit Program (GCP) that allows individuals and entities to earn Green Credits, which can be traded on a dedicated exchange.
What is the Green Credit Program (GCP)?
- Objective: Aims to establish a competitive, market-based approach encouraging diverse stakeholders to undertake environmental actions.
- Nodal Agency: Ministry of Environment, Forest, and Climate Change.
Mechanics of Green Credit
- Voluntary Participation: Reflects inclusivity, as engagement in the program is entirely voluntary.
- Entities: The program extends to a diverse range of entities, encompassing individuals, industries, farmer producer organizations (FPOs), urban local bodies (ULBs), gram panchayats, and private sectors.
- Tradability: Tradable, fostering participation in a proposed domestic market platform.
- Certificates: Upon approval, applicants receive Green Credit certificates.
Covered Activities
- Qualifying Activities: The program includes various activities such as tree plantation, water conservation, sustainable agriculture, waste management, air pollution reduction, mangrove conservation, eco-mark initiatives, sustainable building, and infrastructure development.
- Registration and Verification: Participants must register their activities on the program’s website, which will undergo verification by a designated agency.
How are Green Credits computed?
- Equitable Calculation: Green Credits are determined based on resource equivalence, scalability, scope, size, and other relevant parameters, aiming to achieve desired environmental outcomes.
- Credit Registry: A dedicated Green Credit Registry will oversee the tracking and management of these credits.
- Trading Platform: An administrator will establish and maintain a trading platform for the exchange of Green Credits within the domestic market.
Alignment with Legal Obligations
- Non-Tradable for Legal Compliance: Green Credits obtained for legal compliance purposes will not be tradable, ensuring adherence to existing laws.
- Independent from Carbon Credit Scheme: The GCP operates separately from the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme, 2023, established under the Energy Conservation Act, 2001.
- Additional Climate Benefits: Activities generating Green Credits may also yield climate-related advantages, such as carbon emissions reduction, potentially resulting in the acquisition of carbon credits.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Sustainable water management in Agriculture
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Key facts and initiatives
Mains level: Climate change, water stress and its impact on food security
What’s the news?
- The theme for World Food Day (October 16) this year—’Water is Life, Water is Food’ —calls for urgent action in managing water wisely.
Central idea
- Water is the essence of life, a resource that nourishes not just humanity but every ecosystem on this planet. However, as this year’s World Food Day theme rightly points out, water is also food. In the light of increasing climate extremes, managing this precious resource wisely has never been more urgent.
Impact of Climate Change on Crop Yields
- Rainfed rice yields in India are projected to decrease by 20% in 2050 and 47% in 2080 if no adaptation measures are taken.
- Irrigated rice yields are also expected to decline, with a projected decrease of 3.5% in 2050 and 5% in 2080 scenarios.
- Wheat yields could face substantial reductions, with a projected decrease of 19.3% in 2050 and 40% in 2080.
- Kharif maize yields are also at risk, with projected declines of 18% in 2050 and 23% in 2080.
- Climate change, without adequate adaptation measures, not only reduces crop yields but also lowers the nutritional quality of the produce.
Challenges associated with poor water management
- Degraded Freshwater Supplies and Ecosystems: Decades of mismanagement, misuse, and pollution have resulted in the degradation of freshwater supplies and ecosystems. This has had a detrimental impact on the availability of clean water for agriculture and other essential needs.
- Vulnerability of Small-Scale Producers: Small-scale farmers, who represent over 80% of farmers globally, are especially vulnerable to the effects of climate shocks, land degradation, and water scarcity.
- Land Degradation: Approximately 40% of the world’s land area is degraded, which means that it is less productive for agriculture. This further reduces the available land for farming, exacerbating the challenges faced by small-scale producers.
- Climate Impacts: Extreme weather events and variability in water availability are disrupting agricultural production. These changes are altering agro-ecological conditions and shifting growing seasons, making it challenging for farmers to predict and adapt to changing conditions.
- Effects on Crop Productivity: Changes in rainfall patterns and rising temperatures have adverse effects on crop productivity. Reduced yields and food availability can result from these climate-related factors, which can contribute to food insecurity and hunger.
Do not scroll past this
FAO Crop Forecasting Framework:
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Climate change adaptation
- FAO Initiatives:
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- Supports sustainable agrifood systems and climate-smart agriculture.
- Initiated the farmer water school programme in Uttar Pradesh.
- Supported the Andhra Pradesh Farmer Managed Groundwater Systems project which benefits 638 habitations with hydrological monitoring.
- IFAD’s Focus:
-
- Prioritizes climate change adaptation in its core strategies.
- Invests in preserving soil health, water resources, and integrating modern technologies with indigenous systems.
- Implements projects in Maharashtra, Odisha, Uttarakhand, Nagaland, and Mizoram emphasizing climate-resilient practices.
- WFP Collaboration:
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- Partners with the Government of Odisha focusing on women farmers.
- Employs solar technologies and promotes millet-value chains for climate resilience.
Steps needed
- Overall Strategy: Prioritize political commitment and concrete investment for global food and nutrition security. Promote innovative technologies to enhance farmer productivity.
- Climate Change Adaptation: Formulate strategies to adapt to climate change. Foster resilience against environmental and economic shocks.
- Agricultural Practices: Implement sustainable and economically feasible irrigation and water management techniques. Minimize the climate footprint in agricultural production. Address bio-hazards and environmental pollution.
- Infrastructure and Supply Chain: Prioritize sanitation and potable water supply for rural areas. Advocate for efficient food and water recycling methods.
- Regulation and Management: Strengthen sustainable and fair water regulations. Improve management, access, and ownership systems for resources.
- UN’s Collaborative Projects: Collaborate with the Indian Government on projects such as Solar 4 Resilience, Secure Fishing, and the revival of millets for renewable energy and food security.
Conclusion
- Climate change is making water more scarce and unpredictable. Droughts, floods, and other extreme weather events are becoming more common. World Food Day is a reminder that we all have a role to play in achieving food and nutrition security for all. By working together, we can create a world where everyone has enough to eat and drink.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Large Ozone Hole detected over Antarctica
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ozone Hole
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Satellite measurements conducted over Antarctica have unveiled a gigantic hole in the ozone layer.
- Termed an “ozone-depleted area,” this region spans 26 million square kilometers (10 million square miles), approximately three times the size of Brazil.
Ozone Layer and Ozone Hole
| Location | Stratosphere, approximately 10-30 km above Earth’s surface. |
| Composition | Composed of ozone (O3) molecules.
Unit of measurement: Dobsob Unit (DU) |
| Function | Acts as a protective shield, absorbing and blocking a significant portion of harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. |
| Importance | Essential for protecting life on Earth by preventing excessive UV radiation, which can harm living organisms and the environment. |
| Ozone-depleting Substances | Threatened by ODS like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and other synthetic compounds commonly used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosol propellants. |
| Montreal Protocol | An international treaty adopted in 1987 to phase out the production and consumption of ODS, resulting in significant recovery of the ozone layer. |
| Current Status | The ozone layer is in the process of recovery due to the success of the Montreal Protocol. |
| Environmental Impact | Protects ecosystems, prevents skin cancer, cataracts, and other health issues in humans. |
| Additional Facts | • The size of the ozone hole over Antarctica varies annually, opening in August and closing in November or December.
• Special winds caused by the Earth’s rotation create a unique climate over Antarctica, preventing mixing with surrounding air. • When these winds subside, the hole closes. |
Potential Causes of the Giant Ozone Hole
- Volcanic Eruption in Tonga: Scientists speculate that the extensive ozone hole this year may be linked to volcanic eruptions in Hunga Tonga, Tonga, between December 2022 and January 2023. These eruptions released water vapor and other elements into the stratosphere, impacting the ozone layer through chemical reactions.
- Human-Induced Ozone Holes: In the 1970s, scientists discovered that human activities, primarily the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), led to significant ozone depletion. These chemicals released chlorine in the stratosphere, depleting the ozone layer.
- Effective Mitigation: The Montreal Protocol, established in 1987, aimed to combat ozone depletion by phasing out ozone-depleting substances. This international agreement successfully reduced the size of ozone holes over the years.
Ozone Depletion and Climate Change
- Not a Primary Climate Change Cause: Ozone depletion is not a leading contributor to global climate change.
- Impact of Rising Temperatures: However, rising global temperatures may influence ozone holes. Extreme fires, such as those in southeastern Australia in 2020 and 2021, injected smoke into the stratosphere, potentially contributing to ozone depletion.
- Changing Seasons: Ozone holes can alter the progression of seasons, as they extend the duration of polar vortexes, thereby extending winter periods.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Climate Change Trends: Trends, Shifts, or Decadal Cycles
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Change
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Studies have highlighted various climate phenomena in India, including declining monsoon rainfall, intensifying extreme weather events, droughts, heatwaves, and cyclones.
- However, a critical question that demands attention is whether these changes represent long-term trends, abrupt shifts, or decadal cycles.
- These distinctions hold significant implications for resource planning and management.
Understanding Climate Change Terminology
- Trend: Refers to a continuous, prolonged change in climate variables, such as a steady temperature increase over time. The term “anthropogenic trend” implies changes occurring within human lifetimes.
- Secular Trend: Indicates a variable’s continuous increase for a specific period within a more extended timeframe, like 30 years within a century.
- Decadal Variability: Involves oscillations between positive and negative phases over tens of years, potentially resembling a shift.
- Shift: Represents a rapid transition from one state to another, like a sudden change in rainfall patterns. An example is the shift in seasonal monsoon rainfall from above the long-period average (LPA) to below it.
Case Study: Cyclones Trend in Arabian Sea
- A recent study in the journal Climate and Atmospheric Science identified a notable change in cyclone formation potential over the Arabian Sea in the late 1990s.
- Cyclone-genesis potential depends on factors like sea surface temperature, ocean heat content, wind changes from the surface to upper atmosphere, and wind rotation. These factors have favored increased cyclone formation potential since the 1990s.
- However, the crucial question is why this rapid increase occurred during this period. The study suggests that it coincided with a shift in the ‘Warm Arctic, Cold Eurasian’ (WACE) pattern rather than being a trend.
Warm Arctic, Cold Eurasian Pattern
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Challenge for India
- Regardless of whether these climate changes are shifts or decadal cycles, it is essential to understand their potential long-term effects on the monsoon, cyclone frequency, heatwaves, and extreme rainfall.
- Accurate predictions are vital for planning and allocating resources to adapt to climate risks, such as sea-level rise, heavy rainfall, drought, heatwaves, and cyclones.
- Climate scientists must focus on understanding natural variability in the local context, especially since this variability is influenced by global warming.
- For example, the study indicates that the monsoon decadal cycle, previously lasting around 20 years, may now extend further, raising questions about the underlying causes.
Conclusion
- Distinguishing between climate trends, shifts, and decadal cycles is essential for India’s adaptation strategies.
- These distinctions affect how the country prepares for and responds to evolving climate patterns, and climate scientists must strive to unravel the complexities of natural variability to make informed predictions and policy recommendations.
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Climate debate and India’s green energy journey
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate change, green energy initiatives
Mains level: Climate change: a global crisis, Challenges, global commitments, India's remarkable progress and initiatives, Challenges and way forward
What’s the news?
- In the face of mounting global concerns about climate change, India is firmly committed to reducing emissions and championing green energy initiatives
Central idea
- In recent years, environmentalists have expressed growing concern about the deteriorating state of our planet. Their apprehensions are substantiated by a century-long analysis of temperature data, revealing a significant 1.10°C increase in Earth’s temperature from 1880 to 2022. This upward trend in temperatures has dire implications, with experts predicting severe social, economic, and environmental consequences.
Climate change challenges
- Temperature Rise: Earth’s temperature increased by approximately 1.10 degrees Celsius from 1880 to 2022. This temperature rise is expected to result in major social, economic, and environmental problems.
- Extreme Weather Events: More frequent climate-related disasters, including droughts, forest fires, ice melting, rising sea levels, flooding, and cyclones, are occurring globally. These events significantly impact people’s lives and livelihoods.
- Climate Refugees: Rising sea levels, coastal erosion, and other climate-induced events are leading to the migration of communities.
- Agricultural Disruption: Climate change disrupts agricultural production, potentially leading to food shortages, rising commodity prices, and increased poverty.
- Resource Conflicts: Climate change can exacerbate conflicts over limited resources such as water and arable land as competition intensifies in resource-scarce areas.
- Greenhouse Gas Emissions: The burning of fossil fuels, including coal, oil, and gas, contributes significantly to climate problems. These activities generate greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane), which trap heat in the atmosphere, causing global warming.
- Global Warming: Greenhouse gases in the atmosphere absorb heat, preventing it from being adequately reflected into space. This phenomenon intensifies global warming.
The role of green energy
- Green Energy Definition: Green power is electricity produced from sources such as wind, sun, biomass, geothermal, biogas, and low-impact small hydropower projects.
- Reducing Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Green energy is a major solution to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, as it doesn’t produce significant carbon dioxide or other pollutants during electricity generation.
- Diverse Green Energy Sources:
- Wind Energy: Generated using turbines harnessing wind power.
- Solar Energy: Produced from sunlight using solar panels.
- Biomass: Utilizes organic material like wood and agricultural residue for energy.
- Geothermal: Extracts heat from the Earth’s core for power generation.
- Biogas: Captures methane from decomposing organic matter.
- Low-Impact Small Hydropower: Uses natural water flow for electricity generation with minimal environmental impact.
- Reducing Fossil Fuel Dependence: Transitioning to green energy reduces reliance on conventional fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas, thereby curbing greenhouse gas emissions.
- Sustainable and Renewable: Green energy sources are sustainable, relying on replenishable natural processes for long-term energy production while minimizing environmental harm.
Environmentally Friendly Practices
- Promotion of Public Transport: Encouraging the use of public transportation to reduce carbon emissions from individual vehicles.
- Electric Vehicles (EVs): Advocating for the adoption of electric vehicles as a more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional combustion engine vehicles.
- Non-Motorized Transport: Promoting non-motorized transport options, such as walking and cycling, to reduce the reliance on motorized vehicles.
- Energy-Efficient Gadgets: Encouraging the use of energy-efficient electronic devices and appliances to reduce energy consumption.
- Sustainable Diet: Highlighting concerns about the consumption of non-vegetarian food, especially red meat, due to its resource-intensive nature.
- Reduce, Reuse, Repair, and Recycle: Advocating for practices that reduce waste generation, including reusing and recycling products and resources like water and waste materials.
International Commitments
- UN Call for Net-Zero Emissions: The United Nations (UN) has called upon world leaders to achieve net-zero emissions by the year 2050.
- Climate Finance Support: Industrialized countries have been asked to provide $100 billion annually as climate finance to support developing countries in their climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts.
India’s Role in Emission Reduction
- Commitment to Renewable Energy: India has made substantial commitments to expanding its renewable energy capacity. The country aims to achieve 50% of its power generation from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030 and reach net-zero emissions by 2070.
- Solar Energy Expansion: India has been actively promoting solar energy through initiatives like the National Solar Mission. By the end of 2022, India had installed 63.30 gigawatts of solar power capacity. States like Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Karnataka have made significant progress in this regard.
- Bio-Energy Programs: The National Bio-energy Programme focuses on generating energy from biomass, such as agricultural residue, wood, and solid waste. Over 800 biomass plants have been installed in various states, contributing to 10.73 gigawatts of installed capacity.
- Green Hydrogen Mission: India launched the National Green Hydrogen Mission in 2023, with the goal of producing about 5 million metric tonnes of green hydrogen per year by 2030. This initiative is a step towards clean energy generation.
- Wind and Hydro Energy: India also emphasizes wind energy, wind-solar hybrid projects, and small hydro projects, which together contribute significantly to its renewable energy capacity.
- Government Support: The Indian government allocates significant funds to support renewable energy projects. The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) allocated substantial funding in 2023-24, prioritizing solar and wind energy initiatives.
Hold On! Don’t Scroll Past This
Local success stories
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Challenges
- Continued Reliance on Fossil Fuels: India still heavily depends on fossil fuels, with about 60 percent of installed capacity coming from conventional sources.
- Energy Import Dependency: A significant portion of oil (about 85 percent) and gas (about 45 percent) is imported annually, posing challenges related to energy security.
- Rising Energy Demand: Meeting the growing energy demands driven by urbanization, infrastructure expansion, and industrial production is a pressing challenge.
Way Forward
- Reducing Dependency on Non-Renewables: India must decrease its reliance on non-renewable resources, particularly fossil fuels, to mitigate emissions and environmental impact.
- Self-Reliance in Green Energy: Achieving self-reliance in green energy production is vital to meeting future energy needs sustainably.
- Effective Implementation of Green Initiatives: Ensuring the successful implementation of green energy initiatives and the maintenance of green assets created is crucial.
- Affordable and Efficient Alternatives: Providing cost-effective and efficient alternatives, such as renewable energy solutions and energy-efficient technologies, can facilitate the adoption of green practices.
- Shift in Habits and Attitudes: Encouraging changes in consumption patterns and fostering a more environmentally responsible mindset among the public is imperative for a successful transition to green energy and sustainability.
Conclusion
- Climate change is a global crisis that demands immediate action. India’s commitment to green energy initiatives is a significant step toward mitigating the effects of climate change. However, a concerted effort is required from governments, industries, and individuals to transition to sustainable practices and secure a greener future for all.
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South Lhonak Lake Tragedy: Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GLOF
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Ten people lost their lives, and 80, including 23 Army personnel, remain missing in Sikkim due to the Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOF) of South Lhonak Lake.
- Incessant rains caused the South Lhonak Lake, located at 17,000 ft. in the state’s northwest, to burst, releasing water downstream and flooding several districts.
What is GLOF?
- A GLOF is a type of outburst flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial lake fails.
- An event similar to a GLOF, where a body of water contained by a glacier melts or overflows the glacier, is called a jokulhlaup.
- The dam can consist of glacier ice or a terminal moraine.
- Failure can happen due to various factors such as:
- Erosion, a build-up of water pressure
- Avalanche of rock or heavy snow
- Earthquake or volcanic eruptions under the ice or
- Displacement of water in a glacial lake when a large portion of an adjacent glacier collapses into it
South Lhonak Lake’s Vulnerability
- Melting Glaciers: Rising global temperatures have accelerated glacier melting in the Sikkim Himalayas, giving rise to new glacial lakes and enlarging existing ones.
- Numerous Glacial Lakes: The region is home to more than 300 glacial lakes, with 10 identified as vulnerable to outburst floods by the Sikkim State Disaster Management Authority.
- South Lhonak Lake’s Growth: A report by the Sikkim Forest and Environment Department highlighted that South Lhonak Lake’s area had increased significantly over the past five decades.
- Earthquake Risk: The Lake’s vulnerability was compounded by seismic activity, with earthquakes in 1991 and 2011 raising concerns about potential GLOFs.
Government Action
- Syphoning Efforts: In 2016, the Sikkim State Disaster Management Authority, along with other agencies, initiated measures to reduce the water level in South Lhonak Lake.
- Syphoning Technique: Under the guidance of innovator Sonam Wangchuk, authorities installed High-Density Polyethylene pipes to syphon off lake water, removing 150 litres per second.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
National Carbon Accounting: A Polysolution to a Polycrisis
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Terms- climate polycrisis, polysolution, Carbon Accounting
Mains level: Climate polycrisis, National Carbon Accounting and its benefits
What’s the news?
- In a bid to address the complex and interrelated challenges of climate change, the concept of National Carbon Accounting (NCA) is gaining prominence.
Central idea
- The term ‘climate polycrisis,’ popularized by Adam Tooze, highlights the intricate web of climate change-related crises that impact diverse sectors and domains worldwide. In India, the interplay of climate change is evident. Recognizing this complexity, it is imperative to develop a holistic approach.
Polycrisis
- The term polycrisis refers to the multitude of crises arising from climate change, encompassing not only physical impacts like rising temperatures and extreme weather events but also the societal, economic, and political challenges that result from these impacts.
The Call for a Deep Transformation
- Addressing the climate crisis demands more than sectoral responses; it necessitates a profound transformation, laying the foundation for a planet-sensitive economy.
- This transformation calls for the establishment of ‘carbon infrastructure’ akin to digital infrastructure, considering carbon flows in policymaking at all levels.
Measurement as the First Step
- The initial step towards this transformation is measurement.
- To account for carbon, we must measure carbon emissions at individual and national levels.
- Once we have robust measurement systems in place, we can create accounting mechanisms to track our carbon footprints.
What is National Carbon Accounting (NCA)?
- The NCA is a critical system for tracking and managing carbon emissions at the national level.
- It involves measuring and accounting for the release of CO2 and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) into the atmosphere, as well as efforts to remove carbon from the atmosphere.
- The primary objective of NCA is to gain a comprehensive understanding of a country’s carbon footprint and its role in contributing to global climate change.
Benefits of National Carbon Accounting
- Progress Tracking: NCA allows for the monitoring of progress toward emission reduction targets over time. It helps assess the effectiveness of climate policies and initiatives, allowing for necessary adjustments.
- Identification of High-Emission Sectors: NCA identifies sectors that contribute significantly to carbon emissions. This information is vital for targeting interventions and allocating resources to the most substantial emission sources.
- Environmental Impact Assessment: NCA allows for the assessment of the environmental impact of carbon emissions. It helps evaluate the ecological consequences of emissions and informs conservation efforts.
- Carbon Offsetting: NCA supports carbon offset programs by quantifying carbon removal activities. These programs enable organizations and individuals to compensate for their emissions by investing in projects that remove or reduce an equivalent amount of carbon from the atmosphere.
- New Economic Opportunities: NCA can encourage the development of new economic sectors and technologies focused on reducing carbon emissions and enhancing carbon removal. This can lead to job creation and economic growth in green industries.
- Global Climate Commitments: NCA helps countries fulfill their international climate commitments, such as those under the Paris Agreement. It ensures that nations have the data necessary to demonstrate their progress in reducing emissions.
Carbon accounting vs. Money accounting
| Aspect | Carbon Accounting | Money Accounting |
| Focus | Measurement and tracking of carbon emissions | Monitoring and management of financial transactions |
| Purpose | Quantify carbon footprints, identify emission sources, and reduce emissions to combat climate change. | Monitor financial flows, allocate resources, and ensure financial stability in an economy. |
| Granularity | Detailed, from individual to sector and national levels | Broad, covering various financial activities from individual to corporate and economic levels. |
| Measurement | Precise measurement and reporting of carbon emissions, standardized methodologies | Accurate financial record-keeping ensures the proper accounting of monetary resources and financial activities. |
| Policy Implications | Informs the development of climate policies and strategies and guides climate change mitigation efforts. | Supports economic policies and monetary management and influences factors like interest rates, inflation, and overall economic stability. |
| Taxation | May lead to carbon taxes, taxing entities based on carbon emissions | Typically targets income, consumption, or other financial transactions, not directly tied to carbon emissions. |
A Polysolution to a Polycrisis
- A Polysolution Defined: The term polysolution emphasizes the comprehensive and multifaceted nature of NCA as a tool to combat climate polycrisis. Instead of relying on single, isolated solutions, NCA encompasses various dimensions and aspects of the climate challenge.
- Meeting Climate Commitments: The NCA can assist India in meeting its commitment to achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2070. This underscores the potential of the NCA to support countries in fulfilling their international climate pledges.
- Reimagining the Economy and Society: NCA, if adopted globally, could lead to the reorganization of economies and societies. By making carbon footprints transparent, NCA encourages a new form of public discourse. This shift can promote sustainable practices and guide the alignment of development with ecological sustainability goals.
- Alternative to GDP Growth: While traditional measures like GDP growth are well understood, the article suggests that NCA introduces an alternative metric—carbon footprint—as a key indicator of progress. This aligns with the broader goal of measuring development not only in economic terms but also in terms of environmental and ecological impacts.
- Promoting Public Discourse: The transparency of carbon footprints can lead to more informed public discourse. It allows citizens and policymakers to consider the environmental impact of various activities, fostering discussions on sustainability and climate action.
Conclusion
- Addressing the climate polycrisis demands innovative solutions that account for the interconnectedness of climate change impacts. National Carbon Accounting emerges as a pivotal tool to measure, track, and manage carbon emissions, fostering a sustainable and resilient future.
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Duarte Agostinho Case: A Youth-led Climate Lawsuit
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Duarte Agostinho Case
Mains level: Climate Justice and Reparations
Central Idea
- On September 27, a historic legal battle in the climate action movement commenced at the European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg, France.
- This courtroom showdown featured 32 European governments, including the UK, Russia, and Turkey, facing off against six young individuals from Portugal, aged 11 to 24.
Why discuss this?
- Youth-led climate lawsuits are reshaping climate litigation.
- These lawsuits assert that uncontrolled carbon emissions infringe on fundamental rights, threaten the well-being of young generations.
- This highlight the centrality of climate science in combating misinformation and denialism.
Understanding the Duarte Agostinho Case
[A] Origins of the Lawsuit:
- The Duarte Agostinho and Others v. Portugal and Others case was initiated in September 2020.
- It was in response to the devastating wildfires in Portugal’s Leiria region in 2017, resulting in 66 casualties and the loss of 20,000 hectares of forests.
- This legal action highlights the urgency of adhering to the Paris Agreement’s target of limiting global warming to below 1.5°C.
[B] Concerns raised
- The Portuguese youths assert that European nations have failed to meet climate emissions goals, exceeding global carbon budgets compatible with the Paris Agreement’s objectives.
- Scientific evidence will be presented, demonstrating that if current emission trends persist, global temperatures will rise by 3°C during the plaintiffs’ lifetimes.
- Such actions are alleged to breach fundamental rights protected under the European Convention on Human Rights, including the right to life, freedom from inhuman or degrading treatment, privacy, family life, and freedom from discrimination.
Lawsuit’s Demands
- Rapid Emission Reduction: As these 32 countries contributed to climate catastrophes and threatened young people’s futures, the lawsuit contends that these nations must urgently intensify emissions reductions. The recommended measures include curbing fossil fuel production and addressing global supply chain sustainability.
- Emissions Reduction Targets: The European Scientific Advisory Board on Climate Change (ESABCC) suggested that countries should aim for emissions reductions of 75% below 1990 levels, a more ambitious target than the EU’s current 55%. The lawsuit argues that European countries have overstated their carbon budgets, emphasizing the need for greater reductions.
Climate Crisis Impact on Human Rights
- UNICEF characterizes the climate crisis as a “child rights crisis” due to unhindered carbon emissions and extreme weather jeopardizing access to education, health, nutrition, and the future.
- Research links air pollution to adverse birth outcomes and increased risks of cardiovascular and respiratory diseases.
- Heatwaves exacerbate mental health issues, ultimately affecting academic performance and school attendance.
Government Responses and Challenges
- Cause and Effect Denial: Many countries have dismissed any direct relationship between climate change and its impact on human health. Greece, for instance, argued that climate change effects do not directly affect human life or health, despite experiencing massive wildfires.
- Portrayal as Future Fears: Governments like Portugal and Ireland have downplayed climate change concerns as “future fears,” asserting that there is no immediate risk to lives.
- Policy Reversals: Some nations, like the U.K., have showcased proactive climate policies, such as a 2030 ban on the sale of new petrol and diesel cars. However, these policies have been reversed, raising concerns about policy consistency and legality.
Conclusion
- The Duarte Agostinho case represents a pivotal moment in the climate action movement, with young activists challenging their governments to protect their future against the looming climate crisis.
- This legal battle underscores the critical intersection of climate change and human rights, shaping a path toward increased accountability and transformative climate governance.
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Climate Change and Infectious Diseases
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate-induced infectious diseases
Mains level: Climate change and new disease scenarios, need for a One Health approach
What’s the news?
- The latest report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), released in March, serves as a stark reminder of the escalating global risk posed by infectious diseases.
Central idea
- The intricate relationship between climate and disease becomes more evident with each passing year. Recent analysis in Nature Climate Change (2022) warns that humans now face a wider array of infectious agents than ever before. More than half of all known infectious diseases affecting humans worsen due to shifting climate patterns.
The Impact of Climate Change on Infections
- Habitat Loss and Human-Animal Interaction:
- Climate change contributes to habitat loss, pushing disease-carrying animals into closer proximity to human territories.
- This increased interaction between humans and wildlife raises the risk of disease transmission from animals to humans.
- For example, the Nipah virus outbreaks in Kerala originated from bats and caused fatalities in humans.
- Broader Spectrum of Infectious Agents: An analysis published in Nature Climate Change in 2022 warns that humans now face a wider range of infectious agents due to climate change. Over half of all known infectious diseases that threaten humans are exacerbated by changing climate patterns.
- New Transmission Routes: Diseases often find new transmission routes due to climate change. This includes transmission through environmental sources as well as through medical tourism and contaminated food and water from once-reliable sources.
- Ecosystem Transformation: Climate change is transforming ecosystems by introducing invasive species and extending the range of existing life forms. These changes trigger complex upheavals in ecosystems, making it challenging for ecologists and epidemiologists to predict disease outbreaks.
- Manifestation of Climatic Shifts: These climatic shifts are manifesting in severe health crises, including a dengue epidemic in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and Kolkata, as well as the Nipah outbreak in Kerala.
- Human-Induced Health Vulnerability Crisis:
- Human-induced climate change is described as unleashing an unprecedented health vulnerability crisis.
- India, in particular, has experienced the ominous impact, with early summers and erratic monsoons leading to water scarcity in regions like the Gangetic Plains and Kerala.
Current Surveillance, Reporting, and Challenges
- Improved Reporting Over the Decades:
- India has made significant progress in reporting disease outbreaks over the past two decades.
- Initiatives like the Integrated Disease Surveillance Program (IDSP) were introduced to enhance disease surveillance.
- For example, in 2008, IDSP reported 553 outbreaks, and by 2017, this number had increased to 1,714.
- Transition to the Integrated Health Information Platform (IHIP):
- The IDSP was phased out in favor of a newer system called the Integrated Health Information Platform (IHIP) in 2018.
- IHIP is a web-enabled, near-real-time electronic information system that added 20 additional disease conditions compared to IDSP’s 13.
- It aimed to provide disaggregated data to its users.
- Unfulfilled Expectations: Despite the promise of IHIP, the program has not fully met expectations for real-time tracking of emerging disease outbreaks.
- Inadequate Surveillance for Emerging Diseases: The current design of disease surveillance is deemed inadequate for the emerging disease scenario brought about by climate change.
The Need for a Unified Approach: One Health
- Interconnectedness of Health: One Health recognizes the interconnectedness of human, animal, plant, and environmental health. It emphasizes that these domains are interdependent and that the health of one is intimately linked to the health of the others.
- Preventing Disease Outbreaks: The One Health approach is pivotal in preventing disease outbreaks, particularly those originating from animals. It acknowledges that diseases like zoonotic infections (those that can be transmitted from animals to humans), neglected tropical diseases, vector-borne diseases, antimicrobial resistance, and environmental contamination are all interconnected.
- Holistic Approach: One Health takes a holistic approach to health surveillance and prevention. It goes beyond traditional disease control strategies and recognizes the need to address health challenges at their source, including the role of ecosystems.
Recommendations for India
- Implement one health program: Foster synergy between the central and state governments and their specialized agencies, including animal husbandry, forest and wildlife, municipal corporations, and public health departments. Develop robust surveillance systems and establish lines of responsibility and collaboration.
- Coordination and Management: With the influx of funding from sources like the World Bank, enhance the coordination and management of One Health initiatives. The Office of the Principal Scientific Adviser to the Prime Minister has played a leading role, but greater collaboration is essential.
Way forward: Looking Beyond Disease X
- The Obsession with “Disease X”: While the global focus remains on the mysterious “Disease X,” the ongoing challenges posed by familiar infectious agents like influenza, measles, Japanese encephalitis, dengue, and diarrhoea continue to strain public health systems.
- Climate Change’s Broader Impact: Climate change is not limited to infectious diseases. It exacerbates injuries and fatalities resulting from extreme weather events, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and mental health issues.
- Nipah’s Wake-Up Call: The re-emergence of the Nipah virus in Kerala serves as a stark wake-up call, emphasizing that a mere biomedical response to diseases is inadequate in the face of evolving threats.
- The Role of Ecosystems: Protecting ecosystems becomes paramount as they play a crucial role in mitigating climate-induced infectious diseases and maintaining overall ecological balance.
- Fostering Collaboration: Collaboration among various stakeholders, including government agencies, health departments, environmental bodies, and the public, is essential to effectively address these complex challenges.
- Proactive Safeguarding: The road ahead demands concerted efforts not only to adapt to climate change but also to proactively safeguard our planet and the well-being of its inhabitants for a resilient and healthier future.
Conclusion
- The urgent need for a One Health approach to combat climate-induced infectious diseases is clear. India must prioritize collaboration, surveillance, and ecosystem protection to effectively address this growing threat and secure a healthier future for its population.
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Places in news: Lampedusa Island
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lampedusa Island
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Italy’s Lampedusa Island witnessed an influx of migrants after around 7,000 people arrived from North Africa in two days.
- Nearly 1,26,000 migrants have arrived in Italy so far this year.
About Lampedusa Island
- Lampedusa is the largest of the Italian Pelagie Islands in the Mediterranean Sea.
- It is located approximately 205 km southwest of Sicily, 113 km east of Tunisia, and about 176 kmnorth of Libya.
- It is part of the Sicilian region of Italy and is situated in the southern Mediterranean Sea.
- It covers an area of approximately 20.2 square km (7.8 square miles).
- It has a rich history, with influences from various civilizations, including the Phoenicians, Romans, Arabs, and Normans.
- During World War II, the island was of strategic importance and saw military activity.
- It has been part of Italy since 1860.
Migration and Humanitarian Issues
- Lampedusa has been a focal point for migration from Africa to Europe, with many migrants and refugees attempting to reach the island by boat.
- This has led to humanitarian challenges and efforts to manage immigration.
- The island has received international attention for its role in rescue operations and the reception of migrants and asylum seekers.
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Global Stocktake Report
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Stocktake Report
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Amid the gathering of world leaders in New Delhi for the G-20 summit, the UN climate secretariat unveiled a ‘synthesis report’ summarizing progress made by nations towards the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement.
- Known as the ‘global stocktake,’ this report is a vital component of global climate action, assessing efforts to combat climate change every five years.
Understanding the ‘Global Stocktake’
(1) Origins and Purpose:
- The ‘global stocktake’ is integral to the Paris Agreement, which commits countries to limit global warming to below 2 degrees Celsius and strive for a 1.5-degree target.
- Its primary aim is to periodically review and evaluate individual nations’ efforts in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and transitioning to renewable energy sources.
(2) Influence on Climate Talks:
- The inaugural report, released this year, carries significant weight, shaping discussions at the upcoming 28th UN Climate Conference of Parties (COP) in Dubai in November.
- While countries have submitted their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for climate action, the stocktake encourages them to enhance their ambitions before the next NDCs in 2025.
Key Insights from the Report
(1) Overall Assessment:
- The 45-page synthesis report delivers 17 key findings that collectively convey that the world is falling short of its Paris Agreement targets. However, it highlights a narrowing window of opportunity for countries to align their efforts.
(2) Echoing Previous Concerns:
- The report echoes concerns raised in the 2022 UN synthesis report, which analyzed the NDCs of 166 countries and found them inadequate to meet Paris Agreement goals.
- It reiterates the findings of the United Nations Emissions Gap Report, emphasizing the vast shortfall in reducing CO2 emissions compared to the Paris targets.
Crucial ‘Key Findings’
(1) Galvanized Global Response:
- The Paris Agreement has spurred countries to set climate goals and acknowledge the urgency of addressing the climate crisis.
- Governments must support the transition away from fossil fuels, ensuring it is equitable and inclusive.
(2) Ambitious Goals:
- Much greater ambition is needed to achieve global greenhouse gas emission reductions of 43% by 2030 and 60% by 2035, leading to net-zero CO2 emissions by 2050.
(3) Renewable Energy Transition:
- Scaling up renewable energy is imperative, while unabated fossil fuels must be phased out rapidly.
(4) Environmental Conservation:
- Efforts to halt deforestation, reverse land degradation, and promote emission-reducing agricultural practices must be encouraged.
(5) Adaptation and Loss Management:
- Comprehensive risk management and support for impacted communities are essential for averting, minimizing, and addressing loss and damage due to climate change.
(6) Financial Commitment:
- Transparent adaptation reporting and the rapid scaling up of financial support are needed to align global financial flows with climate-resilient development.
Influence on Global Climate Discussion
- The global stocktake report serves as a foundational document for the upcoming UN Climate Conference of Parties (COP).
- It notably influenced the G20 Leaders Declaration, which officially acknowledged the substantial financial requirements for transitioning to a renewable energy economy.
- This acknowledgement sets the stage for intensified efforts, emphasizing the need for trillions of dollars to support climate action, renewable technologies, and the path to net-zero emissions by 2050.
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Six of 9 Planetary Boundaries breached by Humans
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Planetary Boundaries
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- A recent study has delivered a stark message: humanity has breached six of the nine planetary boundaries that are crucial for maintaining Earth’s stability and resilience.
What are the 9 Planetary Boundaries?
- These boundaries encompass climate change, biosphere integrity, land system change, freshwater change, biogeochemical flows, and novel entities.
- These findings underscore the urgent need for a thorough reassessment of our environmental impact and the imperative of global collaboration to address these critical challenges.
Understanding Planetary Boundaries
(1) Setting Safe Limits:
- Planetary boundaries can be likened to the vital parameters in human health, such as blood pressure.
- Just as high blood pressure elevates the risk of heart disease, exceeding planetary boundaries heightens the risk of triggering irreversible environmental changes.
(2) An Evolving Framework:
- The planetary boundaries framework was introduced in 2009 to define the safe environmental limits within which humanity should operate.
- To remain relevant, the framework must adapt as our understanding of Earth’s complex systems and human impacts evolves.
The Third Iteration: Assessing Environmental Risks
(1) Identifying Critical Processes:
- Researchers examined processes within Earth’s ecosystem that have been vital for sustaining favourable conditions for humans over the past 12,000 years.
- This era is noted for its stable and temperate planetary conditions.
(2) Evaluating Human Impact:
- The study assessed the extent to which human activities are modifying these crucial processes.
- Computer simulations were employed to determine the point at which human activities could trigger irreversible changes in Earth’s systems.
(3) Alarming Revelations:
- The study found that human activities had breached safe boundaries for climate change and land system change as early as 1988.
- The current trajectory poses a substantial risk of systemic disruption.
Boundaries Crossed and Their Consequences
(1) Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentration:
- The safe limit was set at 350 ppm; it currently stands at 417 ppm.
- This has led to significant climate change.
(2) Land System Change:
- The safe limit aimed to maintain 75% of the original forest cover; the current estimate is at 60%.
- Such alterations have profound consequences for land systems.
(3) Biosphere Integrity:
- The safe limit was fewer than 10 extinctions per million species-years; the actual rate has exceeded 100.
- This poses a severe threat to millions of plant and animal species.
(4) Freshwater Change:
- Boundaries have been exceeded for both blue (surface and groundwater) and green (water available for plants) water resources.
- This has negative consequences for ecosystems.
(5) Biogeochemical Flows:
- Safe boundaries have been surpassed for phosphorus and nitrogen flows.
- This has alarming implications for biodiversity and water quality.
(6) Novel Entities:
- The planetary boundary for novel entities was set at zero, and this boundary has been transgressed.
- Risks include stratospheric ozone depletion, aerosol loading, and ocean acidification.
Way Forward: Urgent Global Collaboration
(1) Lessons from the Ozone Layer:
- Successful global negotiations, like the Montreal Protocol, managed to restore the ozone layer to safe levels after transgression.
- Emphasizes the importance of adhering to limits on environmental waste.
(2) Embracing a Circular Economy:
- A circular economy, mirroring nature’s own system, is essential.
- Transitioning towards a circular economy represents a crucial step in tackling these planetary challenges.
Conclusion
- The study’s findings serve as a stark reminder of humanity’s responsibility to safeguard Earth’s delicate equilibrium.
- Breaching planetary boundaries not only poses immediate risks but also imperils the long-term sustainability of our planet.
- Urgent global cooperation and a commitment to respecting environmental limits are essential to avert a potentially catastrophic future.
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Climate phenomena and food security
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: El Niño, IOD, Climate change, Water stress
Mains level: Water and climate change crises in India and food, water, and ecological security
What’s the news?
- Disruptive weather events, including El Niño and changing precipitation patterns, are impacting India’s agriculture, resulting in reduced crop yields, water stress, and rising food prices.
Central idea
- India has experienced a series of disruptive weather and climate phenomena in recent times, highlighting the complexity of our precipitation system. This complexity poses significant challenges to the sustainability and resilience of development projects in the mountains and floodplains.
How do western disturbances influence India’s climate?
- Origin: Western disturbances are weather systems that originate in the Mediterranean region and travel eastward towards South Asia, including India.
- Winter and Spring Impact: During the winter and spring seasons, these disturbances bring much-needed moisture to the western Himalayan region and parts of northern India. This moisture contributes to rainfall and snowfall in these areas, which are essential for agriculture, water resources, and ecosystems.
- Unusual Behavior: The Western disturbance typically follows a seasonal pattern, but in some years, it can exhibit unusual behavior. For example, it may persist late into the summer months, affecting weather patterns beyond its usual timeframe.
- Impact on Southwest Monsoon: When a Western disturbance lingers into the summer, it can influence the southwest monsoon, which is crucial for India’s agriculture. The interaction between these weather systems can lead to unpredictable and sometimes extreme weather events, including heavy rainfall, landslides, and flooding.
- Concerns: The unusual behavior of the Western disturbance can raise concerns about the sustainability and resilience of development projects in regions affected by these weather events, such as the western Himalayan region and northern India.
El Niño’s Influence on Monsoons
- El Niño:
-
- El Niño is a climate phenomenon characterized by the warming of sea surface temperatures in the eastern and central tropical Pacific Oceans.
- This warming disrupts normal atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to significant climatic impacts worldwide.
- Impact on the Southwest Monsoon:
-
- El Niño events can influence the Indian Southwest Monsoon, which is responsible for the majority of India’s annual rainfall.
- While not all El Niño events have adverse effects on the monsoon, their intensification can lead to drier conditions in some parts of India.
- El Niño tends to weaken the monsoon, reducing the amount and distribution of rainfall.
- Interaction with Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):
-
- The relationship between El Niño and the monsoon has evolved over time.
- In some cases, when El Niño affects the monsoon, another climate phenomenon in the Indian Ocean, known as the positive-phase IOD, can balance the consequences.
- The IOD can influence monsoon variability and rainfall patterns, either mitigating or exacerbating the impact of El Niño.
- Predictive Value of Models:
-
- Dynamic regression models have suggested that a significant portion of the inter-annual variability of the Southwest Monsoon can be attributed to the combined effects of El Niño and the IOD.
- This indicates the predictive value of these models in understanding and forecasting monsoon behavior during El Niño events.
- Food Security Implications:
-
- El Niño’s influence on the monsoon has direct implications for food security in India.
- Reduced monsoon rainfall can delay the onset of rains, affect crop sowing, and result in hot temperatures that negatively impact crop growth and soil moisture.
- Crop yields, especially for water-intensive crops like rice and soybean, can be significantly affected during El Niño years, leading to food production challenges.
How are agriculture and water dependency intricately linked in India?
- Two Types of Water for Agriculture:
- Agriculture in India relies on two primary sources of water: green water and blue water.
- Green water refers to rain-fed soil moisture that is utilized by crops and eventually transpires into the atmosphere.
- Blue water includes the water found in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and groundwater, which is essential for irrigation as well as drinking and industrial use.
- Importance of Green Water:
- Despite significant investments in dams, reservoirs, and irrigation systems, approximately half of the cultivated area in India depends on green water.
- Green water is crucial for rainfed agriculture, as it provides moisture for crops and contributes to the overall water availability for agriculture.
- Water Requirements for the Daily Diet:
- The daily diet of individuals in India, from cooking oil to diverse foods, is associated with a substantial water footprint.
- On average, an individual’s daily diet in India requires approximately 3,268 liters of water per day, subject to regional variability.
- A significant portion (about 75%) of this water footprint is attributed to green water, highlighting the importance of rainfed agriculture to food and nutritional security.
- Dependency on Green Water in Irrigated Areas:
- Even in areas with access to irrigation, many dominant crops still depend on green water to varying degrees.
- For example, during the kharif season, rice paddy under irrigation uses green water for about 35% of its water requirements.
- Staple crops like tur dal, soybean, groundnut, and maize also rely considerably on green water, particularly during specific growing seasons.
- Impact of Climate Phenomena on Green Water:
- Climate phenomena like El Niño can disrupt the availability of green water by delaying the start of rains and affecting sowing schedules.
- Higher temperatures during El Niño events may negatively influence plant growth and soil moisture, impacting crop yields.
- Food Production Challenges:
- During El Niño years, when green water availability may be compromised, crop production can be significantly affected.
- For instance, there was a 28% decline in soybean production in India during the 2015–2016 El Niño year compared to the average
Central India’s vulnerability
- Geographic Region:
- Central India comprises 36 districts across the states of Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Maharashtra.
- This region is characterized by diverse landscapes, including highlands and urban centers.
- Climate Change Hotspot:
- Central India is identified as a climate change hotspot due to its critical role in water, food, and ecological security.
- The region includes headwaters for five of India’s 10 major river basins, making it crucial for water resources.
- Water Stress:
- Central India experiences significant and persistent water stress.
- Water stress is driven primarily by the demand for irrigation, particularly during the rabi season, which relies on blue water sources such as rivers and reservoirs.
- Extent of Water Stress:
- Approximately 70–78% of the landscape in Central India experiences water stress for four or more months each year.
- Among the 17 urban centers in the region, 11 face water stress for six to eight months, with Nagpur enduring water stress for the longest duration.
- Changing precipitation patterns, including declining monsoon precipitation since the 1950s, have exacerbated water stress in Central India.
Adaptation Strategies
- Diversifying Agro-Food Systems:
- To adapt to changing precipitation patterns and water availability, there’s an emphasis on diversifying agro-food systems.
- This includes shifting away from water-intensive crops to alternative, less water-dependent crops like millets.
- Reducing Dependence on Water-Intensive Crops:
- A key adaptation strategy is reducing dependence on water-intensive crops, particularly during periods of water stress.
- Crop diversification may involve promoting the cultivation of millets and alternative varieties of dominant cereals.
- Shorter growing cycles:
- Advisories to farmers may include shifting to crops with shorter growing cycles.
- Shorter growing cycles can help adapt to changing precipitation patterns and mitigate the risks associated with extended dry periods.
- Improved Forecasting and Early Warning Systems:
- Adaptation efforts are aided by advancements in short-term weather forecasting and early warning systems.
- Timely weather forecasts and warnings for intense rain and dry spells can help farmers make informed decisions.
- Enhancing Reservoir and Dam Management:
- Given the risks associated with extreme rain events, adaptive strategies include improved management of dams and reservoirs.
- Effective reservoir and dam management can reduce the risk of dam-based flood disasters.
- Balancing Water Demands:
- Sustainable water-sharing practices between humans and nature are crucial for adaptation.
- Balancing the needs of agriculture, industry, and ecosystems while maintaining ecological flows in rivers is a priority.
- Government Initiatives:
- Both the central and state governments are involved in implementing adaptation strategies.
- Government efforts may include policy support, incentives for farmers, and investments in infrastructure.
Conclusion
- The water and climate change crises in India, intertwined with food, water, and ecological security, require a multifaceted response. Diversifying agro-food systems, reducing dependence on blue water, rejuvenating rivers, and sustainable water sharing between humans and nature are essential for the well-being of India’s 1.4 billion people.
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Redouble efforts to reduce disaster risks
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Climate crisis, Frequent and severe extreme weather events and Solutions
What’s the news?
- In 2023, the rise in disasters is not an anomaly; it’s a disturbing trend. Headlines have been dominated by a relentless wave of bad news: severe flooding in China, devastating wildfires in Europe and Hawaii, and July marking the hottest month ever recorded.
Central idea
- The world is standing at a precarious crossroads, where the challenges we face are multiplying faster than our ability to mitigate them. The aftershocks of the COVID-19 pandemic, combined with a complex web of crises encompassing war, debt, and food insecurity, have placed our collective resilience to the test. All of this unfolds against the ever-looming backdrop of the climate crisis, which drives increasingly frequent and severe extreme weather events.
Disproportionate Impact on Vulnerable Communities
- Debt crisis: A majority of the 50 countries most vulnerable to climate change also grapple with severe debt issues. India, already one of the world’s most disaster-prone countries, is acutely experiencing this new reality.
- Extreme weather events: In 2022, disasters or extreme weather events battered the country nearly every day, with this year’s severe monsoon causing widespread loss of livelihoods and lives.
Solutions Within Reach
- SDG: The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) continue to serve as our most comprehensive blueprint for achieving peace and prosperity.
- Paris Agreement: Additionally, commitments made in the Paris Agreement to limit global warming to 1.5°C offer a clear path forward.
- Sendai Framework: The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction provides a global framework to reduce disaster risks, although progress in its implementation has been slow.
- Accelerating Resilience Building: One valuable lesson we have learned from the COVID-19 pandemic is the importance of systemic disaster risk reduction, resilience, and adaptation. The crisis has not only exposed our vulnerability to risks but has also catalyzed innovative approaches, such as digital technologies and modeling. India’s proactive efforts in disaster risk reduction, including state-level disaster management plans and early warning systems, have demonstrated tangible results in reducing mortality from extreme weather events.
- Financial Reforms for Disaster Preparedness: India’s 15th Finance Commission has introduced significant reforms for disaster risk financing, allocating substantial resources for preparedness, response, recovery, and capacity development. On the international stage, India is championing disaster resilience and sustainability through initiatives like the Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure and the deployment of its National Disaster Response Force.
The Transformations We Need
- Early detection system: Disaster risk reduction must be integrated at all levels of our societies. This includes how we build, invest, and live. One highly cost-effective method is the establishment of early warning systems for all, with India’s support for this endeavor being noteworthy. Such systems can significantly reduce the damage caused by impending disasters. However, it is crucial to recognize that over a third of the world’s population, primarily in the least developed countries and Small Island Developing States, lacks access to these life-saving systems.
- The Path to a Global Multi-Risk Warning System: Our ultimate goal should be a global multi-risk warning system that covers all types of hazards, be they biological, tectonic, or technological. Improving global data capabilities is essential for better prediction and response to the risks we face. India’s leadership in knowledge sharing, joint data infrastructure, and risk analysis through its G-20 presidency deserves commendation.
- Leaving No One Behind: We must strengthen international cooperation in disaster prevention, response, and recovery, particularly for countries in the Global South. No one should be left behind in our collective efforts to mitigate the impacts of disasters.
Conclusion
- The recent G-20 summit and the outcomes of the Disaster Risk Reduction Working Group offer a unique opportunity to shape a future where we are equipped to withstand disaster risk. As UN Secretary-General António Guterres wisely noted, Extreme weather events will happen. But they do not need to become deadly disasters. Together, through decisive action and unwavering commitment, we can forge a more resilient and sustainable world for generations to come.
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What is heat index and why is it important to measure?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat index, heat stress, heat waves etc.
Mains level: Climate change and soaring temperatures, impacts and measures
What’s the news?
- In August, the coastal regions of Iran bore witness to an astonishing and potentially life-threatening event: a scorching heat index of 70 degrees Celsius (°C). Public holidays were declared on August 2 and 3 due to what was described as unprecedented heat.
Central idea
- The alarming incidents of rising heat temperatures are not isolated; Iran had already grappled with extreme heat earlier in the year when the Persian Gulf Airport recorded a heat index of 66.7°C. The dire consequences of such soaring temperatures demand our attention and action.
What is the heat index?
- The heat index, also known as the apparent temperature or feels-like temperature, is a measure of how hot it feels to the human body when relative humidity is factored in along with the actual air temperature.
- In essence, it quantifies the discomfort or perceived warmth caused by the combination of high temperatures and high humidity.
How is the heat index calculated?
- Dr. Robert Steadman’s Formula: Dr. Robert Steadman, a professor at Colorado State University, developed a complex formula in 1979 to calculate the heat index. This formula considers various parameters, including air temperature and relative humidity.
- Parameters in the Formula: The formula takes into account the following parameters:
- Air temperature (in degrees Fahrenheit).
- Relative humidity (expressed as a decimal, e.g., 50% RH becomes 0.50).
- Coefficients specific to the formula (c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6, c7, c8, and c9).
- Nonlinear Relationship: The formula is complex because it accounts for the nonlinear relationship between temperature, humidity, and how humans perceive heat.
- Global Variations: Different countries may have their own variations of heat index calculations, but Dr. Steadman’s formula is widely recognized and used as a standard reference.
Significance of measuring the heat index
- Accurate Perception of Heat: The heat index provides a more accurate representation of how hot it feels to the human body compared to the actual air temperature. It factors in relative humidity, which significantly affects human comfort in hot conditions.
- Health Impact Assessment: Measuring the heat index is crucial for assessing the potential health risks associated with hot weather. It helps identify conditions that may lead to heat-related illnesses, including heat exhaustion and heatstroke.
- Preventing Heat Stress: High humidity levels, considered in the heat index, can lead to heat stress. Monitoring the heat index assists in recognizing situations where heat stress is more likely to occur, prompting individuals to take the necessary precautions.
- Issuing Public Warnings: Weather agencies and authorities use the heat index to issue heat advisories and warnings to the public. These warnings inform people about the heightened risks associated with high heat index values, encouraging them to take protective measures.
- Workplace Safety: Measuring the heat index is vital for ensuring workplace safety, particularly in industries involving outdoor work or non-air-conditioned environments. It enables employers and workers to implement safety measures to prevent heat-related illnesses and injuries.
- Emergency Preparedness: Emergency response and preparedness agencies rely on heat index information to anticipate and respond to heat-related emergencies. This includes managing heat-related illnesses and addressing the increased demand for cooling during heatwaves.
- Adapting to Climate Change: With the increasing frequency and intensity of heatwaves associated with climate change, monitoring the heat index becomes essential. It assists in adapting to changing climate conditions and developing strategies to mitigate heat-related risks.
How does high humidity impact the human body?
- Heat Stress: High humidity can lead to heat stress, where the body struggles to dissipate excess heat. The typical human core temperature range is 36.1 to 37.2°C. When the body can’t effectively shed surplus heat, the core temperature rises, potentially causing symptoms such as heat exhaustion, rashes, and an elevated heart rate.
- Reduced Cooling: In high humidity, the body’s natural cooling mechanism, which relies on sweating and evaporation, becomes less effective. The saturated air makes it challenging for sweat to evaporate, hindering the body’s ability to lose excess heat. This results in discomfort and a heightened risk of heat-related illnesses.
- Perceived Temperature: High humidity can make the air feel significantly hotter than the actual air temperature. This increase in perceived temperature, often reflected in the heat index, contributes to a sense of extreme heat and discomfort.
- Dehydration Risk: To compensate for reduced evaporative cooling in high humidity, individuals may sweat profusely. This increased sweating can raise the risk of dehydration if fluid losses are not replenished adequately.
- Respiratory Discomfort: Humid air can pose challenges for individuals with respiratory conditions like asthma. The added moisture in the air may make breathing more difficult, worsening respiratory symptoms.
- Sleep Disturbances: High humidity can disrupt sleep patterns, as sleeping in a warm and muggy environment can be uncomfortable. Restlessness and difficulties falling or staying asleep may occur in such conditions.
- Impact on Physical Activities: High humidity can hinder physical performance and work productivity. People may find it more challenging to engage in physical activities or perform tasks in hot and humid conditions.
Facts for Prelims: Heat-related Terminologies in News
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Way forward: Measures to adapt
- Recognize the Danger: Acknowledge that a heat index value of 67°C or higher can be extremely dangerous for both humans and animals, especially with direct and prolonged exposure.
- Invest in Early Warning Systems: Develop and invest in early warning systems that provide timely alerts and advisories about extreme heat events. This helps individuals and communities prepare for and respond to heatwaves effectively.
- Adjust Work Timings: Consider making changes to work schedules to avoid outdoor activities during the hottest parts of the day. This can reduce heat exposure and the risk of heat-related illnesses.
- Find Sustainable Cooling Solutions: Identify and implement sustainable cooling solutions, such as the use of energy-efficient and environmentally friendly cooling technologies. Ensuring access to air conditioning and promoting better building designs for heat resilience are also important.
- Promote Public Awareness and Education: Raise public awareness about the risks associated with extreme heat, and educate individuals and communities about heat safety measures. Knowledge empowers people to take proactive steps to protect themselves during heatwaves.
Conclusion
- As we confront rising heat index values across the globe, our ability to adapt and mitigate the effects of extreme heat on human health and well-being becomes paramount. Proactive measures, informed by a comprehensive understanding of the heat index, are essential to safeguarding lives and ensuring a sustainable future in the face of escalating climate challenges.
Must read:
Heat domes, anticyclones and climate change: What’s causing heat waves across the world?
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Emerging countries need women-led climate action
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate change
Mains level: Climate Change and its Impact on Women, gender equality and environmental sustainability
What’s the news?
- In the current era, the fusion of gender equality and environmental sustainability presents a dynamic duo that holds the key to accelerating the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
Central Idea
- The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) aptly points out that gender equality and environmental goals are not isolated endeavors; they forge a symbiotic relationship that can amplify progress towards a sustainable future.
Vulnerability in a Changing Climate
- Climate change, a pressing global concern, has repercussions that reverberate across demographics, with women bearing a disproportionate brunt of its impact.
- The International Labour Organization (ILO, 2019) forecasts that by 2030, scorching temperatures will result in a 2.2% loss of global working hours—equivalent to 80 million full-time jobs.
- The United Nations (2009) highlighted that across genders, women are considered to be more vulnerable and disproportionately affected by climate change than men.
- Estimates project that by 2050, climate change risks, coupled with natural disasters and food inflation, could push 130 million people into poverty, disproportionately affecting women’s inequality.
Climate Change and its Impact on Women, Particularly in Low-Income Countries
- Gendered Vulnerability in Low-Income Countries:
- Women across the globe face heightened risks to their health, safety, and quality of life. Yet, the vulnerability is notably more pronounced in developing and less developed countries, especially those grappling with low-income realities.
- This vulnerability is rooted in their reliance on natural resources and labor-intensive work, making them more susceptible to climate change impacts.
- A crucial aspect of this vulnerability lies in the interconnectedness of poverty and climate change.
- Climate Crisis Intensifying Basic Needs Struggles:
- Rural women, in particular, are burdened with the responsibility of ensuring access to essentials like clean water, cooking fuel, and nutritious food for their families.
- This often involves arduous journeys and exposes them to health and safety risks.
- Underpaid and Overworked:
- Despite their pivotal role in food production systems, women engaged in agriculture face persistent challenges.
- Data from the International Labour Organization (ILO) highlights that over 60% of working women in southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa are in agriculture. Unfortunately, they often receive inadequate pay and work under challenging conditions.
- Owning Land: A Gender Disparity:
- A significant gender disparity exists in land ownership, with women owning only a small fraction of cultivated land.
- Despite being the backbone of the food production system, women own only about 10% of the land used for farming.
- This discrepancy further diminishes their resilience against the impacts of climate change.
- Projected Displacement and Urgent Action:
- As a grim outlook, studies like McAllister’s 2023 research forecast a potentially staggering 1.2 billion climate refugees by 2050.
- This underscores the urgency of addressing these intertwined challenges.
Gender-specific issues
- Displacement and Vulnerability: A UN study reveals a stark reality – a substantial 80% of those displaced by climate-related disasters are women and girls.
- Challenges for Vulnerable Women: Women, especially from marginalized communities, grapple with distinct challenges in the aftermath of natural disasters. Their displacement increases their susceptibility to prejudice and exploitation, exacerbating the hardships they already face.
- Exploitation Post-Disasters: The disruption caused by disasters creates an environment ripe for exploitation, with women as primary targets. Notably, the aftermath of the 2015 Nepal earthquake exposed women to trafficking and exploitation, further highlighting the risks they face.
- Gender-Based Violence Intensifies: The upheaval following disasters leads to an alarming escalation of gender-based violence against women. Disrupted communities and increased vulnerability create an environment where women are at greater risk.
- Limited Access to Essential Services: Essential services like employment, education, healthcare, and psychosocial support become scarcer post-disaster. For women, this translates into further limitations and challenges, exacerbating their already marginalized status.
- Resource and Knowledge Disparities: Women in agriculture face barriers in accessing quality resources, education, and technical knowledge. As climate change compounds these challenges, their vulnerability is magnified.
Way Forward: Empowering Women for Climate Resilience and Action
- Women’s Role in Climate Adaptation: Acknowledging the potential women possess to contribute to climate adaptation is crucial. Women bring unique perspectives and knowledge to the table, making their engagement indispensable in finding effective solutions.
- Empowerment Through Education and Training: Investing in women’s education and training is paramount for building resilience to the impact of climate change. Equipping women with the knowledge and skills needed for sustainable practices, such as agriculture, water management, and energy generation, fosters their capacity to adapt to changing conditions.
- Supporting Women Farmers: Initiatives like the Self-Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) in India exemplify the importance of imparting knowledge to women farmers on how to navigate shifting climate patterns.
- Women in Climate Policy Decision-Making: Acknowledging the disparities women face in climate change impacts, the need for their active involvement in decision-making becomes evident.
- Programs to Amplify Women’s Voices: Initiatives like the Gender and Climate Change Development Programme in South Asia seek to elevate women’s influence in policymaking, granting them a stronger voice in shaping climate strategies that directly impact their lives.
- Global Imperative for Women-Led Climate Action: The call for women-led climate action is not confined to specific regions; it’s a global imperative. Developing and emerging countries, where women often bear the brunt of climate impacts, necessitate collective efforts to empower women as agents of change.
Conclusion
- The convergence of gender equality and environmental sustainability is no longer an abstract concept; it is a tangible pathway towards a more equitable and resilient world. In a future marred by climate uncertainty, investments in women’s education, training, and participation stand as beacons of hope.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Why El Nino is now India’s no. 1 Economic and Political Risk?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ENSO, El Nino, La Nina, Monsoon
Mains level: Political-Economic implications of El-Nino on Indian Society
Central Idea
- The emergence of El Nino as a significant climatic phenomenon in India carries dual implications – economic and political – as the country gears up for national elections in April-May 2024.
- With its known ability to suppress rainfall and disrupt agricultural cycles, El Nino’s effects are already being felt.
Understanding El Nino and La Nina
- El Nino and La Nina are two opposite phases of the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) cycle.
- ENSO is a naturally occurring phenomenon that involves the interaction between the ocean and atmosphere in the equatorial Pacific.
Here is a detailed comparison of El Nino and La Nina
| El Nino | La Nina | |
| Definition | Warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures | Cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures |
| Frequency | Every two to seven years | Every two to seven years |
| Duration | Several months to a year or more | Several months to a year or more |
| Impact on winds | Weakens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns | Strengthens trade winds, leading to changes in patterns |
| Impact on rains | Reduces rainfall and can cause droughts | Increases rainfall and can cause flooding |
| Impact on temp. | Warmer-than-average temperatures | Colder-than-average temperatures |
| Global effects | Droughts in Asia and Africa, floods in Americas | Floods in Asia and Africa, droughts in South America |
Impact on India
| El Nino | La Nina |
| Associated with weak monsoons and drought-like conditions in India | Associated with above-normal rainfall and floods in India |
| Sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean rises above normal levels | Sea surface temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean drops below normal levels |
| Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns | Changes in the atmospheric circulation patterns |
| Shift in the location of the jet stream, affecting the strength and direction of the monsoon winds | Increase in the strength of the monsoon winds, bringing more moisture and rainfall to India |
| Results in reduced rainfall, dry spells, and heatwaves, leading to crop failures and water scarcity | Excessive rainfall can also lead to floods and landslides, causing damage to crops and infrastructure |
Broader Implications:
[A] Agriculture
- Rainfall Deficit: August’s nationwide rainfall stands at 30.7% below normal, erasing the initial 4.2% surplus from the southwest monsoon.
- Strengthening El Nino: July saw the Oceanic Nino Index (ONI) surpass the El Nino threshold, hitting 1 degree Celsius, suggesting an intensification of El Nino.
- Projected Persistence: Forecasts predict El Nino’s continuation and possible strengthening during the 2023-24 winter season, potentially impacting the northeast monsoon and winter seasons.
[B] Food Supply Challenges
- Crucial Monsoon: Beyond crop yield, the southwest monsoon replenishes reservoirs and recharges groundwater, essential for agricultural success.
- Rabi Season Dependence: The success of rabi season crops like wheat, mustard, and chickpea hinges on water reserves, primarily sourced from aquifers and reservoirs.
- Supply-Demand Nexus: With rice and wheat stocks at a six-year low and food inflation at 11.5%, El Nino-induced shortfalls may exacerbate food inflation concerns.
[C] Political Implications
- Food Inflation: Examining consumer food price inflation leading up to previous Lok Sabha elections reveals its considerable impact on political outcomes.
- Electoral Influence: The BJP’s 2019 electoral victory and the UPA’s 2014 defeat were partially attributed to the level of food inflation during those periods.
- Government Actions: The Modi administration has already taken steps to ensure food availability, curb hoarding, and address potential food inflation concerns.
Conclusion
- El Nino’s emergence as a formidable environmental and political factor underscores the intricate interplay between climate patterns, agriculture, and political dynamics.
- India’s ability to manage the far-reaching consequences of El Nino on food production and inflation will determine its capacity to address immediate challenges while considering the longer-term goals.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Extreme heat can impact your mind, not just the body: Here is how
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heatwaves
Mains level: Heatwaves carry a dual impact: physical discomfort and psychological distress, coping strategies
What’s the news?
- As heatwaves grow fiercer and more frequent, their influence on mental health becomes undeniable, prompting experts to explore the intricate connections.
Central idea
- In recent times, the intensifying and prolonged heatwaves have gone beyond scorching temperatures and have started to scorch minds as well. The impact of soaring temperatures on mental health has gained newfound recognition, necessitating a deeper examination of the interplay between climate change and our psychological well-being.
What are Heat Waves?
- Heatwaves generally occur in India between March and June.
- IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum daytime temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
- Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.
What is meant by Climate Distress?
- Climate Distress is a term coined to describe a range of emotions triggered by the environmental changes brought about by climate change.
- It encompasses feelings such as anxiety, terror, sadness, shame, and guilt, all of which stem from the recognition of the broader consequences of climate change
Frequency of Heatwaves in India
- Increase in frequency and intensity: India has been witnessing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves in recent years.
- For instance: In April and May 2022, around 350 million Indians were exposed to strong heat stress. On average, six heat wave events occur every year in the northern parts of the country.
- Rise in summer temperatures as well as winter temperatures: Summer temperatures have risen by an average of 0.5–0.9 °C across districts in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan between 1990 and 2019. In addition, around 54% of India’s districts have seen a similar rise in winter temperatures.
- Temperature rise projection: It is expected that between 2021 and 2050, the maximum temperature will rise by 2–3.5 °C in 100 districts and by 1.5–2°C in around 455 districts. Winter temperatures will also rise between 1°C and 1.5°C in around 485 districts.
Heatwaves: The Looming Threat
- Studies have uncovered alarming correlations between elevated temperatures and a rise in suicides, violent crimes, aggression, hospitalizations for mental disorders, and even mortality.
- Patients with conditions like schizophrenia, dementia, psychosis, and substance use disorders are particularly vulnerable.
- For every 1-degree Celsius increase, the risk of death among patients with such disorders rises by nearly 5%.
- A seminal study analyzed data from over 2 million individuals with private insurance, revealing a spike in emergency department visits for mental health issues during the hottest days of summer.
The Physical-Mental Connection
- Heat’s influence isn’t confined to discomfort; it sets off a cascade of physiological changes that translate into emotional and mental shifts.
- Increased heart rates due to heat can lead to heightened anxiety.
- The neurotransmitter serotonin, linked to mood regulation, anxiety, and depression, also affects temperature perception.
- Certain drugs can amplify heat’s impact on body temperature regulation, such as common medications for schizophrenia, depression, and bipolar disorder.
Heatwaves: The Potent Agents of Psychological Distress
- Rise in Suicides and Violent Crimes: Research has uncovered a striking connection between heatwaves and a surge in suicides, violent crimes, and aggression. Studies have reported a 0.7% increase in suicides linked to rising temperatures. Additionally, a 4% to 6% increase in interpersonal violence, including homicides, has been observed during heatwaves.
- Aggravation of Mental Illnesses: Conditions like anxiety, schizophrenia, and depression are exacerbated by heatwaves. Irritability, anger, and anxiety intensify, making symptom management challenging.
- Sleep Impact: Heatwaves disrupt sleep patterns, impacting mental health. Disturbed sleep leads to mood disorders, anxiety, and cognitive impairment.
- Vulnerable Groups: Older adults, adolescents, and those with preexisting mental issues are especially vulnerable. Physiological vulnerabilities worsen their mental distress during heatwaves.
- Physiological Stress Response: Heatwaves trigger increased heart rates, heightening anxiety levels. The physiological stress response amplifies emotional arousal.
- Medication Interaction: Mental health medications interacting with heat worsen physical and mental effects, exacerbating psychological distress.
- Routine Disruption and Isolation: Heatwaves disrupt routines and limit social interactions, fostering loneliness and frustration, amplifying psychological distress.
- Climate Change Impact: Heatwaves are part of climate change’s wider impact, contributing to environmental uncertainty. This awareness triggers anxiety, fear, and helplessness.
Coping Strategies
- Recognizing the Reality: Understanding that the threats posed by heatwaves and climate change are real is the first step. Acknowledging the potential impact on mental health helps individuals prepare and seek appropriate support.
- Traditional Coping Strategies: While traditional coping strategies like cognitive behavioral therapy and medications are valuable, the unique nature of climate distress requires acknowledging that the threat is tangible and not just a matter of perception.
- Advocating for Change: Channeling distress into advocacy can be empowering. Participating in climate initiatives and advocating for policies addressing the root causes of climate change can provide a sense of purpose.
- Fostering Resilience: Building resilience through mindfulness techniques and stress reduction practices can help individuals manage the anxiety and fear associated with climate distress.
Conclusion
- Heatwaves carry a dual impact: physical discomfort and psychological distress. Recognizing and addressing the mental health implications of climate change is an urgent endeavor. As our understanding evolves, it becomes imperative to support individuals and communities in navigating the profound mental effects of escalating temperatures.
Also read:
Heat domes, anticyclones and climate change: What’s causing heat waves across the world?
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Hurricane Hilary’s rare journey towards West Coast
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Huricances, Tropical Cyclones
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Hurricane Hilary’s unexpected trajectory towards Southern California and Mexico has caught meteorologists and residents off guard.
- The only recorded instance of a tropical storm with hurricane-force winds hitting Southern California dates back to 1858, impacting San Diego.
What is a Hurricane?
- A hurricane, also known as a tropical cyclone or typhoon in different regions, is a powerful and intense tropical storm characterized by strong winds, heavy rainfall, and low atmospheric pressure.
- Here are the key features and characteristics of a hurricane:
- Formation: Hurricanes typically form over warm ocean waters, where the sea surface temperature is at least 26.5 degrees Celsius (about 80 degrees Fahrenheit) or higher. Warm ocean water provides the energy needed to fuel the storm’s growth.
- Energy Source: Hurricanes derive their energy from the heat released when moist air rises and condenses into clouds and rain. This process, known as latent heat release, powers the storm and leads to the development of strong winds.
- Eye: At the center of a hurricane is a relatively calm and clear area known as the “eye.” The eye is surrounded by a circular band of intense thunderstorms called the “eyewall,” where the strongest winds and heaviest rainfall occur.
- Wind Speeds: Hurricanes are characterized by extremely strong winds that can reach speeds of over 74 miles per hour (119 kilometres per hour) for a storm to be classified as a hurricane. Major hurricanes can have wind speeds exceeding 111 miles per hour (179 kilometers per hour).
- Categories: Hurricanes are categorized based on the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale, which ranges from Category 1 (weakest) to Category 5 (strongest). Category 1 hurricanes have sustained winds of 74-95 mph, while Category 5 hurricanes have winds greater than 157 mph.
About Hurricane Hilary
- Unlike hurricane-prone states on the Gulf of Mexico, California and Mexico’s west coast lack experience in dealing with such events.
- Hurricane Hilary’s expected landfall in the Baja peninsula of Mexico poses risks of landslides, flooding, and extensive damage due to the region’s geographical features and population density.
Factors behind its intensification
- Ocean Temperature Factor: Hurricanes require ocean waters above 26 degrees Celsius to form. The west coast’s colder waters are less conducive to hurricane formation.
- Vertical Wind Shear: Strong upper-level winds can disrupt hurricanes’ structure and prevent their formation. West coast’s stronger wind shear reduces the likelihood of hurricanes.
- Trade Wind Influence: Trade winds, which steer hurricanes, play a pivotal role in directing them toward the east coast while diverting them away from the west coast.
- Westward Trajectory: Hurricanes originating in the eastern Pacific tend to move west-northwest, taking them away from the west coast and out to sea.
Climate Change induced factors
- Climate Change Impact: Climate change leads to more frequent and intense hurricanes. Rising ocean temperatures due to greenhouse gas emissions contribute to increased hurricane intensity.
- Ocean Heat Absorption: Oceans have absorbed 90% of excess heat from greenhouse gas emissions, leading to higher sea surface temperatures and stronger hurricanes.
- Marine Heat Waves: Elevated sea surface temperatures result in marine heat waves, intensifying storm systems and amplifying their impact on land.
- El Nino’s Role: El Niño, an abnormal warming of equatorial Pacific Ocean waters, can weaken wind shear in the eastern Pacific, creating conditions conducive to hurricane formation.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Climate change impacts ancient moss Takakia
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Takakia
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Takakia, a unique moss genus that has thrived at high altitudes on the Tibetan Plateau for millions of years, has captured the attention of international scientists.
- Astonishingly, the same habitat that nurtured Takakia for eons is now rapidly transforming due to climate change, highlighting the urgency of conservation efforts.
Takakia and its Evolution
- Adaptive Traits: Takakia is slender turf with finger-like leaves and resilience to harsh weather conditions. Genetic traits protecting it from frost and high UV radiation have evolved over 65 million years.
- Living Fossil: Despite its rapidly evolving genome, Takakia’s physical appearance has remained unchanged for over 165 million years, making it a remarkable example of a living fossil.
- Evolutionary Paradox: The juxtaposition of constant appearance and evolving genome poses an intriguing challenge for evolutionary biologists, shedding light on the species’ unique adaptation.
Its scientific significance
- Hybrid Characteristics: Takakia blends features from mosses, liverworts, and green algae, intriguing researchers for its evolutionary diversity.
- Ancient Separation: Research confirms that Takakia’s divergence from other mosses occurred around 390 million years ago, soon after the emergence of the first land plants.
Climate Change Impacts on Takakia
- Changing Habitat: Takakia’s habitat, which sheltered it for millions of years, is now experiencing rapid climate change within decades.
- Temperature and Glacier Shifts: Recorded measurements since 2010 indicate a temperature increase of nearly half a degree Celsius per year on the Tibetan Plateau, accompanied by a glacier’s retreat of almost 50 meters per year.
- Species Resilience: Unlike some other plants that benefit from warming, Takakia’s populations have diminished over the study period. Its struggle to cope with rising temperatures raises concerns about its survival.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Sustainable business practices: Imperatives and pathways
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate change
Mains level: Climate Change and Shifting Business Paradigms for Environmental Sustainability
What’s the news?
- The 2023 IPCC Report highlights that human-induced global warming of 1.1 degrees Celsius has led to unprecedented shifts in the Earth’s climate.
Central idea
- In recent decades, human activities have substantially contributed to the acceleration of climate change. The economic toll of climate change has been immense. The anticipated intensification of climate impacts underscores the urgent need for both mitigation and adaptation strategies.
Climate Change and Shifting Business Paradigms for Environmental Sustainability
- Climate Change Impact: Human activities have led to a significant increase in global warming, resulting in unprecedented climate changes. The 2023 IPCC Report highlights the Earth’s warming by 1.1 degrees Celsius due to human influence.
- Economic Consequences: The International Monetary Fund (IMF) estimates substantial economic losses of around US$1.3 trillion annually during 2011–2020, constituting 0.2 percent of global GDP. These losses stem from climate change-related damages, affecting both the economy and the environment.
- Businesses and Sustainability: There’s a noticeable shift in business attitudes, moving away from pure profit-centric approaches to considering their social and environmental impacts. Many companies are now striving to balance economic, social, and environmental aspects—also known as the triple bottom line.
- ESG and CSR Frameworks: Enterprises are adopting Environmental, Social, and governance (ESG) and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) frameworks to integrate sustainable practices into their operations. This includes using renewable energy sources, improving stakeholder relationships, and engaging in environmentally responsible actions.
- IBM Survey on Business Leaders’ Views: The IBM survey revealed that 51 percent of top business leaders and CEOs recognize the importance of environmental sustainability. This suggests growing awareness and concern among influential business figures.
- Consumer Behavior: Consumers’ preferences are also changing. About 49 percent of consumers are willing to pay more for products labeled as sustainable or socially responsible. This indicates a shift in consumer behavior towards supporting eco-friendly products and companies.
How are companies responding?
- IKEA’s Environmental Priorities:
- IKEA, a global furniture leader, has embraced climate finance for sustainable practices. They reduced their climate footprint by 5 percent in 2022, from 27.2 to 25.8 million tonnes.
- IKEA’s transparency extends to disclosing outdoor air pollution across their supply chain. Their food section now offers 50 percent plant-based meals, aligning with reduced greenhouse gas emissions.
- NIKE’s Sustainable Business Approach:
- NIKE, a renowned sportswear brand, echoes this trend by incorporating sustainable practices.
- Their ESG Risk Rating of 19.6 reflects effective management of industry-specific ESG risks.
- India’s Regulatory Push:
- India’s Ministry of Corporate Affairs is propelling sustainability within the corporate sphere through the National Guidelines on Responsible Business Conduct.
- These guidelines emphasize resource-efficient, low-carbon technologies and accountability for environmental impact and stakeholder considerations.
- Ather Energy’s Holistic EV Strategy:
- Ather Energy, a Bengaluru-based EV startup, showcases a comprehensive strategy. Their approach involves building an entire charging infrastructure network and fostering a local, sustainable supply chain.
- This strategy encompasses high-quality product creation and reusing/recycling outdated items.
Sustainability Challenges Faced by Companies
- Climate change impacts supply chains, leading to transition risks and event-driven physical risks.
- Environmental factors like water shortages and changing demand affect business operations.
- Vendor credibility issues and logistical challenges disrupt supply chain stability.
- Social factors, including communal disturbances and employee strikes, introduce uncertainties.
- Ensuring profitability while investing in sustainable practices poses financial challenges.
Strategies to Overcome Sustainability Challenges
- Financing Green Transitions: To address the increased investments required, companies can allocate separate budgets for CSR and ESG activities, as evidenced by the IBM survey. Regulatory compliance would ensure dedicated budget allocations, fostering a commitment to sustainable practices over the long term.
- Justifying Price Increases: As per the IBM survey, consumers are increasingly willing to pay more for sustainable products, even in developing countries. By emphasizing ethical marketing practices and leveraging social media, businesses can tap into this growing consumer trend.
- Overcoming Technological Limitations: While traditional methods like paper backups remain useful, the evolution of technology can help in avoiding fraud and malpractice, as mentioned in the article. Embracing technology, with proper safeguards in place is essential for comprehensive sustainability.
- Addressing Greenwashing Concerns: Organizations can counter doubts about the credibility of their sustainable practices by prioritizing brand awareness and emotional marketing. Through multi-stakeholder involvement and coordinated efforts, companies can establish themselves as genuine advocates of sustainability.
Conclusion
- Promoting sustainable business practices in the context of traditional profit-oriented models requires a multi-stakeholder approach, regulatory compliance, and governmental support. As the world moves toward universal business sustainability, businesses need to prioritize environmentally conscious practices, with stringent penalties for non-compliance and incentives for positive contributions to society and the environment.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Climate events and an umbrella for urban health
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate change impact, Vector borne and water borne diseases
Mains level: Threats posed by climate-induced events, disease management challenges and way ahead
What’s the news?
- The vulnerability of urban households to climate change-led events needs attention in India.
Central idea
- The current monsoon season in India has garnered significant media attention due to the widespread devastation witnessed in various regions. From the cyclonic storm Biparjoy’s landfall in western India to floods in Assam and heavy rainfall causing havoc in the north, these events have raised concerns, especially among policymakers.
Extreme climate events and its impacts on urban cities
- Increased Vulnerability: Urban areas, particularly those with inadequate infrastructure and informal settlements, face heightened vulnerability to extreme climate events. Lack of proper resources and planning exacerbates the impact.
- Disease Outbreaks: Post-monsoon, urban areas are prone to waterborne and vector-borne diseases due to stagnant water and conducive conditions. Diseases like malaria, dengue, cholera, and typhoid can spread rapidly in these environments.
- Higher Urban Household Susceptibility: Urban households are more susceptible to climate-induced diseases compared to rural households, with increased odds of contracting diseases like malaria and dengue.
- Challenges in Disease Management: Coordinating Disease Management in Urban Areas Post-extreme climate events become challenging due to the movement of people across regions and the complex network of agencies involved in healthcare.
- Strain on Health Systems: Urban health systems come under strain as they try to manage the increased demand for healthcare services during and after extreme climate events.
- Disproportionate Impact on Vulnerable Populations: Vulnerable groups, such as those living in slums or informal settlements, are disproportionately affected by the impacts of extreme climate events due to their marginalized living conditions.
A study on disease vulnerability
- Urban vs. Rural Vulnerability: The study reveals that urban households are more vulnerable to climate-induced diseases compared to rural households. This vulnerability is particularly evident in the heightened odds of urban households contracting diseases like malaria and dengue.
- Geographic Implications: The study highlights the geographic variation in disease vulnerability. Households in states with higher climate vulnerability are at a greater risk of suffering from diseases, accentuating the importance of considering regional climate contexts.
- Malaria and Dengue: Urban households face significantly higher odds of suffering from diseases like malaria and dengue. This emphasizes the urban-specific risk factors contributing to the prevalence of these diseases, including factors related to urbanization, living conditions, and healthcare access.
- Climate Vulnerability: The study’s insights point to the connection between climatic conditions and disease vulnerability. Households in states with higher vulnerability to climate change experience elevated risks of disease, signaling the need for targeted interventions in these regions.
- Policy Implications: The findings of the study carry substantial policy implications. Policymakers need to recognize the unique vulnerabilities of urban areas and design tailored strategies to mitigate disease outbreaks in these settings.
Steps to mitigate the challenges posed by extreme climatic events
- Rebuilding the Urban Health Care System:
- Focus on enhancing the urban primary health-care system’s resilience.
- Prioritize serving the vulnerable urban population, particularly those residing in urban slums and peri-urban areas.
- Develop a health system capable of promptly responding to emergencies, proactively preparing for impending crises, and flexibly adapting to changing public health needs.
- Increase Public Investment:
- Allocate more substantial public investment, with immediate attention directed towards urban areas most susceptible to climatic shocks.
- Address the inadequacy of current funding for primary health care.
- Recognize the pressing need to channel funds toward bolstering health care infrastructure and resources.
- Empower the National Urban Health Mission:
- Support and strengthen the efforts of the National Urban Health Mission.
- Address the limitations in revenue generation capacities among urban local bodies.
- Ensure sufficient financial resources are available to bolster urban health care systems.
- Local Bodies’ Role in Public Health:
- Acknowledge that a significant portion of preventive and public health functions fall under the jurisdiction of local bodies.
- Recognize the importance of supporting local bodies in carrying out their public health responsibilities.
- Establish a Special Fund for Resilience:
- Create a dedicated fund sourced from statutory institutions, such as the Finance Commission.
- Direct this fund towards building a robust and resilient health system in vulnerable urban areas.
- Ensure that the fund is allocated based on identified priorities and needs.
- Extend Attention Beyond Cities:
- Recognize the need to extend targeted efforts beyond major cities to include towns.
- Understand that vulnerability to extreme climatic events is not exclusive to urban centers.
- Allocate resources and support to build resilience in towns as well.
Lessons from the COVID-19 pandemic on urban health governance
- Complex Urban Health Governance:
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- Recognize the intricacies of urban health governance, marked by the involvement of numerous agencies and fragmented care provision.
- Acknowledge the expanding influence and dominance of the private sector in the healthcare landscape.
- Coordination and Cooperation:
- Learn from the pandemic’s experience that effective public health responses require enhanced coordination and cooperation among diverse actors.
- Emphasize knowledge and data sharing, along with coordination in preventive, curative, and treatment aspects.
- Regulation and Standardization:
- Understand the necessity to regulate rates and enforce quality standards, especially in the private sector.
- Recognize the importance of standardized treatment practices to ensure consistent and effective care provision.
- Strengthened Surveillance and Information Systems:
- Acknowledge the critical role of surveillance and information systems, such as the Integrated Disease Surveillance Program.
- Plan to universalize and comprehensively strengthen these systems to effectively respond to public health emergencies.
- Comprehensive Health System Approach:
- Grasp the need to transition from vertical disease control programs to a comprehensive health system approach.
- Consider integrating front-line workers across various disease management programs to create a versatile cadre of public health professionals.
- Address Workforce Shortage:
- Understand the challenge of an inadequately trained health workforce in public health and related areas.
- Address this shortage by creating multipurpose front-line public health cadres accountable to both communities and the health system.
- Climate Change Preparedness:
- Recognize the increasing frequency and intensity of climate change-led events.
- Incorporate climate change awareness into planning and management to build resilience and preparedness.
Conclusion
- As India faces heightened climate-induced health risks, it’s imperative to prioritize the strengthening of urban health systems. The convergence of vulnerability insights, disease management challenges, and the COVID-19 experience highlights the need for integrated, resilient health systems. By adapting to changing public health needs, India can better prepare for the growing threats posed by climate-induced events.
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Climate finance adds another layer of inequity to climate change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate financing mechanism
Mains level: Climate change and current disparity in climate financing
What’s the news?
- In recent years, climate justice activists have been advocating for economically developed countries to increase their investments in climate adaptation and mitigation, including supporting other nations in dealing with the impacts of climate change.
Central idea
- Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and South Asia, despite contributing the least to global warming, are disproportionately affected by climate disasters and burdened with debt distress. In contrast, North American and European countries, which have historically been the major contributors to greenhouse gas emissions, also hold significant roles as creditors in the ongoing debt crisis.
Carbon Emissions per Capita in Various Regions
- Global Average Emissions: The global average emissions per capita have consistently remained above 4.7 tonnes per capita since 2010. This value is twice the baseline target needed to limit global warming to 1.5 °C.
- Africa and India: Countries in Africa and India have consistently emitted carbon dioxide per capita below the global average. Despite being major contributors to the global population, their carbon emissions per capita have been comparatively lower.
- China: China crossed the global average carbon emissions per capita in 2004 and has steadily increased since then. By 2021, China’s per capita emissions would reach 8 tonnes, placing it on par with Europe and Oceania.
- UAE and the U.S.: Despite observing an overall decline in emissions, the UAE and the U.S. still had the highest carbon emissions per capita as of 2021. The UAE’s per capita emissions were recorded at 21.8 tonnes, while the U.S. stood at 14.9 tonnes
Investment in Climate-related Activities by World Bank Regions
- Sub-Saharan Africa: This region had the highest investment fraction in climate finance, allocating 1.3% of its GDP towards climate-related activities in both 2019 and 2020. This indicates a significant commitment to addressing climate challenges.
- East Asia and the Pacific: Following closely behind, this region allocated 1% of its GDP to climate-related initiatives, showcasing a considerable effort in climate finance.
- South Asia: The region dedicated 0.9% of its GDP to climate-related activities in both years, reflecting a notable commitment to addressing climate change impacts.
- U.S. and Canada: In contrast, the United States and Canada contributed the least among the World Bank regions, allocating only 0.3% of their GDP to climate-related projects in 2019 and 2020.
International Multilateral Climate Funds Disbursement
- Disbursement Disparity: Since 2003, a total of $3.3 billion has been approved to be disbursed to South Asia through these multilateral climate funds. However, only $1.3 billion was actually disbursed. This indicates a significant disparity between approved funds and actual disbursements.
- Global South Funding: A large fraction of the funds for climate mitigation and adaptation in the Global South come from international multilateral climate funds. These funds are primarily sourced from economically developed countries.
- Suboptimal Disbursement: On average, most regions received only 40% of the approved funding intended for their climate projects. This points to challenges with efficient fund allocation and disbursement.
Climate Vulnerability Index
- The Climate Vulnerability Index is calculated annually by the Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative and combines a country’s exposure, sensitivity, and capacity to adapt to climate change. The Risk of Debt Distress is based on the International Monetary Fund’s Debt Sustainability Framework reports.
Climate Vulnerability Index by country and the Risk of Debt Distress by region
- Climate Vulnerability Index: Most notably, countries in Sub-Saharan Africa emerge as the most vulnerable to climate change, facing higher risks due to their exposure, sensitivity, and limited capacity to adapt to climate impacts.
- Risk of Debt Distress: Sub-Saharan Africa stands out as the region with several countries at high risk of or facing debt distress, further exacerbating their vulnerability to climate change.
- Correlation: Most of the countries experiencing high climate vulnerability are also at risk of debt distress, highlighting the interconnectedness of climate change impacts and financial challenges.
- High-Income Country Exclusion: Several high-income countries were excluded from the analysis due to limited data. Therefore, the focus of the chart is primarily on countries in the Global South.
Expressed concern from the above observations
- Disproportionate Vulnerability: The observations highlight the inequity in climate impacts, where regions that have historically contributed less to greenhouse gas emissions are disproportionately bearing the brunt of climate disasters.
- Financial Vulnerability: Climate-related impacts can exacerbate existing economic vulnerabilities, leading to a higher risk of debt distress, which, in turn, hampers their capacity to address climate change and sustainable development needs effectively.
- Climate Finance Disparity: The disparity between approved funds and actual disbursements through international multilateral climate funds is worrying. This raises questions about the efficiency of fund allocation and disbursement.
- Limited High-Income Country Data: The exclusion of several high-income countries from the analysis due to limited data poses concerns about the comprehensive understanding of global climate vulnerabilities.
- Interconnected Challenges: The interconnection between climate vulnerability, debt distress, and development challenges implies that addressing one issue without considering the others may not yield sustainable solutions.
Way forward
- Increased Climate Finance:
- Economically developed countries must urgently increase their financial contributions to support climate adaptation and mitigation efforts in vulnerable regions.
- Meeting the target of $100 billion annually for climate finance is crucial to aid vulnerable countries in building resilience and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
- Debt Relief for Vulnerable Countries:
- High-risk and debt-distressed countries should be offered debt relief measures specifically tied to climate action.
- Debt-for-climate swaps and innovative financial instruments can help these nations allocate more resources to climate resilience and sustainable development.
- Technology Transfer and Capacity Building:
- Accelerate the transfer of clean and sustainable technologies to vulnerable countries, providing them with the tools and knowledge to adapt to climate change and reduce emissions effectively.
- Capacity building efforts should be prioritized to enhance local communities’ abilities to implement climate-friendly solutions.
- Adaptation and Resilience Investment:
- Urgently invest in climate adaptation projects that enhance the resilience of vulnerable communities and ecosystems.
- Prioritize infrastructure improvements, nature-based solutions, and disaster risk reduction measures to protect lives and livelihoods from climate-related impacts.
- Ambitious Emission Reduction Targets:
- Pursue ambitious emission reduction targets at the national and global levels.
- All countries, especially economically developed ones, should take the lead in transitioning to clean energy sources and decarbonizing their economies to limit global warming
Conclusion
- The current disparity in climate financing between economically developed countries and those in Sub-Saharan Africa, Latin America, and South Asia raises concerns about climate justice and the urgent need to bridge the gap. Only through collective and equitable action can we build a sustainable and resilient future for all.
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Controversy associated with the term Anthropocene
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Climate change and the Concept of the Anthropocene
What’s the news?
- Recent proposals to set the starting year of the Anthropocene at 1950 have been met with criticism due to their purportedly flawed representation of the true culprits behind ecosystem damage and climate change.
Central idea
- The term Anthropocene was first proposed by the Nobel laureates, chemist Paul Crutzen and biologist Eugene Stoermer, at a meeting of the little-known International Biosphere-Geosphere Program in 2000 in Mexico. While the term persists, it has garnered limited acceptance within the environmental and geological communities.
The concept of the Anthropocene
- The Anthropocene is a proposed geological epoch that denotes the period during which human activities have had a significant and lasting impact on the Earth’s geology and ecosystems.
- The concept emerged from the realization that human activities, such as deforestation, industrialization, urbanization, and the burning of fossil fuels, have caused profound and widespread changes to the Earth’s atmosphere, oceans, and land, leading to phenomena such as climate change.
- The term anthropocene was first proposed by Nobel laureates Paul Crutzen, a chemist, and Eugene Stoermer, a biologist, in the year 2000.
- They suggested that the current epoch, the Holocene, which began around 11,700 years ago after the last glacial period, had ended and was replaced by the Anthropocene due to the extensive and unprecedented human impact on the planet.
- Some argue that it began with the advent of agriculture around 10,000 years ago, while others propose more recent dates, such as the Industrial Revolution in the late 18th century or the mid-20th century, marked by a significant increase in human-induced environmental changes.
How it falls short in accurately acknowledging the real culprits of ecosystem damage?
- Broad Attribution to All Humanity: The Anthropocene concept attributes the impact on Earth’s biosphere and climate system to all of humanity collectively. By treating all humans as culpable, the concept overlooks the disproportionate role played by certain actors, mainly corporate forces in the West.
- Ignoring Historical Context: The Anthropocene concept does not adequately consider the historical context of environmental exploitation and resource extraction by colonial and imperialist powers, primarily from Western countries. Corporate forces in the West were major drivers of colonial practices that led to ecological harm and climate change in various regions, including Africa, India, and the Americas.
- Downplaying Corporate Influence: While human activities have undoubtedly impacted the environment, the immense economic power and lobbying capabilities of corporations, mainly based in the West, have enabled them to shape environmental policies to their advantage, perpetuating unsustainable practices and hindering more significant efforts to combat climate change.
- Blurring Responsibility: By attributing environmental impacts to humanity as a whole, the Anthropocene concept blurs the lines of responsibility and accountability. This lack of clear attribution allows corporate forces in the West to escape scrutiny and avoid taking necessary actions to mitigate their environmental footprint, putting the onus on all of humanity instead.
- Neglecting Environmental Injustice: The Anthropocene concept does not adequately address the environmental injustices perpetrated by corporate forces in the West against marginalized communities, particularly in the global South.
- Insufficient Focus on Systemic Change: While the Anthropocene concept highlights the need for environmental awareness and action, it may divert attention from the urgent need for systemic changes in corporate practices and global economic structures. Transformative changes are required to address the root causes of ecosystem damage and climate change, which are largely driven by profit-seeking behaviors of corporate entities, especially in the West.
Suggested alternatives to the concept of the Anthropocene
- Corporatocene Epoch: This alternative term proposes a shift in focus from attributing responsibility broadly to all of humanity to specifically holding corporate forces, especially in the West, accountable for their significant role in environmental degradation and climate change.
- Capitalocene: The Capitalocene concept emphasizes the role of capitalism in driving ecological degradation and climate change. It focuses on the exploitative nature of capitalist systems, where profit maximization often takes precedence over environmental sustainability.
- Plantationocene: The Plantationocene perspective recognizes the historical legacy of plantation economies, particularly during the era of European colonialism. It sheds light on the exploitative practices associated with plantations, such as forced labor and ecological disruptions, which have had lasting effects on ecosystems and societies.
- Chthulucene: The Chthulucene concept, proposed by Donna Haraway, challenges the human-centered focus of the Anthropocene and instead emphasizes interconnectedness and multispecies entanglements. By moving away from human-centric narratives, the Chthulucene perspective encourages a more inclusive and collaborative approach to addressing environmental issues.
- Naturesocene: The Naturesocene perspective advocates for acknowledging the agency and contributions of non-human entities in shaping Earth’s systems. This approach seeks to break away from human-centric narratives and recognize the complex interactions between various elements of the natural world.
- Indigenous Perspectives: Indigenous communities often have a deep understanding of their environment and have historically practiced sustainable living. Incorporating their wisdom can lead to more holistic and effective environmental solutions.
Way ahead: The call for accurate attribution
- Identify Corporate Forces: By recognizing the significant impact of corporate entities in shaping environmental policies and practices, we can hold them accountable for their role in ecological harm. Acknowledging the influence of corporate forces empowers us to demand greater transparency and sustainable practices from these entities.
- Acknowledge Historical Injustices: Accurate attribution requires us to confront the historical legacies of imperialism, colonialism, and exploitative practices that have led to the environmental crisis. This entails recognizing how past actions continue to shape the present ecological challenges, particularly in marginalized communities.
- Address Systemic Issues: Accurate attribution calls for a deeper examination of systemic issues, such as capitalist economic structures and unequal power dynamics, that perpetuate environmental degradation. It prompts us to question the prioritization of profit over sustainability and advocate for transformative changes in our economic systems.
- Embrace Indigenous Wisdom: Indigenous communities, with their long-standing relationships with the land, hold valuable knowledge and practices for sustainable living.
- Foster Global Cooperation: Accurate attribution encourages international cooperation to tackle issues like climate change and biodiversity loss, recognizing that the impact of environmental decisions extends beyond national borders.
Conclusion
- The term corporatocene serves as a more fitting descriptor for the current epoch, highlighting the role of corporate forces in shaping the earth’s ecological and climate systems. The West’s historical imperial legacy, coupled with corporate greed, remains the greatest threat to humanity and the environment. By acknowledging the true culprits and holding them accountable, we can pave the way for informed and effective solutions to address the ongoing planetary crisis.
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What are Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marine Heat Waves
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- MHWs have engulfed regions like the northeast Pacific, southern Indian Ocean, the Atlantic, and the Mediterranean, as reported by Mercator Ocean International.
- In April, the Sea Surface Temperature (SST) peaked at 21.1 degrees Celsius, breaking the previous record set in 2016.
What are Marine Heat Waves (MHWs)?
- While we often associate heatwaves with the atmosphere, they can also occur in the ocean, known as Marine Heatwaves (MHWs).
- These prolonged periods of excessively warm sea surface temperatures (SST) can have significant consequences for marine ecosystems and industries.
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SST is the temperature of the top layer of the ocean, typically measured at a depth of 1 millimeter to a few meters using buoys.
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- MHWs can happen in both summer and winter, with “winter warm-spells” affecting specific regions and species.
How are MHWs measured?
- Threshold Criteria: A marine heatwave is characterized by seawater temperatures exceeding a seasonally-varying threshold (often the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days.
- Continuity of Events: Successive heatwaves with gaps of 2 days or less are considered part of the same MHW event.
Causes of Marine Heatwaves
- Air-sea heat flux: Ocean currents and air-sea heat flux are common drivers of MHWs, leading to the build-up of warm water in specific areas.
- Influences of Wind and Climate Modes: Wind patterns can enhance or suppress MHWs. They influence the likelihood of events occurring in certain regions.
- Large-Scale Climate Drivers: Events like the El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) can also contribute to the formation of MHWs.
- Intensification with Global Warming: Rising global temperatures have resulted in longer-lasting, more frequent, and intense MHWs in recent decades.
- Human Influence: 87% of MHWs can be attributed to human-induced warming, with the oceans absorbing significant amounts of heat due to greenhouse gas emissions.
- Oceans as Heat Sink: Oceans have absorbed 90% of the additional heat caused by greenhouse gas emissions, increasing global mean sea surface temperature by nearly 0.9 degrees Celsius since 1850.
Impacts of Marine Heatwaves
- Ecosystem Structure: MHWs can disrupt ecosystem structure, supporting certain species while suppressing others.
- Kelp Forest Destruction: MHWs along the Western Australian coast in 2010-2011 devastated kelp forests and fundamentally altered the ecosystem of the coast.
- Economic Losses: MHWs can cause economic losses, particularly in fisheries and aquaculture industries.
- Vulnerability of Temperature-Sensitive Species: Species such as corals are highly vulnerable to MHWs. The 2016 marine heatwaves in northern Australia caused severe bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef.
Impact on Marine Ecosystems
- Catastrophic Effects: MHWs have led to the death of numerous marine species, altered migration patterns, and caused coral bleaching, endangering coral reefs.
- Coral Bleaching: High ocean temperatures in the tropical Atlantic and Caribbean in 2005 led to a massive coral bleaching event, impacting over 80% of surveyed corals, with severe consequences for marine life.
- Invasive Species and Ecological Imbalance: MHWs fuel the growth of invasive alien species, disrupting marine food webs and posing threats to wildlife. Ex. Whale entanglements in fishing gear.
Consequences for Humans
- Amplifying Storms: Higher ocean temperatures associated with MHWs make storms like hurricanes and cyclones stronger, leading to severe weather events and flooding.
- Threat to Coral Reefs: Half a billion people depend on coral reefs for food, income, and protection, but MHWs pose a grave threat to these ecosystems, impacting human livelihoods.
- Socio-Economic Impact: Coastal communities are particularly vulnerable to the socio-economic impacts of MHWs, affecting fisheries and tourism.
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[pib] IMD launches Heat Index
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IMD Heat Index
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Union Ministry of Earth Sciences informed that the India Meteorological Department (IMD) has introduced the Heat Index on an experimental basis.
IMD Heat Index
- The Heat Index aims to provide general guidance for regions in India where the combination of temperature and humidity leads to higher apparent temperatures, causing discomfort for people.
- It is derived using an equation similar to the one used by the National Weather Service, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) in the USA.
- It considers the impact of humidity on high temperatures, providing a “feel-like” temperature for human beings and indicating the level of discomfort.
Color Codes for Experimental Heat Index
The Heat Index is represented with different color codes to signify the varying levels of heat impact and discomfort:
- Green: Below 35°C
- Yellow: Range of 36-45°C
- Orange: Range of 46-55°C
- Red: Above 55°C
Mitigating heat impact in India
- The Heat Index is currently being implemented on an experimental basis across India, including Andhra Pradesh.
- Under the Heat Action Plan, the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) collaborates with local agencies such as the Indian Institute of Public Health (IIPH) to implement the Heat Index project for Bhubaneshwar and Ahmedabad.
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Heat domes, anticyclones and climate change: What’s causing heat waves across the world?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heatwaves, heat domes ,el nino , ocean warming etc and their interactions and impacts
Mains level: Rising Heatwaves across the globe, factors, impacts and mitigating strategies
What’s the news?
- The average daily global temperature on Thursday was recorded at 17.12 degrees Celsius, encompassing measurements over land, ocean, ice sheets, and mountainous snow regions.
Central idea
- In a concerning announcement, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) declared June as the hottest month ever recorded on Earth since temperature tracking began 174 years ago. The heatwave has persisted into July, with 18 out of the first 20 days witnessing unprecedented average daily global temperatures.
What is Heat-wave?
- A heatwave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.
- Heatwaves usually last for several days or weeks and can occur in both dry and humid
- Characterized by temperatures that are significantly higher than the average for a particular region during that time of year.
What are heat domes?
- A heat dome occurs when an area of high-pressure stays over a region for days and weeks. It traps warm air, just like a lid on a pot, for an extended period.
- The longer that air remains trapped, the more the sun works to heat the air, producing warmer conditions with every passing day.
- Heat domes, if they last for a long period, may cause deadly heat waves.
What are Anticyclones?
- An anticyclone, also known as a high-pressure system, is essentially an area of high pressure in which the air goes downwards towards the Earth’s surface.
- As the air sinks, its molecules get compressed, which increases the pressure, making it warmer. This causes dry and hot weather.
- The winds remain calm and gentle during an anticyclone, and there is almost no formation of clouds because here the air sinks rather than rises.
Factors behind this scorching trend?
- Climate change: The primary driver behind the escalating heatwaves and rising global temperatures is human-induced climate change.
- The burning of fossil fuels, deforestation, industrial processes, and other human activities release greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide (N2O), into the atmosphere. These gases trap heat and lead to the greenhouse effect, resulting in the warming of the Earth’s surface.
- El Nino events, characterized by abnormal warming of surface waters in the equatorial Pacific Ocean, can elevate temperatures worldwide and exacerbate heatwaves.
- Heat domes and anticyclones are weather phenomena that can intensify and extend heatwaves.
- Warmer oceans release more heat into the atmosphere, fueling extreme weather events like heatwaves.
- Urban areas with concrete and asphalt surfaces can create heat islands that retain and amplify heat, leading to higher temperatures within cities compared to surrounding rural areas.
- Climate change can trigger feedback loops that amplify its effects. For example, melting ice in the Arctic reduces the Earth’s reflective surface, leading to increased absorption of sunlight and further warming.
*NOTE: Although heat domes and anticyclones don’t occur due to climate change, they have become more intense and longer as a result of soaring global temperatures.
Impact of Heatwaves
1.Human Health Impacts:
- Heat-related Illnesses: Heatwaves can cause heat-related illnesses such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, which can be life-threatening if not treated promptly. The elderly, young children, and individuals with pre-existing health conditions are more vulnerable.
- Dehydration: High temperatures and excessive sweating can lead to dehydration, especially if individuals do not consume enough fluids.
2.Impact on Agriculture:
- Crop Failure: Prolonged heatwaves can cause damage to crops and reduce agricultural yields due to drought conditions and water shortages.
- Livestock Stress: High temperatures can lead to heat stress in livestock, affecting their productivity and overall health.
3.Environmental Impact:
- Drought: Heatwaves can contribute to drought conditions by increasing evaporation and reducing water availability, leading to water scarcity and affecting ecosystems.
- Wildfires: Hot and dry conditions during heatwaves can increase the risk of wildfires, leading to extensive damage to forests and wildlife habitats.
- Water Quality: Heatwaves can lead to higher water temperatures, which may negatively impact aquatic ecosystems and decrease water quality.
4.Energy Demand and Infrastructure Stress:
- Increased Energy Consumption: Heatwaves result in higher energy demand due to the use of air conditioning and cooling systems, putting strain on the power grid.
- Power Outages: The increased demand for electricity during heatwaves can lead to power outages if the electrical infrastructure becomes overloaded.
5.Social and Economic Impact:
- Disruption of Daily Activities: Heatwaves can disrupt daily life, making it uncomfortable to work, travel, or engage in outdoor activities.
- Economic Losses: Heatwaves can result in productivity losses, increased healthcare costs, and damage to infrastructure, leading to economic impacts on communities and businesses.
Worse affected countries
- United States: North America, particularly the United States, has experienced prolonged heatwaves covering a large swath of the country. States like California, Florida, New Mexico, and Arizona have been experiencing extreme temperatures. Temperature remained around 43.3 degree Celsius.
- Europe: Countries in Europe, such as Italy and Greece, have been gripped by two consecutive heatwaves. Italy’s island of Sardinia saw temperatures reaching 47.7 degrees Celsius, and Greece experienced temperatures exceeding 40 degrees Celsius, leading to wildfires and affecting historical sites.
- Spain: Spain witnessed a temperature of 45.4 degrees Celsius in the town of Figueres, the highest temperature recorded in the country since 1928. It led to dry spells and wildfires.
- Asia: China, Iraq and Saudi Arabia remain some of the worst affected countries. A remote township in China saw temperatures touching 52 degree Celsius
- Algeria: North Africa’s Algeria has reported record-breaking temperatures, with some experts suggesting temperatures exceeding 50 degrees Celsius in certain areas.
- Tunisia: Tunisia has also been impacted by severe heatwaves, with temperatures reaching up to 49 degrees Celsius in some regions.
Mains Marks enhancer: Best Practices in India
- Andhra Pradesh:
- Setting up Heat Action Plans: Cities like Vijayawada have implemented Heat Action Plans that include public awareness campaigns, heat helplines, and designated cooling centers to provide relief to vulnerable populations.
- Telangana:
- Early Warning Systems: The Telangana State Development Planning Society issues heatwave alerts and early warnings to district authorities and the public, allowing them to take precautionary measures.
- Rajasthan:
- Urban Heat Island Mitigation: Cities like Jaipur have implemented measures to reduce the urban heat island effect by promoting green spaces, reflective surfaces, and better urban planning.
- Gujarat:
- Cool Roofs: The Gujarat government has encouraged the use of cool roofs in buildings to reflect sunlight and reduce indoor temperatures during heatwaves.
- Tamil Nadu:
- Heatwave Awareness Programs: The Tamil Nadu government conducts awareness programs through schools, colleges, and community organizations to educate people about heatwave safety and preparedness.
Way forward: Urgent actions needed
- The international community must strengthen and implement the commitments made under climate agreements, such as the Paris Agreement.
- Countries should set more ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions
- Provide support to developing nations to enhance climate resilience and adaptation.
- Prioritize the transition to renewable energy sources and invest in clean technologies.
- Develop robust adaptation strategies such as involves establishing heat emergency response plans, cooling centers, and public awareness campaigns.
- Cities should adopt green urban planning practices, incorporating green spaces, green roofs, and sustainable building designs to mitigate the urban heat island effect and promote natural cooling.
- Promote sustainable land management practices, including reforestation and afforestation
- Enhance early warning systems to detect and respond to extreme heat events promptly.
Conclusion
- The alarming surge in global temperatures, culminating in devastating heatwaves across continents, is a potent reminder of the urgency to combat climate change. As nations grapple with the immediate impacts of heatwaves, it is imperative to take collective action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, mitigate the effects of climate change, and safeguard the planet for future generations. The time to act is now; the consequences of inaction are too dire to ignore.
Also read:
Heatwaves in India: Increasing Frequency Needs Range of Measures to Mitigate
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Places in news: Iriomote Island
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Iriomote Island , Coral Bleaching
Mains level: NA
Central Idea
- A notable example of colony resilience during a bleaching event is found near Japan’s Iriomote Island, where a colony bleached in 2016 exhibited signs of recovery by 2020.
About Iriomote Island
- Iriomote Island is a picturesque island located in the Yaeyama Islands, part of Okinawa Prefecture in Japan.
- It is the largest and southernmost inhabited island in the Yaeyama archipelago.
- With its lush jungles, mangrove forests, and diverse wildlife, Iriomote Island is often referred to as the “Galapagos of the East.”
- It is home to the Iriomote Yamaneko, or Iriomote cat, which is a critically endangered species of wildcat found only on this island.
- The dense mangrove forests along the island’s rivers and estuaries serve as an important habitat for numerous species of birds, fish, and other wildlife.
- To preserve the island’s unique ecosystem and cultural heritage, Iriomote Island is part of the Iriomote-Ishigaki National Park.
Back2Basics: Coral Reefs and Coral Bleaching
- Corals are marine invertebrates that form colonies of polyps, which multiply and create reef structures.
- Hard corals extract calcium carbonate to build hard exoskeletons, while soft corals add their skeletons to create coral reefs.
- Corals have a mutually beneficial relationship with single-celled algae called zooxanthellae.
- The zooxanthellae provide food and nutrients through photosynthesis, while corals provide a home and essential nutrients.
- The zooxanthellae give corals their vibrant colors.
Understanding Coral Bleaching
- Causes of Bleaching: Environmental stressors like temperature changes, pollution, and high ocean acidity lead to coral bleaching.
- Bleaching Process: Stressed corals expel the zooxanthellae, revealing their pale exoskeletons and disrupting the symbiotic relationship.
- Impacts of Bleaching: Severe and prolonged bleaching events can result in coral death and the loss of biodiversity.
Climate Change’s Impact on Coral Reefs
- Warming Seas: Rising carbon emissions and greenhouse gases have caused increased global warming, resulting in warmer ocean temperatures.
- Mass Bleaching: The frequency and intensity of mass bleaching events have risen in recent decades due to climate change.
- Projections: Even with greenhouse gas reduction efforts, temperatures are expected to rise by 1.5°C to 2°C by the end of the century.
Significance of Coral Reefs
- Biodiversity Hotspots: Coral reefs support over 25% of marine biodiversity despite covering only 1% of the seafloor.
- Economic Value: Reefs contribute $2.7 trillion annually through trade, tourism, and employment opportunities.
- Environmental Protection: Coral reefs provide habitat and serve as a natural defense against storm waves.
- Regeneration Potential: Dead reefs can recover if sufficient fish species graze on the weeds that settle on dead corals, although the process takes several years.
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How to prevent disruptions by flood and extreme weather events
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Vulnerabilities of urban India to climate change , Mitigation efforts
What is the news?
- The recent floods and extreme weather events in north-western India and Delhi highlight the urgent need for cities across the country to prepare for and adapt to the increasing impacts of climate change.
Central Idea
- As global and local warming intensify, the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as floods, water scarcity, and heatwaves will grow exponentially. Our current governance, planning, and infrastructure systems are ill-equipped to handle these rapid changes, necessitating proactive measures to mitigate future disruption
Challenges in urban areas
- Inadequate Water, Sanitation, and Drainage Infrastructure: Urban areas face challenges in providing basic services such as water supply, sanitation, drainage, and wastewater management. The existing infrastructure is often insufficient and struggles to deliver these services effectively.
- Concentration of Population and Economic Output: Cities concentrate a large portion of the population and economic activities, which increases their vulnerability to climate impacts. The dense built-up areas, coupled with poor infrastructure, exacerbate the effects of extreme weather events like flooding, water scarcity, and heatwaves.
- Irrational Land Use and Planning Systems: The irrational land use practices and planning systems worsen the challenges faced by cities. Encroachments, illegal constructions, and improper zoning further amplify the vulnerability of urban areas to climate impacts.
- Vulnerability of Informal Settlements and Slums: Millions of people are forced to live in informal settlements and slums with inadequate infrastructure and services. These areas are highly vulnerable to climate impacts, leading to increased risks and hardships for the residents.
- Impacts on Sensitive Regions: Cities located in sensitive regions along coastlines, rivers, and hills face even more severe impacts due to higher exposure and locational vulnerability. They are more prone to flooding, landslides, and other extreme events.
How to prevent disruptions by flood and extreme weather events?
- Ensuring Effective Drainage Systems:
- Urban civic bodies must conduct regular audits ahead of the monsoon season to ensure stormwater drains, tanks, and lakes are functional and free from obstructions.
- Integrating drainage, water supply, and wastewater systems in the medium term can store intense rainfall, recharge groundwater, and provide better services, ultimately limiting waterborne diseases.
- Improving Road Infrastructure:
- Rapid urban expansion has outpaced planned drainage systems, resulting in roads functioning as makeshift stormwater drains.
- Addressing local flooding requires the improvement of road construction and repair practices. Infrastructure planning and coordination should account for the impact of new constructions, such as flyovers, underpasses, and metro lines, on existing drainage systems to prevent post-flooding traffic bottlenecks.
- Implementing Blue-Green-Grey Infrastructure:
- Adopting blue-green-grey infrastructure, such as green roofs, urban forests, and wetlands, can mitigate flooding, water scarcity, and heatwaves.
- Learning from initiatives like China’s sponge cities and the effective flood defense mechanism provided by East Kolkata’s wetlands, Indian cities should prioritize nature-based solutions.
- Reducing Flood Vulnerability:
- Leveraging high-resolution satellite and topographical data, India can map all its cities and identify flood-prone areas. The focus should then shift to addressing the vulnerability of communities living in these areas, such as those along riverbanks, low-lying regions, and unstable slopes.
- Building community-based resilience and enhancing evacuation strategies will be crucial in minimizing the dislocation of millions during extreme events.
- Strengthening Early Warning Systems:
- Building on the progress made in improving forecasting, early warning, and evacuation systems in large cities like Mumbai and Surat, India must extend these measures to other at-risk areas.
- Additionally, critical services such as cellphone, power, and water supply should be fortified to ensure their resilience and rapid recovery post-disaster
Way forward
- Integrated Climate Action Plans: Develop comprehensive climate action plans involving multiple stakeholders to address floods and extreme weather events.
- Upgrading Infrastructure: Invest in resilient infrastructure, including improved drainage systems, upgraded road infrastructure, and integration of green infrastructure to manage stormwater and reduce flood risks.
- Robust Early Warning Systems: Strengthen early warning systems by improving forecasting capabilities, enhancing communication channels, and conducting regular drills and awareness campaigns.
- Community Engagement and Resilience: Empower local communities, educate residents about flood risks, promote preparedness, and encourage sustainable practices such as rainwater harvesting and waste management.
- Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: Develop and enforce robust policy and regulatory frameworks that integrate climate considerations to prevent encroachments and ensure resilient urban development.
- Climate Financing: Explore climate financing mechanisms and partnerships to secure funding for climate adaptation projects, leveraging national and international funds, private sector entities, and climate finance initiatives.
- Capacity Building and Knowledge Exchange: Enhance capacity through training programs and knowledge exchange platforms for urban planners, officials, and community leaders to accelerate the adoption of effective flood and extreme weather mitigation strategies
Conclusion
- Protecting and preparing Indian cities for the future impacts of climate change is imperative. It is crucial to acknowledge that climate change is a harsh reality requiring collective adaptation efforts, regardless of socio-economic status. By implementing these measures, Indian cities can enhance their climate resilience and safeguard the well-being of their inhabitants
Also read:
The lesson from a monsoon-battered North India: Time to be prepared
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The lesson from a monsoon-battered North India: Time to be prepared
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Factors attributed Climate change
Mains level: Increasing Trend of Extreme Rainfall and flash floods, its impact and mitigating measures
What is the news?
- Last weekend, parts of North India witnessed heavy rains that triggered flash floods and left a trail of destruction, tragically it resulted in at least 50 reported deaths. Himachal Pradesh was the worst affected. Several places in Haryana, Punjab and Himachal Pradesh reported record rainfall.
Central idea
- Last weekend, North India faced a calamity as torrential rains triggered flash floods and wreaked havoc across the region. Understanding the factors that led to this catastrophe is crucial in developing effective strategies to mitigate the impact of such extreme weather events in the future.
Fundamental characteristics of monsoon rainfall in the region
- Concentrated Timeframe: Monsoon rainfall in the region is not evenly distributed throughout the year. Instead, it occurs within a specific timeframe. All the seasonal rainfall (about 80-100 cm) falls within 130-150 hours, which is a relatively short period.
- Heavy Rain Contribution: The heavy rains play a significant role in contributing to the overall seasonal precipitation. Half of the seasonal rainfall (40-50 cm) occurs in only 30-40 hours.
- Runoff: When heavy rains occur, most of the rainwater drains away as runoff, particularly when the soil is already wet. This indicates that a substantial amount of rainfall does not get absorbed into the ground but flows off as surface runoff.
Factors attributed to the Heavy Downpour in north India
- Active Monsoon and Moisture Influx: An active monsoon season with strong winds in the lower air layers brought in moisture from the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea. These moisture-laden winds contributed to the heavy rainfall in the region.
- Atmospheric Forcing and Eastward Moving Troughs: Large-scale atmospheric forcing, in the form of outflows in the upper layers of the atmosphere, moved eastward through mid-latitude troughs. These troughs directed the flow of moisture towards the Himalayan region, exacerbating the intensity of the rainfall.
- Orographic Uplift and Steep Terrain: The steep terrain of the Himalayas, combined with orographic uplift, played a significant role in intensifying the precipitation. When air masses encounter the mountains, they are forced to rise, resulting in enhanced rainfall.
- Synoptic Conditions and Moisture Intrusion: The synoptic conditions during the period were conducive to heavy rainfall. The monsoon was active, with strong moist easterly winds entering the region. Additionally, there was moisture intrusion from the North Arabian Sea, further augmenting the rainfall.
Increasing Trend of Extreme Rainfall
- Tripled Number of Extreme Rainfall Events: Recent studies indicate that the number of extreme rainfall events, defined as rainfall exceeding 15 cm in 24 hours, has tripled in many parts of the country.
- Prolonged Duration of Rainstorms: The duration of rainstorms has also tripled, indicating that rainfall events are lasting longer, potentially leading to higher rainfall accumulation.
- Decreased Number of Rainy Days and Hours: The total number of rainy days and hours during the monsoon season has decreased. This means that when it does rain, it tends to be in the form of heavy downpours rather than spread out over more frequent but lighter rainfall events.
- Regional Variation: Central India has been particularly affected by the increasing trend of extreme rainfall events, with a significant rise in both frequency and intensity.
- Himalayan Region Prone to Extreme Rainfall: The Himalayan region, with its complex topography and varied weather patterns, is prone to extreme rainfall events. Studies indicate that 65 percent of areas in the region show a positive trend in the frequency of daily rainfall extremes.
Impact of Arctic Warming on Monsoon Climate
- Increased Frequency of Blocking Highs and Mid-latitude Troughs: Arctic warming has been observed to influence the monsoon climate through changes in mid-latitude circulation. As the Arctic warms and sea ice recedes, there is growing evidence of an increased frequency of blocking highs and deep mid-latitude troughs. These atmospheric patterns can affect weather systems and contribute to extreme rainfall events during the monsoon season.
- Influence on Circulation Patterns: Observations and models suggest that Arctic warming can alter circulation patterns, including the movement of air masses, pressure systems, and wind patterns. These changes can have cascading effects on the monsoon climate, including the transport of moisture and atmospheric conditions that contribute to heavy rainfall events.
- Impact on Monsoon Dynamics: The warming of the Arctic and subsequent changes in circulation patterns can affect the dynamics of the monsoon. This can lead to shifts in moisture inflow, atmospheric stability, and the timing and intensity of rainfall during the monsoon season.
- Potential for Future Changes: As Arctic warming continues; it is expected that the impacts on the monsoon climate will persist and potentially intensify. This suggests that the influence of Arctic warming on the monsoon may contribute to further changes in extreme precipitation patterns and associated impacts in the future.
Way forward: Mitigation Strategies for Flooding
- Robust Early Warning System: Implement a comprehensive early warning system that utilizes meteorological observations, including Doppler weather radar and high-resolution numerical weather prediction models. Advanced technologies like artificial intelligence and machine learning can aid in interpreting the data, enhancing the accuracy and timeliness of alerts.
- Continuous Monitoring and Flood Warning Systems: Continuously monitor rainfall patterns, river levels, and deploy an advanced flood warning system. This integrated approach allows for timely response and evacuation plans to safeguard vulnerable communities.
- Flood Risk Maps: Develop flood risk maps incorporating topography, historical flood data, and hydrological modeling. These maps can identify high-risk zones and guide targeted actions to enhance preparedness and resilience.
- Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Improve and maintain climate-resilient infrastructure, including robust drainage systems and channels, to prevent waterlogging and minimize flood damage.
- Land Use Planning and Zoning Regulations: Implement effective land use planning and zoning regulations, designating flash flood-prone areas as non-residential or restricted zones to mitigate potential risks.
- Protection and Restoration of Natural Ecosystems: Prioritize the protection and restoration of natural ecosystems such as forests and wetlands. These natural buffers can absorb rainfall and reduce runoff, mitigating the intensity of floods.
- Public Awareness Campaigns: Conduct widespread awareness campaigns to educate individuals on flood response and preparedness. Encourage actions such as evacuation planning, first aid knowledge, and reliance on credible sources of information during emergencies
Conclusion
- Recognizing the escalating threat of extreme precipitation events and implementing proactive measures are pivotal in improving India’s resilience to climate-induced disasters. Building resilience is crucial to safeguarding vulnerable communities and ensuring a sustainable future for the nation.
Also read:
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Groundwater extraction shifted the Earth’s axis: What a new study says
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Earth's Axis and Rotation
Mains level: Adverse effects of human-induced changes on our planet, Include these as examples
Central Idea
- In a recent study, researchers have revealed that human activities, particularly the extraction of groundwater, have had a discernible impact on Earth’s axis and contributed to the rise in global sea levels. This phenomenon, known as polar motion, occurs as the mass distribution within and on the planet changes. While the shift in the axis may not have immediate real-life consequences, it underscores the significant influence of human actions on our planet’s delicate balance.
*Relevance of the topic:
*Important geological phenomenon and Contribution of human activities to climate change and its impact
*Also, recent new research suggests that Earth’s inner core may now be rotating slower than its surface, potentially indicating a change in its rotational dynamics
*Quick facts for prelims on geological phenomenon
The phenomenon of Earth’s rotation
- Rotation Axis: The Earth rotates around an imaginary line called the rotation axis, which runs through the North Pole, the center of the Earth, and the South Pole. This axis remains fixed in space, and the Earth completes one full rotation around it in approximately 24 hours.
- Rotation Direction: The Earth rotates from west to east, which is why we perceive the sun and other celestial objects to rise in the east and set in the west.
- Speed of Rotation: The Earth rotates at a relatively constant speed. The equator experiences the fastest rotational speed, which is approximately 1,670 kilometers per hour (1,040 miles per hour). The rotational speed gradually decreases towards the poles.
- Effects of Rotation:
- Day and Night: As the Earth rotates, different parts of the planet are exposed to sunlight, creating the cycle of day and night.
- Coriolis Effect: The rotation of the Earth influences the movement of air and ocean currents, giving rise to the Coriolis effect. This effect causes moving objects (such as winds and ocean currents) to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere.
- Shape of the Earth: Earth’s rotation causes it to bulge slightly at the equator and flatten at the poles, resulting in an oblate spheroid shape.
- Centrifugal Force: The rotation generates a centrifugal force that slightly counteracts the force of gravity, leading to a slightly lower effective gravity at the equator compared to the poles.
- Polar Motion: Earth’s axis and the location of the poles are not fixed and can undergo slight movements. This phenomenon, known as polar motion, occurs due to various factors, including mass redistribution within the Earth, changes in water distribution, and atmospheric pressure variations.
The new findings of the study on the impact of groundwater extraction on Earth’s axis
- Groundwater Extraction and Axis Shift: The study revealed that groundwater extraction plays a significant role in the shift of Earth’s rotational axis. The redistribution of groundwater resulting from activities like irrigation and meeting freshwater demands was found to be the largest contributor to the drift of the rotational pole.
- Impact of Midlatitude Groundwater Extraction: The research showed that groundwater extraction from regions located at the Earth’s midlatitudes, specifically North America and northwestern India, had a more pronounced effect on polar motion compared to extraction taking place at the poles or equator. This finding highlights the sensitivity of the rotational pole to mass changes in midlatitude areas.
- Contribution to Sea Level Rise: The study confirmed that groundwater extraction is a major contributor to the rise in global sea levels. The water extracted from the ground for various purposes eventually finds its way into the oceans. The researchers’ calculations aligned with previous studies, which estimated that groundwater extraction raised global sea levels by 6.24mm between 1993 and 2010
Impact of Climate Change on Polar Motion
- Changes in Water Mass Distribution: Climate change is causing significant changes in the distribution of water masses on Earth. The melting of glaciers, ice sheets, and polar ice caps contributes to the redistribution of water from land to the oceans. This alteration in water mass distribution affects the planet’s rotational dynamics, including polar motion.
- Melting of Greenland’s Ice: Greenland’s ice sheet is particularly susceptible to climate change. As it melts, vast amounts of water are discharged into the surrounding oceans. This influx of water alters the distribution of mass on Earth, leading to shifts in the rotational axis.
- Accelerated Rotational Axis Shift: Recent studies suggest that climate change has accelerated the shift of Earth’s rotational axis since the 1990s. The increased melting of glaciers and ice sheets, combined with other climate-driven changes in water distribution, has intensified the movement of the rotational axis compared to historical patterns.
- Influence on Polar Motion Magnitude: Climate-driven changes in water mass distribution have been found to have a significant impact on the magnitude of polar motion. The redistribution of water, particularly from the melting of ice, affects the planet’s overall mass distribution, causing shifts in the rotational pole.
What is the Significance of the Study?
- Understanding Human Influence: The study highlights the significant influence of human activities, specifically groundwater extraction, on Earth’s rotational dynamics and polar motion. It emphasizes the need to recognize and account for human-induced changes in the delicate balance of the planet.
- Environmental Consequences: By identifying groundwater extraction as a major contributor to global sea level rise, the study emphasizes the environmental consequences of excessive groundwater usage. It highlights the importance of sustainable groundwater management to mitigate the adverse effects on sea levels and coastal regions.
- Climate Change Interactions: The findings establish a connection between climate change and Earth’s rotational dynamics. The study adds to the body of knowledge on how climate-driven changes in water distribution, including melting glaciers and ice sheets, can influence polar motion. Understanding these interactions contributes to a comprehensive understanding of climate change impacts.
- Policy and Management Implications: The study provides valuable insights for policymakers, water resource managers, and environmental planners. It underscores the need to incorporate the impact of groundwater extraction on Earth’s axis and sea levels into decision-making processes. It highlights the urgency of implementing sustainable practices to manage groundwater resources effectively and mitigate adverse environmental effects.
- Scientific Advancements: The study contributes to the field of geodesy, which focuses on the measurement and understanding of Earth’s shape, gravity, and rotation. It enhances our understanding of Earth’s rotational dynamics and the complex interactions between various factors influencing polar motion.
Conclusion
- The study’s results emphasize the need to recognize the far-reaching consequences of human activities on the Earth’s delicate equilibrium. Groundwater extraction, driven by agricultural and freshwater needs, has been found to impact the planet’s rotational axis, leading to polar motion and contributing to global sea level rise. Understanding these interactions is crucial for effective environmental management and sustainable practices to mitigate the adverse effects of human-induced changes on our planet
Also read:
| Earth’s inner core rotating slower than surface: Study |
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Blue Ocean Event: Arctic Ocean to be Ice-Free by 2030s
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Blue Ocean Event
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- A new study published in Nature Communications warns that the Arctic Ocean could be ice-free in summer by the 2030s, even with significant emission reduction efforts.
- This alarming conclusion challenges previous predictions and highlights the global, damaging, and dangerous consequences of such a scenario.
Accelerated Climate Heating in the Arctic
- Fastest Heating: The Arctic region has been experiencing climate heating at a faster rate than any other part of the planet, making it a frontline area for climate change.
- Focus on Sea Ice: Scientists and local indigenous communities closely monitor the sea ice that covers much of the Arctic Ocean during winter, as it is a critical indicator of climate change.
- Diminishing Sea Ice: Over the past 40 years, multiyear sea ice, which remains at the end of summer, has reduced from approximately 7 million sq. km to 4 million sq. km, representing a significant loss.
Predicting an Ice-Free Arctic: Blue Ocean Event
- What is it: Scientists have been studying when the Arctic Ocean might become ice-free in summer, known as a “blue ocean event,” defined by the sea ice area dropping below 1 million sq. km.
- Complex Modeling: Sea ice is challenging to model accurately due to its sensitivity to atmospheric and oceanic circulation and heat transfer. Previous climate models underestimated the loss of sea ice compared to actual observations.
- Observationally Constrained Projections: The latest study takes a calibrated approach, using observational data to refine the models and project sea ice decline. It suggests the Arctic could become ice-free in summer as early as the 2030s, even with emission reductions.
Implications of an Ice-Free Arctic:
- Climate Feedback: The loss of Arctic sea ice amplifies warming through positive feedback, as it reduces sunlight absorption by the ocean, potentially accelerating the melting of the Greenland ice sheet and contributing to sea-level rise.
- Environmental Shifts: An ice-free Arctic would lead to changes in atmospheric circulation, storm tracks, and ocean biological activity, with far-reaching and undesirable consequences.
- Slender Benefits: While there may be some perceived benefits, such as shorter shipping routes, they pale in comparison to the negative impacts on the climate system and global ecosystems.
Conclusion
- The potential ice-free Arctic Ocean by the 2030s, as indicated by the study, underscores the urgent need for climate action.
- The consequences of such a scenario extend far beyond.
- The study highlights the imperative of mitigating climate change to avoid further damage to the Arctic and the planet as a whole.
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Bonn Climate Conference: Key Takeaways
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Stocktake (GST)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The Bonn Climate Change Conference was held from 5 to 15 June 2023.
- Building on the mandates that emerged from COP 27 in Egypt last year, the conference hosted a large number of mandated events and continue discussions on issues of critical importance.
- It is expected to make progress on these and other important issues and prepare draft decisions for adoption at COP 28 / CMP 18 / CMA 5 in the UAE in December 2023.
Key ideas discussed
- Some progress was made on the global stocktake (GST) discussions.
- However, the issues of historical responsibility and finance remained contentious, hindering the strengthening of climate actions.
What is Global Stocktake (GST)?
- GST is a process established under the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change.
- It serves as a mechanism to assess global progress in addressing climate change and to enhance collective climate action.
- The GST aims to review the implementation of the Paris Agreement’s goals and targets and identify areas where additional efforts are needed to meet those objectives.
Key aspects of the Global Stocktake include:
- Timing: The Paris Agreement mandates that the GST be conducted every five years, starting in 2023. This regular assessment allows for tracking progress and adjusting strategies accordingly.
- Assessment of Collective Efforts: GST evaluates the collective efforts of all countries in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, adapting to the impacts of climate change, and providing support to developing nations.
- Review of Goals and Targets: It assesses the effectiveness of countries’ actions in meeting the long-term temperature goals outlined in the Paris Agreement, primarily the goal to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
- Transparency and Accountability: The GST promotes transparency and accountability by encouraging countries to report on their progress and actions taken toward achieving their climate goals. This allows for a comprehensive and objective assessment of global climate action.
- Identification of Gaps and Opportunities: The stocktake identifies gaps in collective efforts, including finance, technology transfer, and capacity-building support, and explores opportunities for enhanced actions to bridge those gaps.
- Decision-Making: The findings and recommendations from the GST inform future decision-making, including the setting of new targets and the adjustment of national climate plans, known as Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).
Challenges in Climate Negotiations
- Disputes and Delayed Agendas: Developed and developing countries engaged in disagreements, leading to delays in agreeing on meeting agendas.
- Historical Responsibility Debate: Australia’s attempt to diminish the historical responsibility of developed nations in causing global warming sparked controversy.
- Developing Countries’ Perspective: Developing nations emphasized the importance of acknowledging historical responsibility in addressing climate change.
- Potential Conflict at COP28: The issue of historical responsibility is expected to resurface at COP28, posing challenges to reaching consensus.
Finance and Technology Transfer
- Disparity in Support: Developing countries expressed concerns about inadequate financial and technological support from developed nations.
- Burden of Implementation: Insufficient funds hinder the ability of developing countries to implement robust climate action plans.
Future Outlook
(1) Bridging Adequacy Gap:
- Developed Nations’ Perspective: Australia and the United States questioned the sole responsibility of developed countries in bridging the adequacy gap.
- Developing Nations’ Concerns: Developing countries emphasized the need for financial support and technology transfers to enhance their climate actions.
- Value Addition: Bridging the adequacy gap requires global cooperation, equitable burden-sharing, and increased financial assistance for developing countries.
(2) Financing Climate Action:
- Insufficient Funds: Current financial commitments fall short of the required resources for implementing climate action plans.
- Summit for a New Global Financial Pact: A Paris summit aims to redirect global financial flows and raise new funds for climate change initiatives.
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Groundwater Extraction Shifts Earth’s Tilt Axis
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Earth's Axis and Rotation
Mains level: Not Much
Central Ideas
- A recent study conducted by scientists at Seoul National University has revealed that the extraction of groundwater from the earth has caused a shift in the planet’s axis, tilting it nearly 80 cm to the east.
- This phenomenon, along with the movement of water through melting ice caps and glaciers, has implications for both the earth’s rotation, sea-level rise, and the distribution of water resources.
Earth’s Axis and Rotation
- The Earth’s axis and rotation play significant roles in shaping our planet’s climate, seasons, and day-night cycles.
- Here are some key points about Earth’s axis and rotation:
- Axis: The axis is an imaginary line that extends between the North Pole and the South Pole and is tilted at an angle of approximately 23.5 degrees relative to its orbital plane around the Sun. This tilt is responsible for Earth’s seasons.
- Rotation: Earth rotates on its axis from west to east, completing one full rotation in approximately 24 hours. This rotation is what gives us the cycle of day and night. The side of the Earth facing the Sun experiences daylight, while the opposite side experiences darkness, resulting in day and night.
- Polar Regions: The axis of the Earth is inclined with respect to its orbital plane. This inclination causes the Polar Regions to experience variations in daylight throughout the year. During the summer solstice (around June 21), the North Pole is tilted towards the Sun, resulting in 24 hours of continuous daylight in the Arctic Circle and 24 hours of darkness in the Antarctic Circle. The opposite occurs during the winter solstice (around December 21).
- Equator: The equator is an imaginary line equidistant from the poles and divides the Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. The equator experiences relatively consistent day and night lengths throughout the year, with two equinoxes occurring when the Sun is directly above the equator. During the equinoxes (around March 21 and September 21), day and night are approximately equal in length worldwide.
- Precession (Cyclic Wobble): In addition to its axial tilt, Earth experiences a slow, cyclic wobble called precession. This wobble causes the orientation of Earth’s axis to change slightly over a period of approximately 26,000 years. Precession does not affect the tilt or the length of the seasons but does influence the positions of the celestial poles and the timing of Earth’s closest approach to the Sun (perihelion) and farthest point (aphelion).
Why in news?
- Unlike a stable rotating globe, the earth’s axis experiences a wobble due to various factors such as weather, seasonal changes, the molten core, and natural events like hurricanes.
- Scientists track this motion relative to astronomical phenomena, but the role of water movement, including groundwater extraction, had not been fully considered until now.
- The earth’s axis wobbles in a circular pattern several meters wide every year.
Study Findings
- Researchers at Seoul National University built a climate model linking the earth’s axis shift with water movement, including the melting of ice caps and glaciers.
- Initially, the model did not match the observed drift of the axis until groundwater extraction was added to the equation.
- Groundwater pumping accounted for the unexplained cause of the rotation pole drift.
- The shift in the earth’s axis due to groundwater extraction was measured at nearly 80 cm tilt to the east.
Implications for Sea-Level Rise
- The study revealed that approximately 2,150 billion tonnes of groundwater were pumped and drained into the oceans between 1993 and 2010, contributing to a sea-level rise of 6.24 mm.
- Groundwater depletion plays a significant role in the location and magnitude of the axis drift.
- Mid-latitude regions, particularly northwest India and western North America, showed the most significant groundwater redistribution effects.
Impact on Water Resources
- Groundwater extraction for human activities, including irrigation, is affecting the distribution and availability of water resources.
- Excessive groundwater pumping has led to a significant redistribution of water, altering the balance between surface water and groundwater reserves.
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Private: India Heating up Slower
Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Climate Change: Urgent Action Needed for a Sustainable Future
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Extreme weather events phenomenon exacerbated by climate change and Impact on Indian monsoon
Mains level: Climate change induced severity of weather events, impacts and Responsibility of Wealthier Nations in Addressing the Climate Crisis
Central Idea
- The recent reports on the southwest monsoon in India have sparked concerns about the impact of climate change on weather patterns. The adverse consequences of extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, and crop damage, highlight the urgent need to address the climate crisis. The World Meteorological Organisation’s alarming report on global temperatures crossing the 1.5 degrees Celsius mark underscores the severity of the climate emergency.
How the Government Actions are Not Sufficient to Address the Climate Crisis?
- Insufficient Emissions Reduction Targets: Many governments have set emissions reduction targets that are insufficient to meet the goals outlined in international agreements such as the Paris Agreement. These targets often fall short of what is required to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels.
- Slow Implementation of Renewable Energy Policies: Governments have been slow to implement and scale up policies and incentives to promote renewable energy sources. The transition to renewable energy is crucial for reducing greenhouse gas emissions, but many governments have not provided adequate support or created an enabling environment for renewable energy development.
- Reliance on Fossil Fuels: Governments continue to subsidize and support the fossil fuel industry, which contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions. These subsidies impede the transition to cleaner energy sources and perpetuate the use of fossil fuels, despite their detrimental environmental impact.
- Inadequate Climate Finance: The provision of climate finance, particularly from wealthier nations to developing countries, has fallen short of what is needed. The quantum of climate finance has not met the estimated requirements for adaptation and mitigation efforts outlined in international agreements like the Paris Agreement. This lack of financial support hinders developing countries’ ability to effectively address climate change.
- Limited Investment in Sustainable Infrastructure: Governments have been slow to invest in sustainable infrastructure projects that promote low-carbon transportation, energy-efficient buildings, and resilient urban planning. Without substantial investment in sustainable infrastructure, the transition to a low-carbon economy becomes more challenging.
- Weak Climate Policy Coordination: There is often a lack of coordination and collaboration between different government departments and agencies responsible for climate policy. This can lead to fragmented approaches and hinder the implementation of effective climate strategies.
- Insufficient Climate Education and Public Awareness: Governments have not done enough to educate the public about the severity and urgency of the climate crisis. This lack of awareness can limit public support for climate action and impede the adoption of sustainable behaviours and practices.
- Inadequate Preparedness for Climate Impacts: Governments have been slow to invest in measures to adapt to the impacts of climate change, such as building resilient infrastructure, implementing early warning systems, and developing climate-resilient agriculture practices. This leaves communities vulnerable to the adverse effects of climate change.
The Adverse Consequences of Extreme Weather Events Exacerbated by Climate Change
- Loss of Human Lives: Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, floods, heatwaves, and storms, can result in the loss of human lives. These events pose direct threats to individuals through injuries, drowning, and other hazards associated with severe weather conditions.
- Physical Injuries and Health Impacts: Extreme weather events often lead to physical injuries, including cuts, fractures, and trauma. Additionally, they can have significant health impacts, such as heat-related illnesses, respiratory problems from air pollution, and waterborne diseases in the aftermath of floods.
- Displacement and Homelessness: Severe weather events can displace large numbers of people from their homes. Flooding, hurricanes, and wildfires can destroy or severely damage houses, forcing individuals and communities to evacuate and seek temporary or long-term shelter.
- Infrastructure Damage: Extreme weather events can cause substantial damage to infrastructure, including roads, bridges, buildings, and power lines. This damage hampers transportation, communication, and access to essential services, disrupting daily life and impeding recovery efforts.
- Agricultural and Livelihood Losses: Droughts, floods, and storms can have devastating effects on agriculture and livelihoods. Crop failures, soil erosion, and livestock losses can result in food shortages, increased food prices, and economic instability for farmers and rural communities.
- Economic Losses: Extreme weather events impose significant economic burdens on affected regions. Costs associated with repairing infrastructure, rebuilding homes, and restoring businesses can be substantial. Moreover, disruptions to industries such as tourism, agriculture, and manufacturing can lead to job losses and economic downturns.’
- Ecological Impacts: Extreme weather events can cause ecological disruptions and harm biodiversity. For example, wildfires destroy habitats, leading to the loss of plant and animal species. Flooding can contaminate water bodies and disrupt aquatic ecosystems.
- Social and Psychological Impact: The aftermath of extreme weather events can take a toll on individuals’ mental and emotional well-being. Displacement, loss of homes, and the challenges of recovery can lead to stress, anxiety, and trauma, both in the short and long term.
Responsibility of Wealthier Nations in Addressing the Climate Crisis
- Historical Emissions: Wealthier nations, particularly industrialized countries, have historically been the largest contributors to global greenhouse gas emissions. Their extensive use of fossil fuels and industrial activities over the years has significantly contributed to the current climate crisis. As such, they bear a responsibility for their historical emissions and the consequent impacts on the climate.
- Technological and Financial Capacity: Wealthier nations possess greater technological and financial resources to invest in clean energy technologies, adaptation measures, and climate mitigation strategies. Their capacity to support research and development, innovation, and the deployment of sustainable technologies can play a crucial role in addressing the climate crisis.
- Climate Finance: Wealthier nations have an obligation to provide financial support to developing countries that are more vulnerable to climate change impacts but have fewer resources to address them. This includes fulfilling commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) to provide climate finance for adaptation and mitigation efforts in developing nations.
- Net Carbon Imports: Wealthier nations often rely on imported goods and services produced in countries with lower labor and environmental standards. These nations have a responsibility to account for the carbon emissions associated with their consumption and work towards reducing the carbon footprint of their supply chains.
- Technology Transfer and Capacity Building: Wealthier nations can facilitate the transfer of clean and sustainable technologies to developing countries, assisting them in their climate mitigation and adaptation efforts. Capacity building initiatives can empower developing nations to implement effective climate solutions and build resilience.
Scalable Solutions and Renewable Energy for sustainable Future
- Utility-Scale Solar Power: Solar energy has become one of the most scalable and cost-effective sources of power. Large-scale solar installations, such as solar farms and solar parks, can generate significant amounts of electricity and contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
- Wind Power: Wind farms, consisting of multiple wind turbines, can generate substantial amounts of electricity, particularly in regions with consistent wind patterns. Advances in wind turbine technology, including larger and more efficient turbines, have increased the capacity and scalability of wind power.
- Global Growth of Renewable Energy: Renewable energy sources, including solar, wind, hydropower, and geothermal, have experienced significant global growth in recent years. In 2022, 90 percent of the world’s power sector growth came from renewables.
- Falling Costs of Renewable Energy: The cost of renewable energy technologies, particularly solar and wind, has been steadily declining. This cost reduction has made renewable energy more economically attractive and scalable, even without subsidies. The decreasing costs of solar panels, wind turbines, and energy storage systems have contributed to the rapid growth of renewable energy installations worldwide.
- Expansion of Renewable Energy Capacity: Many countries have reported significant expansions of their renewable energy capacity. By increasing investments in renewable energy infrastructure, such as solar and wind power plants, countries have been able to scale up their clean energy generation and reduce dependence on fossil fuels.
- Renewable Energy in Developing Countries: Renewable energy is playing an increasingly important role in providing electricity access to developing countries. Off-grid solar power systems and mini-grids have allowed communities without access to centralized electricity grids to meet their energy needs sustainably. This decentralized approach to renewable energy deployment has facilitated scalability and expanded energy access.
Way Ahead: Opportunities for the Fossil Fuel Industry
- Expertise in Energy Technology: The fossil fuel industry possesses significant expertise in energy technology and infrastructure. This expertise can be leveraged to facilitate the development and deployment of renewable energy technologies. Fossil fuel companies can apply their engineering, project management, and operational skills to support the scaling up of renewable energy projects.
- Investment in Renewable Energy: Fossil fuel companies have the financial resources to invest in renewable energy projects. By diversifying their portfolios and investing in renewable energy technologies, they can contribute to the growth and scalability of clean energy.
- Offshore Capabilities: The offshore capabilities of the fossil fuel industry, particularly in areas such as offshore drilling and exploration, can be utilized in the development of offshore renewable energy sources. Offshore wind farms, for example, can benefit from the industry’s experience in offshore operations and infrastructure, facilitating the growth of this sector.
- Clean Energy Retail: Fossil fuel companies can become providers of clean energy to support the growing demand for renewable energy. By incorporating renewable energy sources into their energy portfolios and retailing clean energy, they can play a significant role in accelerating the adoption of renewables and facilitating the energy transition.
- Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): The fossil fuel industry can invest in and develop carbon capture and storage technologies. CCS technologies capture and store carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel power plants and industrial processes, reducing their environmental impact. By implementing CCS technologies, the industry can mitigate its carbon emissions while continuing to utilize fossil fuels during the transition period.
- Hydrogen Production: Fossil fuel companies can leverage their existing infrastructure and knowledge to participate in the production of clean hydrogen. Hydrogen produced through renewable energy sources, such as electrolysis, can be used as a low-carbon fuel or feedstock, providing an alternative to traditional fossil fuel-based processes.
- Energy Transition Workforce: The fossil fuel industry can support the transition by retraining and transitioning its workforce to work in renewable energy sectors. This can help mitigate the potential negative impacts on jobs and livelihoods associated with the decline of the fossil fuel industry, ensuring a just transition for workers.
Conclusion
- Climate change poses a grave threat to our planet and demands immediate and determined action from governments, corporations, and individuals. The reports of subpar southwest monsoon rains in India serve as a reminder of the increasing variability caused by climate change. The time for transformative change is now, and by adopting a long-term commitment to reducing emissions and investing in sustainable technologies, we can pave the way to a better and more resilient future
Also read:
| Climate Change and the role of Panchayat Raj Institutes (PRI’s) |
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
50th anniversary of World Environment Day
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Environment Day
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Plastics have become an integral part of human life, despite their adverse environmental impact.
- World Environment Day (5th June) serves as a reminder of our responsibility to address plastic pollution.
Why in news?
- 50th Anniversary of World Environment Day: The day, led by UNEP since 1973, marks its 50th anniversary this year.
- Global Platform for Environmental Outreach: World Environment Day has grown into the largest global platform for environmental outreach.
- Theme- #BeatPlasticPollution: This year’s World Environment Day focuses on the urgent need to combat plastic pollution.
World Environment Day 2023 |
|
| Date | June 5th |
| Theme (2023) | Ecosystem Restoration |
| Host Country (2023) | Pakistan |
| Established | World Environment Day was established in 1972 by the United Nations at the Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment |
| Purpose | To raise awareness and promote action for environmental protection |
| Importance | Platform for global environmental campaigns and initiatives |
| Activities | Various activities are organized worldwide, such as tree planting, clean-up drives, and educational programs |
| Previous Themes | Previous themes have focused on topics like biodiversity, air pollution, plastic pollution, and more |
| Organized by | United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) |
Plastic pollution and the need for Solutions
- Plastic pollution is a pressing global issue that requires immediate attention.
- Over 400 million tonnes of plastic are produced annually, with less than 10% being recycled.
- Plastic pollution negatively affects ecosystems and poses risks to human health.
Understanding Plastic Pollution
- Versatile Nature of Plastics: Plastics are synthetic materials capable of being shaped and molded according to requirements.
- Types of Plastics: Commodity plastics, such as PET, HDPE, PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS, dominate global production.
- Identification Codes and Different Properties: Plastics can be identified by their resin identification codes (RIC) and possess distinct properties.
Environmental impact of plastics
- Plastics have revolutionized various industries but raise significant environmental concerns.
- Plastics have a slow decomposition rate, leading to the persistence of plastic waste.
- Microplastics, including primary and secondary types, accumulate in various environments.
Health risks and toxic chemicals
- Microplastics contain toxic chemicals that pose risks to human health.
- Bisphenol A (BPA) in microplastics can have detrimental effects on human health.
Worst examples of Plastic Pollution
- The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a vast collection of plastic and microplastic waste.
- It was formed due to converging ocean currents and is situated in the North Pacific Ocean.
- It covers a surface area of 1.6 million sq km, with smaller patches in other oceans.
Actions against Plastic Pollution
- Urgency for Collective Action: Plastic pollution necessitates collective efforts and immediate action.
- World Environment Day’s Reminder of Responsibility: World Environment Day serves as a reminder of our responsibility to address plastic pollution.
Way forward
- Plastic Recycling: Advanced recycling technologies offer new ways to efficiently recycle plastic waste.
- Promoting Circular Economy Models: Embracing circular economy principles can reduce plastic waste and promote sustainable resource usage.
- Education and Awareness Campaigns: Spreading awareness and educating the public about the impact of plastic pollution can drive behavioral change.
- Collaboration between Industries and Governments: Cooperation between industries and governments is essential to develop comprehensive strategies for tackling plastic pollution.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Role of Evapotranspiration in Earth’s Dynamic Processes
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Evapotranspiration, Water Cycle
Mains level: NA
Central Idea: Evapotranspiration is a key process in Earth’s dynamic systems, impacting the movement of water and nutrients, influencing the water cycle, and providing crucial information for farmers to manage irrigation and water resources effectively.
Understanding Evapotranspiration
- Definition: Evapotranspiration refers to the movement of water from terrestrial surfaces into the atmosphere and is a crucial part of the planet-wide water cycle.
- Water cycle and its connection to evapotranspiration: Evapotranspiration is an amalgamation of evaporation (water loss from soil) and transpiration (water movement and loss by plants), both of which contribute to the overall movement of water in the water cycle.
- Breakdown of the term: Evapotranspiration encompasses the movement of water upward through plants and its subsequent loss into the air from exposed plant parts.
Factors affecting Evapotranspiration
- Rate of evapotranspiration: Several factors impact the rate of evapotranspiration, including solar radiation, day length, soil moisture levels, ambient temperature, wind conditions, and the amount of water vapour already present in the air.
- Insolation and its effect: The intensity of solar radiation directly affects the rate of evapotranspiration, as it provides the energy needed to evaporate water from terrestrial surfaces.
- Role of day length: The length of the day, soil moisture content, ambient temperature, wind patterns, and the moisture content of the air all contribute to the rate at which evapotranspiration occurs.
Historical significance of evapotranspiration
- Origin and age of the term: The term “evapotranspiration” has been in use for at least 86 years and was initially published with a hyphenated form.
- Contribution of Charles Warren Thornthwaite in 1944: Thornthwaite, an American climatologist, defined and popularized the term “evapotranspiration” in 1944.
- Relevance for farmers in estimating water needs for crops: Even today, evapotranspiration remains significant for farmers who utilize it to estimate the amount of water required to irrigate their crops effectively.
Back2Basics: Water Cycle
- The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle, is the continuous movement and circulation of water on, above, and below the Earth’s surface.
- Stages of the Water Cycle include:
- Evaporation: The process by which water changes from a liquid state to a gaseous state, rising into the atmosphere.
- Condensation: The cooling of water vapor in the atmosphere, causing it to change from a gaseous state back to a liquid state, forming clouds.
- Precipitation: When condensed water droplets combine and fall from the atmosphere as rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
- Runoff: The movement of water on the Earth’s surface, flowing into streams, rivers, lakes, and eventually into the oceans.
- Infiltration: The process by which water seeps into the ground and becomes groundwater.
- Transpiration: The release of water vapor from plant surfaces into the atmosphere.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Enhancing Agricultural Research and Development for Climate Resilience
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate change and associated facts
Mains level: Climate change impact and need of agricultural research and development
Central idea
- Recently the G-7 Summit 2023 held in Japan highlighted the urgent need to address climate change and set ambitious targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. India has the largest workforce (45.6 per cent in 2021-22) engaged in agriculture amongst G20 countries faces significant challenges. To mitigate the impact and ensure food and nutritional security, policymakers must prioritize agricultural research, development, education, and extension (ARDE).
Facts for prelims
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Importance of ARDE
- ARDE, which stands for Agricultural Research, Development, Education, and Extension, plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges faced by the agriculture sector, particularly in the context of climate change.
- Climate Resilience: Through research and development efforts, scientists and experts can identify crops and varieties that are more tolerant to changing climatic conditions, such as drought, heatwaves, or extreme rainfall. This enables farmers to adapt and minimize the negative impacts of climate change on crop yields and agricultural productivity.
- Resource Efficiency: By focusing on research and innovation, it aims to optimize the use of key resources like water, soil, and energy. This includes the development of precision farming techniques, efficient irrigation systems, soil management practices, and sustainable pest and disease control methods. Such advancements help conserve resources, reduce input costs, and minimize the environmental footprint of agriculture.
- Enhanced Productivity: This involves developing high-yielding crop varieties, improving agronomic practices, and disseminating knowledge and best practices through education and extension programs. By adopting these advancements, farmers can increase their yields, improve crop quality, and contribute to food security and economic growth.
- Sustainable Agriculture: ARDE focuses on reducing reliance on chemical inputs, minimizing soil degradation, preserving biodiversity, and promoting organic farming. Through research and education, it supports the transition towards more sustainable and environmentally friendly agricultural systems, ensuring the long-term viability of the sector.
- Innovation and Technology Adoption: By investing in research and development, it facilitates the discovery and dissemination of cutting-edge technologies, such as precision agriculture, genetic engineering, biotechnology, and smart farming solutions. These advancements help farmers improve efficiency, reduce losses, and enhance profitability.
- Knowledge Transfer and Capacity Building: They focus on disseminating research findings, best practices, and agricultural knowledge to farmers, rural communities, and agricultural stakeholders. By strengthening the knowledge base and building capacity, ARDE empowers farmers with the skills and information necessary to make informed decisions and improve their farming practices.
India’s challenges in adapting to climate change
- Vulnerability to Extreme Weather Events: India is highly susceptible to extreme weather events, including cyclones, floods, droughts, and heatwaves. These events can cause significant damage to infrastructure, agriculture, and livelihoods, impacting the overall resilience of communities.
- Water Scarcity and Stress: Climate change exacerbates water scarcity in many regions of India. Changes in rainfall patterns, melting glaciers, and rising temperatures affect water availability for agriculture, domestic use, and industries. This poses challenges for irrigation, drinking water supply, and overall water management.
- Agriculture and Food Security: The agricultural sector is crucial for India’s food security and rural livelihoods. However, climate change poses risks to crop yields, productivity, and quality. Erratic rainfall, increased pests and diseases, and extreme temperature fluctuations can impact crop growth and food production, leading to food security challenges.
- Coastal Vulnerability: India has a long coastline, making it highly vulnerable to sea-level rise, coastal erosion, and storm surges. Coastal regions face threats to infrastructure, settlements, agriculture, and ecosystems. Climate change-induced sea-level rise also increases the risk of saltwater intrusion, affecting freshwater sources and agriculture in coastal areas.
- Health Impacts: Climate change influences the spread of vector-borne diseases like malaria and dengue, as well as heat-related illnesses. Rising temperatures and changing rainfall patterns can affect the distribution of disease vectors and impact public health systems, particularly in vulnerable communities with limited access to healthcare.
- Biodiversity Loss and Ecosystem Disruption: Climate change poses risks to India’s rich biodiversity and ecosystems. Habitats, wildlife, and fragile ecosystems like coral reefs and mangroves face threats from changing temperatures, altered rainfall patterns, and habitat loss. This can disrupt ecological balance and affect natural resources vital for human well-being.
- Infrastructure Resilience: India’s infrastructure systems, including transportation networks, energy grids, and urban settlements, face challenges in adapting to climate change impacts. Infrastructure vulnerabilities can lead to disruptions in services, increased costs for repairs and maintenance, and hindered economic growth.
- Socio-economic Inequalities: Climate change impacts can exacerbate existing socio-economic inequalities in India. Vulnerable communities, such as small farmers, tribal populations, and marginalized groups, are disproportionately affected by climate risks due to their limited resources, lack of access to information, and inadequate adaptive capacities.
Policy Reforms for Climate Resilience
- National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy: Developing a comprehensive national strategy focused on climate change adaptation is essential. This strategy should identify priority sectors, vulnerable regions, and specific adaptation measures.
- Mainstreaming Climate Considerations: Integrating climate change considerations into sectoral policies and plans is vital. This includes incorporating climate resilience into agriculture, water management, urban planning, infrastructure development, and coastal zone management policies.
- Strengthening Institutional Frameworks: Establishing robust institutional frameworks and coordination mechanisms for climate adaptation is necessary. This includes enhancing the capacity of relevant government departments, local authorities, and institutions to implement adaptation measures effectively.
- Building Climate Information Systems: Developing and strengthening climate information systems includes improving meteorological services, climate monitoring networks, early warning systems, and climate data management. Accessible and reliable climate information helps policymakers, communities, and sectors plan and respond to climate risks effectively.
- Promoting Nature-Based Solutions: Encouraging nature-based solutions can enhance climate resilience. This involves conserving and restoring natural ecosystems such as forests, wetlands, and mangroves, which provide crucial ecosystem services. Nature-based solutions contribute to flood control, water regulation, carbon sequestration, and biodiversity conservation, thereby improving resilience to climate change.
Addressing Funding and Allocation Imbalance
- Scaling Up Experiments: To address climate change challenges effectively, increased funding allocation for ARDE is essential. While there has been an increase in total expenditure on ARDE, research intensity (ARDE as a percentage of agri-GDP) has declined. It is crucial to allocate more funds to scale up experiments and innovations in sustainable agriculture.
- Sector-wise Allocation: The current allocation of ARDE shows a skewed distribution towards crop husbandry, neglecting sectors like soil, water conservation, forestry, animal husbandry, dairy development, and fisheries. This imbalance needs correction to promote holistic agricultural research and development.
Conclusion
- As global temperatures rise and climate change impacts intensify, addressing remaining gaps in agricultural research and development becomes imperative. Increased investment in ARDE, realignment of expenditures and policies, and a focus on sustainable farming practices are essential to build climate resilience in India’s agriculture sector. By prioritizing these measures, India can secure food and nutritional security while mitigating the challenges posed by climate change.
Must read:
| Food security and Climate change: The Interlink |
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Slowing of Overturning Circulation in Antarctic
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Overturning Circulation
Mains level: Not Much
Central Idea
- Recent research indicates that the Antarctic overturning circulation, a global network of ocean currents, is slowing down at a faster rate than previously predicted.
- The overturning circulation is crucial for redistributing heat, carbon, and nutrients, and maintaining Earth’s climate stability and deep-ocean oxygen levels.
What is Overturning Circulation?
- The overturning circulation (OC) refers to the large-scale circulation pattern in the global ocean, involving both surface and deep currents.
- It is a network of ocean currents that plays a crucial role in redistributing heat, carbon, and nutrients around the globe.
- It is driven by the sinking of dense, cold, oxygen-rich water from the ocean surface to the deep ocean and the rising of less dense water in different regions.
How does it work?
- It operates on a global scale and involves the sinking and rising of water masses driven by density differences.
- Cold, dense water sinks in certain regions, while warmer, less dense water rises in other areas, creating a continuous flow of water.
Key components and processes
- Antarctic Bottom Water: Cold, dense water forms near Antarctica and sinks to the ocean floor, spreading northward along the seafloor.
- North Atlantic Deep Water: Another dense water mass forms in the North Atlantic and sinks to great depths.
- Thermohaline Circulation: Temperature and salinity differences drive the sinking and rising of water masses, influencing the overturning circulation.
- Deep Ocean Currents: Once the dense water sinks, it flows along the deep ocean basins, connecting various regions of the world ocean.
Observing and studying the OC
- Monitoring the overturning circulation is challenging due to its vast scale and complex dynamics.
- Observations include ship-based measurements, moored instruments, floats, satellites, and numerical models.
- Scientists use a combination of measurements and simulations to understand the behavior and changes in the overturning circulation.
Importance of the Overturning Circulation
- Heat redistribution: The overturning circulation helps regulate Earth’s climate by transporting heat from the equator to the poles and vice versa.
- Assist carbon cycle: It plays a vital role in redistributing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases, impacting the global carbon cycle.
- Nutrient cycling: The circulation also facilitates the transport of nutrients, affecting marine ecosystems and productivity.
Consequences of a Slowing OC
- Climatic changes: A slowdown in the overturning circulation can have significant consequences for Earth’s climate and marine ecosystems.
- Nutrient disruption: It can disrupt the transport of heat, carbon, and nutrients, leading to changes in regional and global climate patterns.
- De-oxygenation: Reduced oxygen supply to the deep ocean can affect deep-sea marine life and potentially lead to shifts in species distribution.
Impact of Melting Antarctic Ice
- Melting Antarctic ice disrupts the formation of Antarctic bottom water, a key component of the overturning circulation.
- Freshening of surface waters due to melt-water makes them less dense and less likely to sink, slowing down the circulation.
Future Outlook
- Antarctica’s ice loss is expected to continue and accelerate with global warming.
- Anticipated freshening due to increased ice loss will prolong the slowdown and further decrease deep-ocean oxygen levels.
- The consequences of the slowdown extend beyond Antarctica, affecting the global ocean, climate change, and sea level rise.
- Urgent action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is necessary to address these issues.
Way forward
- Intensify efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
- Implement measures to mitigate ice loss from Antarctica and address the freshening of surface waters.
- Promote scientific research and monitoring to understand and respond to the ongoing changes.
- Raise awareness about the importance of the overturning circulation and its impact on climate and marine ecosystems.
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Alarming Decline in Antarctic Sea Ice: A Harbinger of Global Concerns
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ice-albedo feedback cycle, Climate change, global sea rise
Mains level: Decline in Antarctic sea ice, global sea rise and impact on weather patters, Need of immediate actions
Central Idea
- The recent record-breaking drop in Antarctic Sea ice extent on February 19 has raised significant concerns about the impacts of global warming. This worrying trend, accompanied by rising global temperatures, poses a threat to coastal cities and has far-reaching consequences for weather patterns and underwater ecosystems. As sea ice continues to melt and global sea levels rise, urgent action is needed to address the environmental challenges presented by this alarming decline.
Melting Sea Ice and Rising Sea Levels: A worrying trend
- Over the past six years, the Antarctic Sea ice cover has witnessed substantial declines, resulting in a rise in global sea levels.
- NASA reports that meltwater from Antarctic ice accounts for approximately one-third of the global average sea level rise since 1993.
- The sea ice extent in 2023 has often been notably lower than the levels seen in 2022, which had the second-lowest summer sea ice extent in Antarctica.
- The Antarctic Sea ice extent as of May 21, 2023, has significantly shrunk compared to the median extent between 1981 and 2010
- The April temperature in the Antarctic region in 2023 was 0.93°C higher than the 1910-2000 average for that month, marking the second-highest increase in the millennium.
Impact decline in Antarctic Sea ice on Global Weather and Ecosystems
- Weather Pattern Alterations: The Southern Ocean, surrounding Antarctica, plays a crucial role in transferring heat from the atmosphere to the global oceans. Increased melting of Antarctic sea ice introduces cold, fresh water into the ocean, disrupting the circulation patterns of hot, cold, fresh, and salty water globally. This alteration in temperature and density can subsequently affect weather patterns, including wind patterns, precipitation, and storm formation.
- Oceanic Currents and Nutrient Flows: Changes in water temperature and density due to melting sea ice can disrupt oceanic currents and nutrient flows. These currents are vital for distributing heat, nutrients, and oxygen across the world’s oceans. The disturbance in these flows can have cascading effects on marine ecosystems, impacting the distribution and availability of nutrients for various organisms.
- Impact on Underwater Ecosystems: Sea ice serves as a critical habitat for various organisms, including algae, krill, and other marine life. Diminishing sea ice reduces the availability of food and alters the feeding patterns and reproductive cycles of species dependent on these ecosystems. This disruption can have significant consequences for the entire Antarctic food chain, affecting species such as whales, seals, penguins, and seabirds.
- Altered Albedo Effect: The decline in sea ice coverage reduces the Earth’s albedo effect. Albedo refers to the ability of a surface to reflect sunlight back into space. Sea ice has a high albedo, meaning it reflects a significant portion of incoming solar radiation. As sea ice diminishes, darker ocean water absorbs more solar radiation, leading to increased warming and amplifying the overall warming trend.
- Feedback Loops: The impacts of melting sea ice create feedback loops that exacerbate the effects of climate change. For example, as sea ice melts, more heat is absorbed by the ocean, further accelerating the melting process. These feedback loops contribute to the amplification of warming trends and the intensification of associated environmental changes.
Facts for prelims
What is ice-albedo feedback cycle?
Understand this way: How do the ice-albedo feedback cycle operate?
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Impact of Rising Sea Levels on coastal communities around the worldwide
- Increased Flooding and Erosion: As sea levels rise, coastal areas are more susceptible to storm surges, high tides, and extreme weather events. This puts low-lying regions, including coastal cities and communities, at greater risk of inundation, property damage, and displacement of residents.
- Coastal Infrastructure Vulnerability: Increased flooding and erosion can lead to the degradation and loss of critical infrastructure, disrupting transportation, energy supply, and essential services. This vulnerability can have substantial economic, social, and public safety implications.
- Threat to Freshwater Resources: Rising sea levels can infiltrate freshwater sources and contaminate underground aquifers, particularly in coastal regions where freshwater and saltwater interfaces occur. This intrusion of saltwater can compromise drinking water supplies, agricultural irrigation, and ecosystems dependent on freshwater resources, exacerbating water scarcity issues.
- Displacement of Communities: As coastal areas become uninhabitable due to sea-level rise and increased flooding, communities may face the prospect of forced relocation. This displacement can result in the loss of homes, cultural heritage, and livelihoods, leading to social disruption, economic challenges, and psychological impacts on affected populations.
- Ecological Impacts: Coastal ecosystems, including mangroves, coral reefs, and wetlands, provide critical habitats, buffer against storms, and support biodiversity. Rising sea levels can inundate and degrade these ecosystems, leading to the loss of valuable ecological services, increased vulnerability to coastal hazards, and reduced coastal resilience.
- Economic Consequences: The impacts of sea-level rise and coastal flooding can disrupt tourism, fishing, and shipping industries, leading to economic losses, job displacements, and decreased productivity. Additionally, the costs of coastal protection measures and infrastructure adaptations to rising sea levels can place a significant burden on local economies and governments.
Way Forward
- Strengthening International Cooperation: Collaborate at global forums to address climate change and its impact on Antarctica, emphasizing the need for reduced emissions and sustainable practices.
- Enhanced Monitoring and Research: Invest in further research to understand the dynamics of melting sea ice, its impact on ecosystems, and potential mitigation strategies.
- Promoting Sustainable Practices: Encourage sustainable practices and responsible tourism in the Antarctic region to minimize human impact on the fragile ecosystem.
- Climate Resilience Planning: Develop robust climate resilience plans for coastal cities and communities, considering rising sea levels and potential threats posed by diminishing sea ice.
- Raising Public Awareness: Educate the public about the consequences of melting Antarctic sea ice, fostering a collective sense of responsibility and encouraging individual actions to mitigate climate change.
Conclusion
- The alarming decline in Antarctic sea ice poses grave threats to global sea levels, weather patterns, and underwater ecosystems. Urgent action is required to mitigate climate change, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and promote sustainable practices. Through international collaboration, research, and public awareness, we can strive to protect the Antarctic region and safeguard coastal communities worldwide from the impacts of melting sea ice. The time to act is now, as the consequences of inaction will be felt by future generations.
Must read:
| Oceans absorb 90% of human-induced planet warming: Study |
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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.
Antarctic Sea Ice Cover at Record Low
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Antarctic
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- Sea ice in Antarctica reached its smallest area on record in February for the second consecutive year, continuing a decade-long decline.
Ice cover decline: Key data
(1) Square km decline
- The European Union’s Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) provided the figures, highlighting the significant decrease in Antarctic sea ice.
- On February 16, the ocean surface covered by ice around Antarctica shrank to 2.09 million square kilometers (800,000 square miles), the lowest level since satellite records began.
(2) Warming trends
- Both the North and South poles have experienced significant warming, with temperatures rising by approximately 3 degrees Celsius compared to late 19th-century levels, three times the global average.
- Arctic sea ice has been diminishing by about 3 percent per year since the late 1970s, while sea ice in Antarctica has remained relatively constant with large annual variations.
(3) Regional variances and vulnerabilities
- Recent ice cover reduction during the southern hemisphere summer has been most pronounced in West Antarctica, which is more vulnerable to the impacts of global warming compared to East Antarctica.
- Antarctica witnessed its first recorded heatwave in 2020, with temperatures 9.2 degrees Celsius above the mean maximum. Unusual temperature spikes have been observed in various parts of Antarctica.
- The Arctic has also experienced significant declines in sea ice, with the record minimum sea ice extent occurring in 2012.
Impact of declining Ice Cover
- Global sea level rise: Melting ice in Antarctica contributes to rising sea levels worldwide.
- Disruption of ecosystems: Declining ice cover disrupts habitats and food sources for ice-dependent species.
- Increased warming: Less ice reflects sunlight, leading to more heat absorption and further ice melting.
- Changes in ocean circulation: Declining ice cover can disrupt currents and impact global climate patterns.
- Release of stored carbon: Melting ice releases trapped carbon, potentially affecting marine ecosystems and contributing to climate change.
- Amplification of global warming: Reduced ice cover creates a positive feedback loop, exacerbating climate change.
- Disruption of biodiversity and food chains: Changing ice conditions impact species relying on ice algae and affect the overall Southern Ocean ecosystem.
Future projections
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicted with high confidence that the Arctic Ocean would become practically ice-free in September at least once by mid-century.
- The decreasing trends in both Arctic and Antarctic sea ice highlight the urgent need to address climate change and its impact on the Polar Regions.
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India-EU discuss ways to resolve Carbon Border Tax
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central Idea
- The EU and India are working to resolve a trade issue related to the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM).
Why such move?
- The EU is India’s second-largest trading partner and export market.
- India has expressed confidence that the intention behind CBAM was not to create a trade barrier but to promote sustainability.
- CBAM has potential impact on India’s Steel and Aluminum sectors.
Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)
| Proposed by | European Union (EU) |
| Purpose | To reduce carbon emissions from imported goods and prevent competitive disadvantage against countries with weaker environmental regulations |
| Objectives | Reduce carbon emissions from imported goods
Promote a level playing field between the EU and its trading partners Protect EU companies that have invested in green technologies |
How does CBAM work?
| Coverage | Applies to imported goods that are carbon-intensive |
| Integration | Covered by the EU’s Emissions Trading System (ETS), which currently covers industries like power generation, steel, and cement |
| Implementation | CBAM taxes would be imposed on the carbon content of imported goods at the border, and the tax rates would be based on the carbon price in the EU ETS |
| Exemptions | Possible exemptions for countries that have implemented comparable carbon pricing systems |
| Revenue Use | Revenue generated from CBAM taxes could be used to fund the EU’s climate objectives, such as financing climate-friendly investments and supporting developing countries’ climate efforts |
Who will be affected by CBAM?
| Details | |
| Countries | Non-EU countries, including India, that export carbon-intensive goods to the EU |
| Items | Initially covers iron and steel, cement, aluminium, fertilisers, and electric energy production |
| Expansion | The scope of the CBAM may expand to other sectors in the future |
Advantages offered
- Encourages non-EU countries to adopt more stringent environmental regulations, reducing global carbon emissions.
- Prevents carbon leakage by discouraging companies from relocating to countries with weaker environmental regulations.
- Generates revenue that could be used to support EU climate policies.
Challenges with CBAM
- Difficulty in accurately measuring the carbon emissions of imported goods, especially for countries without comprehensive carbon accounting systems.
- Potential for trade tensions with the EU’s trading partners, especially if other countries implement retaliatory measures.
Ways to ease impact of CBAM
To minimize the impact of CBAM, India can consider several actions:
- Set up a carbon trading mechanism: To reflect the level of development and adjust the carbon tax paid domestically when paying CBT to the EU.
- Re-designate taxes on essential products: Make these as carbon taxes, which could help lower the net impact of CBT.
- Create a cadre of energy auditors: To ensure fair assessment of carbon emissions for products and help the industry calculate carbon intensity and adopt cleaner technologies.
- Start an industry awareness program: To educate sectors affected by CBT and create a dedicated group involving government, industry associations, and researchers.
- Devise a WTO-compatible retaliation mechanism: To counter CBT, considering that developing countries exporting to developed nations will also suffer from it.
- Sign new Free Trade Agreements (FTAs): After resolving the CBT issue, as high CBT would undermine the benefits of zero import duties.
- Expose the perceived hypocrisy: Utilize global platforms to expose offshoring pollution of developed countries and proposing to tax imports, while not addressing their own consumption patterns.
Conclusion
- The CBAM is a proposed policy by the EU to reduce carbon emissions from imported goods and to promote a level playing field between the EU and its trading partners.
- Although the CBAM has its challenges, it has the potential to incentivize non-EU countries to adopt more stringent environmental regulations and reduce global carbon emissions.
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Preventing Heat Strokes: Lessons from Ahmedabad’s Heat Action Plan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat stroke and related terminologies in news
Mains level: Heat stroke related mortality and preventive measures
Central Idea
- The recent deaths of 14 people due to heat stroke in Navi Mumbai serves as a reminder of the dangers of heat waves, and with the IMD predicting a hotter summer this year, it’s essential that we take proactive steps to prevent heat-related deaths and illnesses. The Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (HAP), launched in 2013, offers a blueprint that can be applied across India to combat heat stroke-related mortality and morbidity.
What is Heat Stroke?
- Heat stroke is a severe and potentially life-threatening condition that occurs when the body’s temperature regulation system fails, leading to a dangerous increase in body temperature.
- This can happen when a person is exposed to high temperatures and humidity for prolonged periods, leading to dehydration, loss of fluids and electrolytes, and an inability to cool down through sweating.
- Symptoms of heat stroke include high body temperature, rapid heartbeat, rapid and shallow breathing, confusion, agitation, disorientation, seizures, and in severe cases, loss of consciousness and organ failure.
- Heat stroke requires immediate medical attention, as it can be fatal if left untreated.
Facts for prelims: Heat related terminologies in news
| Heat stroke: Heat stroke is a serious medical condition that occurs when the body’s temperature regulation system fails, and the body temperature rises to dangerous levels, usually above 104°F (40°C). It can lead to organ damage and even death if not treated promptly.
Heat cramps: Heat cramps are painful muscle contractions that can occur during physical activity in hot weather. Heat wave: A heat wave is a prolonged period of excessively hot weather, which can be accompanied by high humidity levels. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) defines a heat wave as when the daily maximum temperature of more than five consecutive days exceeds the average maximum temperature by 5°C, and the normal minimum temperature is also exceeded. Heat index: It is the measure of how hot it feels when relative humidity is added to actual air temperature. The higher the heat index, the hotter it feels. Thermal stress: It is the stress on the human body caused by high temperatures, humidity, and solar radiation. Urban Heat Island: It refers to the phenomenon where urban areas experience higher temperatures than surrounding rural areas due to human activities like transportation, industrialization, and construction. Wet bulb globe temperature: It is a measure of heat stress in direct sunlight, which takes into account temperature, humidity, wind speed, sun angle and cloud cover. Diurnal temperature range: It is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures in a 24-hour period. A low diurnal temperature range indicates high humidity and poor air quality. |
Features of Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (HAP)
- The Ahmedabad Heat Action Plan (HAP) includes five components that are designed to prevent heat stroke-related mortality and morbidity. These components are:
- Prediction and Alert System: The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) predicts temperature levels for over 500 cities and all districts of India. Local governments can use historical temperature data to issue red, orange, and yellow alerts depending on the severity of the heat wave.
- Public Awareness: Raising public awareness about the actions to be taken during heat waves. Simple measures like carrying water while going out, avoiding direct exposure to sunlight, and taking frequent rests can prevent heat stroke.
- Provision of Water and Shade: Providing water and shade in public places and construction sites.
- Vulnerable Populations: Special attention should be given to vulnerable populations like the elderly and those with comorbidities. Those who work outside, such as traffic police, labourers, and street vendors, should be informed about ways to protect themselves from heat stroke.
- Annual Review: Each city and district should appoint a Heat officer to ensure that the HAP is implemented effectively. An annual review of the plan can help identify areas for improvement and ensure that the most vulnerable are protected from heat stroke-related mortality and morbidity.
Why India have not paid much attention to heat-related mortality and morbidity?
- People accustomed to hot weather: Most people in India are accustomed to hot weather, and heat waves are not seen as a major threat. Traditionally, most cultures in India have words to describe heat stroke, and people know that it is a serious condition, so it has not been seen as a new or emerging issue.
- Weak commitment to public health: The country is facing several other pressing issues and has a weak national commitment to public health in general.
- Lack of awareness: Lack of awareness about the dangers of heat stroke and the need for preventive measures.
- Overshadow effect: The focus on communicable diseases and other health issues has overshadowed the impact of heat waves on public health.
- Limited research and data: Limited research and data on the extent of heat stroke-related morbidity and mortality in India.
- Limited resources: Limited infrastructure and resources for managing heat waves and providing relief to affected populations.
- Inadequate political will: Insufficient political will and resources to prioritize public health interventions related to heat waves.
Long-term measures that the government can take to combat the effects of heat waves
- Increase green cover: Trees and plants can help to reduce the effects of heat waves by providing shade and absorbing carbon dioxide. The government can undertake afforestation drives and promote the planting of trees in cities, towns, and villages.
- Promote cool roofs: Painting roofs white or using reflective roofing materials can help to reflect sunlight and reduce the absorption of heat. The government can promote the use of cool roofs in new construction and retrofitting of existing buildings.
- Improve access to water: Access to safe drinking water is crucial during heat waves. The government can undertake initiatives to improve access to water in public places, especially for vulnerable populations.
- Develop urban heat island mitigation strategies: Urban areas are more susceptible to the effects of heat waves due to the urban heat island effect. The government can develop strategies to mitigate the effects of urban heat islands, such as increasing green cover, promoting cool roofs, and improving ventilation in buildings.
- Improve healthcare infrastructure: The healthcare system must be prepared to deal with the increased incidence of heat stroke during heat waves. The government can improve healthcare infrastructure by increasing the number of hospitals and clinics, providing adequate medical supplies and equipment, and training healthcare professionals to deal with heat stroke cases.
- Improve public transport: The use of public transport can reduce the number of vehicles on the road, thereby reducing emissions and heat. The government can promote the use of public transport by improving the quality and availability of public transport services.
- Promote energy efficiency: The government can promote energy efficiency by undertaking energy audits of public buildings and promoting the use of energy-efficient appliances.
Conclusion
- The Heat Action Plan offers a simple, effective framework for preventing heat stroke-related deaths and illnesses. With interdepartmental coordination and top-level commitment, it is possible to protect vulnerable populations during heat waves. It is essential that all cities, districts, and villages in India prepare for heat waves and take proactive measures to prevent heat stroke-related mortality and morbidity.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by mean is Heat Stroke? India has witnessing high number of heat related mortality and morbidity. In light of this serious concern, illustrate how India can take measures to prevent heat stroke-related mortality and morbidity.
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Understanding Temperature Anomalies
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Temperature Anomaly
Mains level: Not Much
Central idea: Global warming does not mean that each month or each year will be warmer than the previous month or the previous year.
What is Temperature Anomaly?
- This is a measure of how much the actual temperature deviates from the long-term average temperature for a particular location and time period.
- Anomalies are calculated by taking the difference between the actual temperature and the long-term average temperature, and then averaging this difference over a specified period.
- The anomalies are due to land-ocean-atmosphere processes that dynamically determine the weather and climate.
- It is a useful tool for understanding changes in climate over time, as they allow scientists to compare temperatures from different time periods and locations.
- For example, a temperature anomaly of +2°C in a particular region in a given year means that the temperature in that region was 2°C higher than the long-term average for that region and time period.
Why study this?
- Long-term trend: By analyzing temperature anomalies over time, scientists can identify long-term trends in climate change and predict future changes.
- Track extreme weather event: These are also used to monitor extreme weather events such as heatwaves, droughts, and floods, which can have significant impacts on human health, agriculture, and natural ecosystems.
Recent context: Second warmest March on record
- The fact that March 2023 was the second warmest March on record suggests that the planet is experiencing long-term warming.
- It is a clear indication of the impact of human activities on the planet.
- The burning of fossil fuels and deforestation have led to an increase in greenhouse gases, which trap heat in the Earth’s atmosphere and contribute to global warming.
- This warming trend is expected to continue and worsen in the coming years, leading to more extreme weather events, sea level rise, and other negative impacts on the planet.
What does this mean for local weather?
- The second warmest March on record can have significant impacts on local weather patterns.
- As mentioned earlier, the warming over the northwest to the west of India caused cooler than normal weather over Mumbai and excess pre-monsoon rains over the northwest.
- On the other hand, Kerala and Odisha experienced scorching heatwaves.
- These weather anomalies can have serious implications for agriculture, water resources, and public health.
Implications
- Crop yields decline: This can be affected by extreme weather events, and changes in precipitation patterns can lead to water shortages or flooding.
- Heatwaves: This can cause heat stress and other health problems, particularly for vulnerable populations such as the elderly and young children.
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Botanical Gardens Today Represent a Metric of National Success
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Important Botanical gardens
Mains level: Significance of botanical gardens and challenges
Central Idea
- The establishment of a large botanical garden in Tamil Nadu, the Chengalpattu Botanical Garden, is a welcome piece of news as it has the potential to become a major center for the exploration and discovery of India’s plant wealth, research, education, citizen science, and outreach in plant biology.
Chengalpattu Botanical Garden (CBG)
- It will be India’s largest botanical garden: The ₹300 crore Chengalpattu Botanical Garden (CBG), at Kadambur village in Chengalpattu district, is being planned across 138 hectares and will be India’s largest botanical garden.
- Potential major centre exploration and discovery of our plant wealth: The CBG has the potential to become a major center for the exploration and discovery of our plant wealth, a center of research, education, citizen science, and outreach in plant biology, and be a forceful voice in conservation.
Background: Historical association of Plants and Gardens
- Plants have been the foundation of human civilization and the long-standing association of humanity with gardens can be traced back to the dawn of agriculture over 11,000 years ago.
- The tradition of home gardens, which are planned spaces around homes to grow edible and medicinal plants, has been noted in ancient texts and depicted in cave paintings, demonstrating the antiquity of gardening.
- Rulers, from ancient to modern civilizations, have owned botanical gardens that are rich in native plants and plants collected from distant places.
- These patrons of botanical gardens not only funded them but also oversaw botanical collections as a beautiful garden was a metric of one’s prosperity and eclectic administration.
History of Botanical Gardens
- European explorations led to the establishment of several academic botanical gardens between the 15th to 17th centuries.
- The oldest of these, Orto Botanico di Padova in Italy, was founded in 1545, and the most well-known, the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew near London, was formally consolidated in 1840.
Botanical Gardens in India
- Oldest garden: The oldest of the Indian academic gardens, the Acharya Jagadish Chandra (AJC) Bose Indian Botanic Garden, in Howrah, Kolkata, was established in 1787.
- Exact number is not yet known: The exact number of botanical gardens in India is not known, but only a handful of botanical gardens have plant exploration and education programs.
- India’s flora diversity: India is home to approximately 47,000 plant species, which make up around 6-7% of the world’s total plant species. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Himalayas are two of the world’s top biodiversity hotspots, with a large number of endemic plant species found in these regions.
- The Importance of Plants: India has a high diversity of plants and animals. Plants are the structural foundations of our diverse ecological communities that feed us, provide us with nutrition and medicine, mitigate climate change, enrich our spirits, and secure us against an uncertain future. Yet, our knowledge of our vast botanical heritage is extremely limited.
Facts for prelims: Botanical Garden in India
| Botanical Garden | Location | Established | Special Features |
| Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose Indian Botanic Garden | Howrah, West Bengal | 1787 | Oldest botanical garden in India; over 12,000 specimens of plants |
| Lalbagh Botanical Garden | Bangalore, Karnataka | 1760 | Known for its collection of rare plants, Glass House which hosts an annual flower show |
| Ooty Botanical Gardens | Ooty, Tamil Nadu | 1848 | Spread over 55 acres, collection of over 650 species of plants and trees, Toda tribal hut |
| Jijamata Udyan Botanical Garden | Mumbai, Maharashtra | 1861 | Oldest Botanical Garden in Western India; houses Mumbai’s Byculla Zoo |
| Shalimar Bagh | Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir | 1619 | Mughal garden, UNESCO World Heritage Site |
| Government Botanical Garden | Udhagamandalam, Tamil Nadu | 1848 | Home to over 1000 species of plants including some rare ones, Fossil Tree Trunk |
| The National Botanical Research Institute Botanical Garden | Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh | 1953 | Over 6000 species of plants including rare medicinal plants |
| The Acharya N. G. Ranga Agricultural University Botanical Garden | Guntur, Andhra Pradesh | 1964 | Specializes in medicinal and aromatic plants |
| The Calcutta Botanical Garden | Kolkata, West Bengal | 1786 | Has a large collection of plants including rare plants, Cactus House |
| The Padmaja Naidu Himalayan Zoological Park and Botanical Garden | Darjeeling, West Bengal | 1958 | Botanical garden houses a collection of Himalayan plants, zoo has endangered species such as Red Panda |
What are Botanical Gardens?
- Botanical gardens are institutions that are dedicated to the collection, cultivation, preservation, and display of a wide range of plants, with the aim of promoting public education and awareness of the importance of plants in the ecosystem.
- These gardens may be associated with universities, museums, or government bodies, and are often open to the public for visitation and education.
- They are often involved in research, conservation, and horticultural activities, and may collaborate with other botanical gardens around the world to share knowledge and resources.
- Botanical gardens typically feature a variety of plants from different regions and climates, including rare and endangered species, and may also include features such as greenhouses, herbaria, and educational exhibits.
Significance of botanical gardens
- Conservation of plant species: Botanical gardens often maintain collections of rare, threatened, and endangered plant species for conservation purposes. These gardens also serve as a refuge for plants in danger of extinction and work towards their preservation.
- Scientific research: Botanical gardens play a significant role in scientific research related to plants and their uses. Researchers use the gardens to study the characteristics and behavior of various plant species, their adaptability to different environmental conditions, and their potential uses in medicine, agriculture, and other fields.
- Education and awareness: Botanical gardens offer an opportunity for the public to learn about plant diversity, conservation, and ecology. They often organize tours, exhibitions, and educational programs to raise awareness about the importance of plants and their role in sustaining life on earth.
- Recreation and tourism: Botanical gardens are often popular tourist destinations and provide a peaceful and scenic setting for people to relax and enjoy nature. They also offer recreational activities such as hiking, bird watching, and photography.
- Aesthetic value: Botanical gardens are also valued for their aesthetic beauty and are often designed to showcase different plant species in a visually appealing manner. The gardens often include water features, sculptures, and other artistic elements that enhance their beauty and appeal to visitors.
Challenges related to botanical gardens in India
- Maintenance and conservation: Botanical gardens require regular maintenance to ensure that the plants remain healthy and the infrastructure is in good condition. Lack of funding and trained staff can make it difficult to maintain the gardens, leading to deterioration of the plants and infrastructure.
- Climate change: Climate change is a major challenge for botanical gardens, as it can affect the growth and survival of plants. Changing rainfall patterns, temperature fluctuations, and extreme weather events can all have a negative impact on the plants in the gardens.
- Invasive species: Invasive species can pose a serious threat to the biodiversity of botanical gardens. These non-native plants can outcompete local species and disrupt the delicate balance of the ecosystem in the garden.
- Urbanization: Urbanization and the expansion of cities can lead to the destruction of natural habitats and reduce the available space for botanical gardens. It can also lead to increased pollution, which can have negative effects on the plants in the gardens.
- Lack of public awareness: Many people in India are not aware of the importance of botanical gardens and the role they play in conservation and research. This can make it difficult to raise funds and gain support for the gardens, which can limit their potential impact.
Way ahead: Steps to conserve botanical gardens in India
- Conservation measures: The conservation of botanical gardens can be done through various measures, such as preserving rare and endangered plant species, protecting the habitats of various plants, and using sustainable gardening practices.
- Education and awareness: Education and awareness programs should be conducted to promote the significance of botanical gardens and their role in preserving plant diversity. It can help in spreading the knowledge about the importance of plants, conservation methods, and ecosystem services.
- Scientific research: Scientific research on plant biology, taxonomy, and ecology can be carried out in botanical gardens. It can help in better understanding the plants and their natural habitat, thus helping in developing better conservation strategies.
- Sustainable practices: Botanical gardens should adopt sustainable practices, such as the use of eco-friendly materials, rainwater harvesting, and composting, to conserve the environment and reduce carbon footprint.
- Community participation: Community participation can be encouraged in botanical gardens by organizing various events, such as plant shows, gardening competitions, and nature walks. It can help in creating awareness and generating interest in plant conservation.
- Collaboration and partnerships: Collaboration and partnerships with various organizations, such as NGOs, research institutions, and government agencies, can help in creating a network for sharing knowledge, resources, and expertise. It can also help in developing new conservation strategies and initiatives.
Conclusion
- Given the complex engineering that goes behind the construction and maintenance of a successful garden, botanical gardens today represent a metric of national success, from the perspectives of science, technology, and outreach, just as in the golden ages of this region, dating as far back as the Maurya monarch, Aśoka, when a botanical garden was a display of prosperity, scientific dispositions, and eclectic administration.
- In this era of climate change and declining biodiversity, we need every inch of our backyards and elsewhere to nurture native plants and associated living organisms, to remind ourselves and the generations to come of the need to heal our earth through the power of plants.
Mains Question
Q. Establish historical association of botanical gardens and discuss its significance along with challenges associated with its conservation.
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Oceans absorb 90% of human-induced planet warming: Study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat Budget of Earth
Mains level: Read the attached story
The study published in the journal Earth System Science Data estimates that almost 90% of the warming that has occurred in the last 50 years has been absorbed by the ocean, with the remaining heat absorbed by the land, cryosphere and atmosphere.
Earth’s energy balance: A quick recap
- It is the balance between the amount of energy that Earth receives from the Sun and the amount of energy that Earth radiates back into space.
- It is also known as the radiation budget.
- The energy from the Sun that Earth receives is mainly in the form of visible light and ultraviolet radiation.
- This energy is absorbed by the Earth’s surface and atmosphere, which then radiate it back into space in the form of infrared radiation.
- The balance between incoming and outgoing radiation is crucial for maintaining the Earth’s temperature and climate.
- Any imbalance between the two can lead to global warming and climate change.
| Description | |
| Total incoming solar radiation | Approximately 342 W/m² reaches Earth’s atmosphere |
| Albedo | About 30% of incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space |
| Greenhouse effect | Remaining 70% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by Earth’s surface and atmosphere, creating the greenhouse effect |
| Atmospheric heat | Atmosphere contains only 0.001% of Earth’s heat energy, but is crucial in regulating heat budget |
Key highlights of the Study: Heat Accumulation
- The study estimates that approximately 381 zettajoules (ZJ) of heat accumulated on the planet from 1971-2020 due to anthropogenic emissions.
- This roughly equals a heating rate of approximately 0.48 watts per square metre (Earth Energy Imbalance or EEI). EEI is the difference between incoming and outgoing solar radiation.
- According to the study, about 89% of the accumulated heat is stored in the ocean, 6% on land, a percent in the atmosphere, and about 4% available for melting the cryosphere.
Implications
(1) Land Heat Accumulation
- Heat accumulated on land drives up ground surface temperatures, which may increase soil respiration, releasing carbon dioxide in the process.
- Higher soil respiration will likely decrease soil water, depending on climatic and meteorological conditions and factors.
(2) Inland Water Bodies and Permafrost Thawing
- Heat storage within inland water bodies has increased to roughly 0.2 ZJ since 1960. For permafrost thawing, it was about 2 ZJ.
- The accumulation of heat in inland water increases lake water temperatures, making conditions ripe for algal blooms.
- Permafrost heat content could inject methane and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere, the researchers warned.
(3) Ocean and Troposphere heating
- The upper ocean (0-300 and 0-700 meters depth) has taken up a major fraction of heat, according to the new estimates.
- During 2006-2020, ocean warming rates for the 0-2,000 meters depth reached record rates of roughly 1.03 watts per square meter.
- The troposphere is also warming up due to increased heat accumulation.
(4) Cryosphere heating
- The cryosphere – the frozen water part of the Earth system – gained roughly 14 ZJ of heat from 1971-2020.
- Half of the uptake triggered the melting of grounded ice, while the remaining half is linked to the melting of floating ice.
- The Antarctic Ice Sheet contributed about 33% to the total cryosphere heat gain, while Arctic sea ice stood second, having contributed 26%.
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Heatwaves in India: Increasing Frequency Needs Range of Measures to Mitigate
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heatwaves, Urban heat island effect
Mains level: Climate change induces weather variability, its impact and mitigating measures
Central Idea
- India is facing an increasing heatwave due to climate change, leading to significant agricultural crop losses, urban unlivability and reduced labour productivity. India need to take range of measures to mitigate the problem, such as expanding green cover, upgrading urban building standards, embracing public transportation, and improving waste segregation and management.
What is Heat wave?
- A heatwave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.
- Heatwaves usually last for several days or weeks and can occur in both dry and humid climates.
- They are characterized by temperatures that are significantly higher than the average for a particular region during that time of year. This is because climate change is causing a rise in global temperatures. As the planet heats up, it leads to more extreme weather events, such as heat waves. Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.
Frequency of Heatwaves in India
- Increase in frequency and intensity: India has been witnessing an increase in the frequency and intensity of heatwaves in recent years.
- For instance: In April and May 2022, around 350 million Indians were exposed to strong heat stress. On an average, five-six heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
- Rise in summer temperatures as well as winter temperature: Summer temperatures have risen by an average of 0.5-0.9°C across districts in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan between 1990 and 2019. In addition, around 54% of India’s districts have seen a similar rise in winter temperatures.
- Temperature rise projection: It is expected that between 2021 and 2050, the maximum temperature will rise by 2-3.5°C in 100 districts and by 1.5–2°C in around 455 districts. Winter temperatures will also rise between 1°C and 1.5°C in around 485 districts
Fact for prelims: Urban Heat Island Effect
|
The Socio-economic impact of heat waves
- Health: Heatwaves can cause heat exhaustion, heat cramps, and heat stroke, leading to hospitalization and death. People working outdoors, such as farmers, construction workers, and street vendors, are particularly vulnerable. The elderly, children, and people with pre-existing health conditions are also at a higher risk of heat-related illnesses.
- Labor productivity: High temperatures reduce work capacity and productivity, especially for outdoor workers. This can lead to income loss and lower economic growth.
- For instance: For labourers doing heavy work, heat exposure leads to a loss of 162 hours per year, as per one study. A rise in temperatures directly impacts labour productivity. About 50% of India’s workforce is estimated to be exposed to heat during their working hours. This includes marginal farmers, labourers at construction sites and street vendors parlaying their produce on the streets; increasingly, even gig economy workers are affected.
- Agriculture: Heatwaves can damage crops and livestock, leading to reduced yields and income loss for farmers. High temperatures and low soil moisture can also lead to drought and water scarcity, which can further exacerbate the agricultural impact.
- For example: 90% of India’s cumin production is from Gujarat and Rajasthan. The recent weather variability has destroyed the majority of the cumin crop in Rajasthan. From agricultural crop losses, it is a short step towards drought and higher mortality.
- Energy demand: During heatwaves, the demand for electricity and other forms of cooling increases, leading to power outages and blackouts. This can affect businesses, hospitals, and other critical infrastructure.
- Migration: Heatwaves can lead to migration as people seek cooler areas or better living conditions. This can strain resources in the destination areas and lead to social tensions.
Ways to Mitigate the Problem
- Greening could help mitigate part of the problem: Ideally, for every urban citizen in India should have at least seven trees in the urban landscape. However, many urban localities even in leafy Delhi fall short. Development plans for Tier 2 and Tier 3 cities can set up a mandate to increase urban surface area that is permeable, while pushing to increase the density and area of urban forests.
- Expanding and restoring wetlands: Expanding wetlands and restoring dead and decaying ponds/lakes may also help ensure ecological functioning along with reducing urban heat.
- Reducing the urban heat island effect: This requires a push for greater usage of permeable materials in civic infrastructure and residential construction and enhancing natural landscapes in urban areas. Urban layouts such as brick jalis for ventilation and terracotta tiles to allow hot air to escape, and curbs on anthropogenic heat emissions from vehicles, factories, etc. may be considered.
- Avoiding usage of heat absorbent material: Urban building standards should be upgraded to avoid usage of heat-absorbent galvanized iron and metal roof sheets.
- Using cleaner cooking fuels: Using cleaner cooking fuels will reduce indoor air pollution, which may also help reduce urban heat.
- Increasing natural vegetation: Streets with low ventilation may need further expansion, or an increase in natural vegetation
- Voluntary and other measures: Other measures can also be considered such as, from embracing public transportation, to reducing personal vehicle usage and, most importantly, reducing the size of landfills. A push for waste segregation, along with solid waste management at source, can help.
- Improving our forecasting ability: India needs to improve our forecasting ability, including the potential impact of heat on food production.
- Improving economic models: Current econometric models associated with food inflation primarily look at the variability in the monsoon, minimum support prices and vegetable prices. India needs to add local heat trends to the mix as well, given the impact of heat on food production, storage and sale.
- Detailed management policies: We need detailed policies and guidelines on weather variability and urban heat management at the State, district, city and municipality ward levels.
Value addition box: The Chandigarh Model, a template to build climate-responsive architecture
|
Conclusion
- With climate change exacerbating local weather patterns, we are likely to see April-May temperatures reaching record highs every three years. Moreover, an El Niño-influenced monsoon bodes ill for marginal farmers and urban migrants. Policymakers must take mitigatory action early, while instituting structural infrastructure measures to help Indians adapt to these conditions.
Mains Question
Q. What do you understand by mean urban heat island effect? What measures can be taken to mitigate the impact of rising heatwaves and how can these efforts be integrated with broader climate change adaptation strategies?
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Bioluminescence observed at Visakhapatnam beach
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bioluminiscence
Mains level: NA
The blooms of Noctiluca Scintillans, commonly known as “sea sparkle or bioluminescence” are being witnessed along the coasts of Visakhapatnam, AP.
Noctiluca Scintillans
- Scintillans is a bioluminescent specie that brightens the seawater during the night.
- It grazes on other micro-organisms such as larvae, fish eggs, and diatoms. But the unicellular phytoplankton that lives inside it can photosynthesize, turning sunlight into energy.
- They help their host cell survive even when food was scarce.
- Thus, N. Scintillans acts as both a plant and an animal
Threats posed
- According to marine experts, the phenomenon is an indicator of climate change.
- While smaller blooms may be harmless, slow-moving larger blooms may have an impact on deep-sea fishes.
- The toxic blooms of N. Scintillans were linked to massive fish and marine invertebrate kills.
- Though the species does not produce a toxin, it was found to accumulate toxic levels of ammonia, which is then excreted into the surrounding waters, possibly acting as the killing agent in blooms.
- They have displaced microscopic algae called diatoms, which form the basis of the marine food chain. This has deprived food for the planktivorous fish.
Back2Basics: Bioluminescence
- It is the property of a living organism to produce and emit light.
- Animals, plants, fungi and bacteria show bioluminescence. A remarkable diversity of marine animals and microbes are able to produce their own light.
- It is found in many marine organisms such as bacteria, algae, jellyfish, worms, crustaceans, sea stars, fish and sharks.
- Luminescence is generally higher in deep-living and planktonic organisms than in shallow species.
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Carbon Pricing: The Way For Decarbonization
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GHG's, carbon tax,
Mains level: Carbon pricing mechanism, global efforts
Central Idea
- Environmental destruction has been a consequence of boosting GDP growth in every country due to the absence of a price for natural resources like air and forests. To combat this, the biggest economies of the G-20 must agree on valuing nature, including by pricing carbon effluents. As president of the G-20 this year, India can take the lead in carbon pricing, which will open unexpected avenues of decarbonization.
Pricing Carbon at present
- Three ways of pricing carbon: carbon tax, emissions trading system (ETS), and import tariff on the carbon content
- GHG emission: 46 countries price carbon, covering only 30% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions
- IMF’s proposed price: International Monetary Fund (IMF) proposed price floors of $75, $50, and $25 a ton of carbon for the United States, China, and India, respectively
- Benefits: Economy-wide benefits of carbon pricing in terms of damages avoided generally outweighed the cost it imposed on individual industries in EU, British Columbia, Canada, and Sweden
- Boost to renewables: Carbon pricing makes investment in renewable energy such as solar and wind more attractive.
Facts for prelims
| Carbon Pricing Method | Description |
| Carbon Tax | A domestic tax imposed on carbon emissions, directly discouraging the use of fossil fuels and raising revenue for investment in cleaner sources of energy or protection of vulnerable consumers. Example: Korea and Singapore. |
| Emissions Trading System (ETS) | A system that allows entities with excess emissions allowances to sell them to those that are emitting more than their allotted limit. Example: European Union and China. |
| Import Tariff on Carbon Content | A tax on imported goods based on the amount of carbon emissions produced during their manufacturing process, designed to discourage importing high-emissions products. Example: Proposed by the European Union. |
| Carbon Offsets | A voluntary mechanism in which companies or individuals pay for projects that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. These projects may include reforestation, renewable energy, or energy efficiency initiatives. The amount of emissions reduced by the project can then be used to offset the emissions of the buyer. |
Carbon pricing for India
- Among the three ways of pricing, India could find a carbon tax appealing as it can directly discourage fossil fuels, while raising revenues which can be invested in cleaner sources of energy or used to protect vulnerable consumers
- IMF proposed $25 a ton as a starting point for India
- The main obstacle is the argument by industrial firms about losing their competitive advantage to exporters from countries with a lower carbon price
- All high, middle, and low-income countries should set the same rate within each bracket
Way ahead: Need for Global Carbon Pricing
- The first movers will be the most competitive: High enough carbon tax across China, the US, India, Russia, and Japan alone (more than 60% of global effluents), with complementary actions, could have a notable effect on global effluents and warming. The first movers will be the most competitive
- India’s leadership: India can play a lead role by tabling global carbon pricing in the existential fight against climate change as president of the G-20 summit this September
- Communication is important: Any type of carbon pricing faces stiff political opposition therefore communicating the idea of wins at the societal level is vital.
Back to Basics: GHG’s
|
Greenhouse Gas |
Properties | Major Sources |
Impact |
| Carbon Dioxide (CO2) | -Long-lived in atmosphere.
-Traps heat from the sun |
– Burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas)
-Deforestation |
– Accounts for 76% of global GHG emissions – Primary cause of climate change |
| Methane (CH4) | – Short-lived in atmosphere
– Traps more heat than CO2 |
– Agriculture (livestock digestion, manure management)
– Energy production – Landfills |
– Accounts for 16% of global GHG emissions – Contributes to both climate change and air pollution |
| Nitrous Oxide (N2O) | – Long-lived in atmosphere
– Traps more heat than CO2 |
– Agriculture (fertilizer use, manure management)
– Industrial processes – Combustion of fossil fuels |
– Accounts for 6% of global GHG emissions
– Contributes to both climate change and air pollution |
| Fluorinated Gases (HFCs, PFCs, SF6) | – Can have high global warming potential | – Industrial processes (refrigeration, air conditioning)
– Semiconductors – Electrical transmission equipment |
– Accounts for less than 3% of global GHG emissions
– Can have very high global warming potential |
| Ozone (O3) | – Not a GHG, but plays a role in climate change | – Human-made chemicals that release ozone into the atmosphere | – Contributes to climate change by trapping heat |
| Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) | – Human-made chemicals that destroy ozone in the atmosphere | – Used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosol sprays | – Contributes to climate change by destroying ozone, which leads to greater heat-trapping |
Conclusion
- India can take the lead in carbon pricing as president of the G-20 this year. By pricing carbon effluents, India can promote investment in renewable energy, protect vulnerable consumers, and contribute to the global fight against climate change. However, there is a need for effective communication to ensure that the idea of carbon pricing is understood at the societal level, and any type of carbon pricing faces stiff political opposition.
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Arctic scientists race to preserve ‘Ice Memory’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ice Memory Project
Mains level: Not Much
Scientists from Italy, France, and Norway have set up camp in Norway’s Svalbard archipelago to extract samples of ancient ice for analysis before the frozen layers melt away due to climate change.
‘Ice Memory’ Project
- Scientists will drill a series of tubes as far as 125 meters (137 yards) below the surface, which contains frozen geochemical traces dating back three centuries.
- The scientists will work for three weeks in temperatures as low as -25 degrees Celsius (-13 Fahrenheit) to extract ice.
- The Ice Memory foundation is running the operation.
- The ice cores will provide scientists with valuable data about past environmental conditions.
Analysis and storage
- One set of ice tubes will be used for immediate analysis, while a second set will be sent to Antarctica for storage in an “ice memory sanctuary” under the snow.
- The samples will be preserved for future generations of scientists.
Reason for drilling
- The Arctic is warming between two and four times faster than the global average, and water from melting ice is altering the geochemical records preserved in ancient ice beneath.
- Hence, scientists are in a race against time to preserve crucial ice records before it disappears forever from the surface of the planet.
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ICJ and Climate Justice
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: ICJ
Mains level: Climate justice and reparations
Central idea: On March 29, the United Nations General Assembly passed a resolution that requested an advisory opinion from the International Court of Justice (ICJ) regarding the obligations countries have towards climate change reduction.
Facts for prelims: International Court of Justice (ICJ)
|
Vanuatu seeks climate reparations
- The resolution, which was passed by consensus, was pushed through by the Pacific Island of Vanuatu, which was devastated by Cyclone Pam in 2015.
- This resolution is significant because it invokes article 96 of the U.N. Charter and seeks to clarify the legal obligations of states to protect the climate system.
Resolution A/77/L.58: What does it seek?
The draft resolution (A/77/L.58) asks the ICJ to deliberate on two questions:
- Obligations of states: Under international law to ensure the protection of the climate system for present and future generations
- Legal consequences: For states that have caused significant harm to the climate system, particularly for Small Island Developing States (SIDS) and for people who are harmed?
Frameworks invoked by Vanuatu
The resolution refers to several international protocols, including the-
- Paris Agreement
- United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea and
- Universal Declaration of Human Rights
What do sponsors of the resolution want?
- The sponsors of the resolution expect an advisory opinion from the ICJ to bolster the efforts under the global climate pledge.
- The opinion is also expected to clarify more contentious issues, such as-
- Climate reparations by the developed world,
- Legal culpability for countries that don’t achieve their NDC promises
- Climate support to the most vulnerable parts of the world
Where does India stand over this?
- India has been silent about the resolution, although it is generally supportive of climate justice and holding the developed world accountable for global warming.
- India did not co-sponsor the draft resolution, unlike its neighbors Bangladesh, Maldives, Nepal, and Sri Lanka.
If ICJ intervenes, what would change?
- Only advisory opinion: The ICJ is being asked for an advisory opinion, which would not be legally binding as an ICJ judgment.
- Puts moral obligation: The ICJ carries “legal weight and moral authority”.
- Symbolic significance: ICJ’s clarification of international environmental laws would make the process more streamlined, particularly as the COP process looks at various issues like climate finance, climate justice, and the most recently agreed to “loss and damages” etc.
Conclusion
- The resolution passed by the UNGA requesting an advisory opinion from the ICJ is a step in the right direction towards clarifying the legal obligations of states to mitigate climate change and protect the environment for future generations.
- To ensure the success of this effort, countries need to continue to engage in diplomatic efforts and work towards shared goals.
- Countries should also actively participate in the ICJ process and respect the advisory opinion it delivers.
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IPCC’s Synthesis Report: Urgent Action Needed For Climate-resilient Development
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IPCC's report
Mains level: Climate change, dire consequences, efforts of mitigation, progress and challenges
Central Idea
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently released the synthesis report of its Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) cycle, which serves as a survival guide for humanity. The report highlights the urgent need for a climate-resilient development model that integrates adaptation, mitigation, and sustainable development for all.
Key Takeaways from the AR6 Report
- Human activity is driving global temperature rise, currently at 1.1°C above pre-industrial levels, with an estimated trajectory of 2.8°C by 2100.
- While the rate of emissions growth has slowed in the past decade, humanity is estimated to be on a 2.8° C (2.1°-3.4° C range) trajectory by 2100.
- This temperature rise is causing widespread impacts on climatic systems, with greater risks at lower temperatures than previously assessed.
- The IPCC report highlights that by 2019, humanity had already used up 80% of its carbon budget for limiting warming to 1.5°C, with developed economies being the biggest contributors.
- The report also notes that existing modelling studies, which are often used to assess emission trajectories, do not explicitly account for questions of equity.
Major implications for limiting warming to 1.5°C rather than 2°C
- Carbon Budget and Temperature Targets:
- The world’s carbon budget for 1.5°C is much lower than for 2°C. Global pathways show that limiting warming to 1.5°C requires a 43% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030, while for 2°C it is 21%.
- Even more concerning is that projected CO2 emissions from existing fossil fuel infrastructure already surpass the remaining carbon budget for 1.5°C.
- Striving for a 1.5° C target implies deep and immediate reductions in emissions in all sectors and regions, which makes more salient different national circumstances and questions of climate equity and operationalisation of the UNFCCC’s core principle of Common but Differentiated Responsibility and Respective Capabilities.
- Climate adaptation itself has limits:
- The report highlights that adaptation itself has limits, which implies that some losses and damages of climate change are inevitable.
- For example, the report finds that some coastal and polar ecosystems have already reached hard limits in their ability to adapt to a changing climate.
Key message of the report
- Climate-resilient development: Urgently adopting climate-resilient development a developmental model that integrates both adaptation and mitigation to advance sustainable development for all.
- Green transition: The report assesses the plethora of technologies and design options, such as solar energy or electric vehicles, that can help countries reduce emissions or become more resilient today at low costs, and in a technically feasible manner.
- Equity and social justice: Prioritising and addressing equity and social justice in transition processes are shown to be key to climate-resilient development.
- Net-zero emissions: To achieve climate-resilient development, the world needs to reach net-zero emissions. This may depend on large-scale carbon dioxide removals, which are challenging to achieve.
Progress and gaps in Climate Response
- Some progress has been made in policies and laws, with the effectiveness of policy tools like carbon markets.
- The report points out that there are gaps between modelled sustainable pathways and what countries have pledged (ambition gaps) as well as substantial gaps between what countries pledge and what they actually do (implementation gaps).
Way ahead
- Policy package: Policy packages that comprehensively address climate objectives can help countries meet short-term economic goals.
- Investment: Delayed action risks locking-in to high carbon infrastructure in this decade, and creating stranded assets and financial instability in the medium term. Therefore, high upfront investments in clean infrastructure are imperative.
- Financing needs to be increased manyfold: Despite sufficient global capital, both adaptation and mitigation financing need to increase many-fold, between three to six times for annual modelled mitigation investments, from 2020 to 2030.
Conclusion
- The IPCC AR6 synthesis report provides a blueprint for sustainable development and presents a sobering account of the present and future damages to ecosystems and vulnerable populations. It is crucial for governments and individuals worldwide to act urgently to mitigate and adapt to climate change, and pursue climate-resilient development.
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Meeting India’s ‘Carbon Sink’ target
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon capture and storage techniques
Mains level: Read the attached story
Central idea: India’s commitment to reduce its carbon emissions and increase its carbon sink as part of the Paris Climate Agreement. The Agreement is a legally binding international treaty signed by 196 parties, including India, to limit global warming to well below 2°C.
What is a carbon sink?
- A carbon sink is a natural or artificial reservoir that absorbs and stores carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
- It can be a natural ecosystem such as forests, oceans, or soil, or it can be an artificial system like carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology.
- Carbon sinks help to reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere and mitigate the negative effects of climate change.
Methods of Carbon Sinks
There are two types of carbon sinks:
(A) Natural Carbon Sinks: These are ecosystems that naturally absorb and store carbon from the atmosphere. The most common natural carbon sinks are:
- Forests: Trees absorb CO2 through photosynthesis and store it in their trunks, branches, and roots.
- Oceans: The Ocean absorbs CO2 from the atmosphere, where it dissolves and forms carbonic acid.
- Soil: Carbon can be stored in soil in the form of organic matter, such as dead plant and animal material, which is broken down by microorganisms.
(B) Artificial Carbon Sinks: These are human-made technologies that capture and store carbon from the atmosphere. The most common artificial carbon sinks are:
- Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): CCS technology captures CO2 emissions from industrial processes, such as power plants, and stores it underground.
- Direct Air Capture (DAC): DAC technology captures CO2 directly from the air and stores it underground or repurposes it for other uses.
India’s carbon sink target
- India has pledged to create an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent by 2030.
- This will be achieved through afforestation, reforestation, and other land-use changes.
India’s progress towards its carbon sink target
- India has already achieved 24.6% of its carbon sink target as of 2017.
- This was primarily due to afforestation and tree plantation programs, such as the Green India Mission and the National Afforestation Programme.
Challenges in meeting India’s carbon sink target
- Unavailability of accurate data: There is a lack of accurate data on the extent and health of India’s forests, which makes it difficult to measure the effectiveness of afforestation and reforestation programs.
- Conversion of natural forests: The conversion of natural forests to monoculture plantations that have lower carbon sequestration potential can reduce the effectiveness of carbon sinks.
- Pressure on land: The pressure on land for agriculture and other forms of development can lead to deforestation and the loss of carbon sinks.
- Lack of funding: Afforestation and reforestation programs require significant funding, which can be a challenge for India.
- Lack of awareness: Lack of awareness among the public and policymakers about the importance of carbon sinks and the need for their conservation and restoration can hinder efforts to meet India’s carbon sink targets.
Conclusion
- India’s commitment to increasing its carbon sink is crucial in mitigating the impacts of climate change.
- More efforts are needed to ensure the success of afforestation and reforestation programs and to address the challenges facing India’s forests.
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UNEP pitches for Global Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Infrastructure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Infrastructure
Mains level: NA
Central idea: The article discusses the United Nations’ development of a new system for tracking greenhouse gas emissions.
Greenhouse Gases
|
Global Greenhouse Gas Monitoring Infrastructure
- The new system, also known as the Common Global Standard for Sustainability, is being developed by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
- It will provide a standardized framework for measuring and reporting greenhouse gas emissions across various sectors, including agriculture, transport, and energy.
Need for the new system
- The current system for tracking greenhouse gas emissions is fragmented and lacks standardization, making it difficult to compare emissions across different sectors and countries.
- The new system aims to address this issue by providing a standardized framework for measuring and reporting emissions.
Benefits offered
- The new system will provide a more accurate and comprehensive picture of greenhouse gas emissions across different sectors and countries.
- It will enable policymakers and businesses to develop more effective strategies for reducing emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change.
Challenges
- The success of the new system will depend on the willingness of countries and businesses to adopt and implement it.
- There may be resistance from some countries and businesses that are reluctant to disclose their emissions data or make changes to their current reporting practices.
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Heatwaves in India: A Serious Concern
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat waves
Mains level: Climate Change induced rising temperatures, Heatwaves, Socio-economic impact and measures
Central Idea
- Heat waves have become a major concern for India this year. The scorching summer heat has started prematurely, as per the recent IMD reports. If the record temperatures of the recent past are any indication, the heat wave is likely to become more intense. Rising temperatures lead to several health problems, from dehydration and heat exhaustion to more severe conditions like heatstroke. They also affect the economy and the environment.
What is Heat wave?
- A heatwave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.
- Heatwaves usually last for several days or weeks and can occur in both dry and humid climates. They are characterized by temperatures that are significantly higher than the average for a particular region during that time of year.
- This is because climate change is causing a rise in global temperatures. As the planet heats up, it leads to more extreme weather events, such as heat waves. Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.
Heatwaves in India
- In India Heat waves typically occur from March to June, and in some rare cases, even extend till July.
- On an average, five-six heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
- Single events can last weeks, occur consecutively, and can impact large population.
- Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.
Some of the hottest summers on record in recent years that India has experienced
- In May 2016, Phalodi in Rajasthan registered 51 degrees Celsius, the highest temperature ever recorded in the country.
- In 2021, India saw its hottest day on May 22, with the temperature touching 48 degrees Celsius in Barmer, also in Rajasthan.
- In 2022, Jaipur experienced a severe heatwave. Rajasthan’s capital recorded 45 degrees Celsius in April a record for the city for the month.
- Delhi, Agra, Pilani and Rohtak are among the well-known hot cities in India, where temperatures, of late, have gone up to 43 degrees Celsius in early summer
Link: Climate change and Heat waves
- Rising heat waves: Climate change is directly linked to the increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of heatwaves around the world.
- More severe and more frequent: As the Earth’s climate continues to warm, heatwaves are becoming more severe and occurring more frequently.
- Global warming: This is because global warming is causing changes in the atmosphere, such as increased greenhouse gas concentrations, which trap heat and cause temperatures to rise.
- For instance: Climate change is also causing heatwaves to last longer. A study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters found that heatwaves are lasting an average of 2.5 days longer than they did in the middle of the 20th century.
The Socio-economic impact of heat waves
- Impact on Health: Heat-related illnesses, such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, are becoming more common, particularly among vulnerable groups such as the elderly, children, and outdoor workers.
- In addition, heat waves can exacerbate existing health problems, such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
- Impact on the environment
- One of the biggest problems is the depletion of water resources:
- Water sources are drying up as temperatures rise, leading to crises in many parts of the country.
- As people try to keep cool, they use more air conditioning, increasing electricity use. This leads to an increase in the use of fossil fuels, which significantly contributes to air pollution.
- Impact on agriculture:
- Impact on environment in turn, leads to agricultural problems, with crops failing and farmers struggling to make a living.
- Given that around 40 per cent of India’s population is engaged in agriculture, this is a significant concern.
- Reports are already coming from Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh that the early heatwave has affected the growth of wheat crops and is expected to negatively affect the crop to the tune of 20 per cent.
- Impact on growth:
- The healthcare costs associated with heat-related illnesses can be significant, particularly for vulnerable groups who may not have access to affordable healthcare.
- In addition, heat waves can lead to a decrease in worker productivity, which can impact economic growth.
What can be done to deal with such problems?
- Increase public awareness: People need to be educated about the impact of rising temperatures on their health, the environment, and the economy. This can be done through public campaigns, schools, and the media.
- Increase the use of renewable energy: India has already made significant progress in this area. However, much remains to be done. The government could incentivise individuals and businesses to invest in renewable energy, such as solar panels. This would help reduce the impact of rising temperatures, create new jobs, and stimulate economic growth.
- Improving water management: This could include introducing more efficient irrigation systems, better rainwater harvesting, and using recycled water for non-potable purposes. This would help to conserve water resources and reduce the impact of rising temperatures on agriculture.
- Investing in infrastructure that can cope with extreme temperatures: This could include the construction of roads and buildings that are designed to withstand high temperatures, as well as the development of more efficient cooling systems that use less energy.
Conclusion
- The rising heat wave in India is a serious concern that needs to be addressed urgently. The impacts of rising temperatures on human health, the environment, and the economy are significant. However, with the right strategies in place, it is possible to mitigate the impact of rising temperatures and ensure a sustainable future for the country.
Mains Question
Q. Climate change is exacerbating the problem of heat waves. In this backdrop discuss its socioeconomic impact and what measures can be done to tackle this problem?
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Heat Waves and the anatomy behind
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat Waves
Mains level: Read the attached story
The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has already started sensing the first signs of heat waves for this summer season.
What is the news?
- The IMD warned that the maximum temperatures over northwest, west, and central India would be 3-5° C higher than the long-term average in this week.
- If the heat waves had played out, they would have been the earliest these regions would have experienced this deadly phenomenon.
What are Heat Waves?
- Heatwaves generally occur over India between March and June.
- IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
- Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.
How are they formed?
- Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
- This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
- On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
- Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
- Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
- Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
- A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
- Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.
Following criteria are used to declare heatwave:
To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.
(a) Based on Departure from Normal
- Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
- Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
(b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
- Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
- Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
Recent context: El Nino + heat waves
- The last three years have been La Nina years, which has served as a precursor to 2023 likely being an El Nino
- The El Nino is a complementary phenomenon in which warmer water spreads west-east across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
- As we eagerly await the likely birth of an El Nino this year, we have already had a heat wave occur over northwest India.
- Heat waves tend to be confined to north and northwest India in El Nino years.
Why do heat waves occur in the first place?
- Heat waves are formed for one of two reasons: because warmer air is flowing in from elsewhere or because something is producing it locally.
- Air is warmed locally when the air is warmed by higher land surface temperature or because the air sinking down from above is compressed along the way, producing hot air near the surface.
How do different processes contribute to the formation of a heat wave?
- The direction of air flowing in from the west-northwest, warming in the Middle East, and compression over mountains of Afghanistan and Pakistan cause warm air to enter India.
- The warming Arabian Sea also contributes to the warming trend.
- Upper atmospheric westerly winds control near-surface winds, which rotate faster than the planet itself.
- Additionally, the lapse rate, or the rate at which temperatures cool from surface to upper atmosphere, is declining due to global warming.
Regional occurrences
- The other factors that affect the formation of heat waves are the age of the air mass and how far it has traveled.
- The north-northwestern heatwaves are typically formed with air masses that come from 800-1,600 km away and are around two days old.
- Heat waves over peninsular India on the other hand arrive from the oceans, which are closer (around 200-400 km) and are barely a day old.
- As a result, they are on average less intense.
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Centre in final stages of notifying Emissions Trading Scheme
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Trading
Mains level: Emission Trading Schemes
After the passing of the Energy Conservation (Amendment) Bill last December, the Centre is now in the final stages of notifying an Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS).
Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS)
- India does not currently have a national Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS). However, there have been some efforts to introduce an ETS in the country.
- In 2018, the Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) released a draft of the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP).
- It proposed the introduction of a market-based mechanism for reducing air pollution for the first time.
- The mechanism was not explicitly called an ETS, but it was described as a “cap-and-trade system.”
Successful example of Carbon Market: EU’s emissions trading system (ETS)
- Under the EU’s ETS launched in 2005, member countries set a cap or limit for emissions in different sectors, such as power, oil, manufacturing, agriculture, and waste management.
- This cap is determined as per the climate targets of countries and is lowered successively to reduce emissions.
- Entities in this sector are issued annual allowances or permits by governments equal to the emissions they can generate.
- If companies produce emissions beyond the capped amount, they have to purchase additional permit, either through official auctions or from companies.
- This makes up the ‘trade’ part of cap-and-trade.
How is carbon price determined?
- The market price of carbon gets determined by market forces when purchasers and sellers trade in emissions allowances.
- Notably, companies can also save up excess permits to use later.
- Through this kind of carbon trading, companies can decide if it is more cost-efficient to employ clean energy technologies or to purchase additional allowances.
- These markets may promote the reduction of energy use and encourage the shift to cleaner fuels.
Other such examples
- China launched the world’s largest ETS in 2021, estimated to cover around one-seventh of the global carbon emissions from the burning of fossil fuels.
- Markets also operate or are under development in North America, Australia, Japan, South Korea, Switzerland, and New Zealand.
Significance of Carbon Market
- The World Bank estimates that trading in carbon credits could reduce the cost of implementing NDCs by more than half — by as much as $250 billion by 2030.
- Last year, the value of global markets for tradable carbon allowances or permits grew by 164% to a record 760 billion euros ($851 billion).
- The EU’s ETS contributed the most to this increase, accounting for 90% of the global value at 683 billion euros.
- As for voluntary carbon markets, their current global value is comparatively smaller at $2 billion.
What is the progress at UN?
- The UN international carbon market envisioned in Article 6 of the Paris Agreement is yet to kick off as multilateral discussions are still underway about how the inter-country carbon market will function.
- Under the proposed market, countries would be able to offset their emissions by buying credits generated by greenhouse gas-reducing projects in other countries.
- In the past, developing countries, particularly India, China and Brazil, gained significantly from a similar carbon market under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.
- India registered 1,703 projects under the CDM which is the second highest in the world.
- But with the 2015 Paris Agreement, the global scenario changed as even developing countries had to set emission reduction targets.
India’s efforts
The new Bill empowers the Centre to specify a carbon credits trading scheme.
- Issuance of credit certificates: Under the Bill, the central government or an authorised agency will issue carbon credit certificates to companies or even individuals registered and compliant with the scheme.
- Tradable carbon credits: These carbon credit certificates will be tradeable in nature. Other persons would be able to buy carbon credit certificates on a voluntary basis.
Existing mechanisms
- Notably, two types of tradeable certificates are already issued in India-
- Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs) and
- Energy Savings Certificates (ESCs)
- These are issued when companies use renewable energy or save energy, which are also activities which reduce carbon emissions.
Lacunas of the bill
- No clear mechanism: The Bill does not provide clarity on the mechanism to be used for the trading of carbon credit certificates— whether it will be like the cap-and-trade schemes or use another method— and who will regulate such trading.
- Confusion over nodal agency: The right ministry to bring in a scheme of this nature, pointing out that while carbon market schemes in other jurisdictions like the US, UK are framed by their environment ministries, the Indian Bill was tabled by the power ministry instead of the MoEFCC.
- Ambiguity over existing certificates: The Bill does not specify whether certificates under already existing schemes would also be interchangeable with carbon credit certificates and tradeable for reducing carbon emissions.
- Overlapping: The question, thus, is whether all these certificates could be exchanged with each other. There are concerns about whether overlapping schemes may dilute the overall impact of carbon trading.
Challenges to carbon markets
- Double counting: of greenhouse gas reductions
- Quality and authenticity: These parameters of climate projects that generate credits to poor market transparency
- Greenwashing: Companies may buy credits, simply offsetting carbon footprints instead of reducing their overall emissions or investing in clean technologies.
- Inefficiency: The IMF points out that including high emission-generating sectors under trading schemes to offset their emissions by buying allowances may immensely increase emissions on net.
Way forward
- Alignment with NDCs: The UNDP emphasizes that for carbon markets to be successful, emission reductions and removals must be real and aligned with the country’s NDCs.
- Transparent financing: It says that there must be “transparency in the institutional and financial infrastructure for carbon market transactions”.
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Thwaites glacier at mercy of sea warmth increase
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thwaites Glacier
Mains level: Sea Level rise
The new research suggests that even low amounts of melting can potentially push Thwaites glacier further along the path toward eventual disappearance.
Thwaites Glacier
- Called the Thwaites Glacier, it is 120 km wide at its broadest, fast-moving, and melting fast over the years.
- Because of its size (1.9 lakh square km), it contains enough water to raise the world sea level by more than half a meter.
- Studies have found the amount of ice flowing out of it has nearly doubled over the past 30 years.
- Thwaites’s melting already contributes 4% to global sea-level rise each year. It is estimated that it would collapse into the sea in 200-900 years.
- Thwaites is important for Antarctica as it slows the ice behind it from freely flowing into the ocean. Because of the risk it faces — and poses — Thwaites is often called the Doomsday Glacier.
How is Thwaites glacier melting?
- Thwaites Glacier is melting due to a combination of warming ocean currents and a weakening of the ice shelf that acts as a barrier between the glacier and the ocean.
- The cause of the melting is thought to be the influx of relatively warm bottom water drawn in from the wider ocean.
- In the 1990s it was losing just over 10 billion tonnes of ice a year. Today, it’s more like 80 billion tonnes.
Why is this glacier so important?
- Huge size: Flowing off the west of the Antarctic continent, Thwaites is almost as big as Great Britain. It is one of the largest and most important glaciers in Antarctica, as it acts as a gateway to a vast area of the continent.
- Melting faster: It’s a majestic sight, with its buoyant front, or “ice shelf”, pushing far out to sea and kicking off huge icebergs. But satellite monitoring indicates this glacier is melting at an accelerating rate.
- Seal level rise: Thwaites’ ice loss contributes approximately 4% to the annual rise in global sea-levels, with the potential to add 65cm in total should the whole glacier collapse. Its melting could also destabilize the entire West Antarctic Ice Sheet, leading to a further rise in sea levels.
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How do ruminants contribute to Methane Pollution?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Methane Pollution
Mains level: Not Much
Bill Gates has invested in a climate technology start-up that aims to curtail the methane emissions of cow burps.
What is the news?
- The startup Rumin8 is developing a variety of dietary supplements to feed to cows in a bid to reduce the amount of methane they emit into the atmosphere.
- The supplement includes red seaweed, which is believed to drastically cut methane output in cows.
What is Methane?
- Methane is a greenhouse gas, which is also a component of natural gas.
- There are various sources of methane including human and natural sources.
- The anthropogenic sources are responsible for 60 per cent of global methane emissions.
- It includes landfills, oil and natural gas systems, agricultural activities, coal mining, wastewater treatment, and certain industrial processes.
- The oil and gas sectors are among the largest contributors to human sources of methane.
- These emissions come primarily from the burning of fossil fuels, decomposition in landfills and the agriculture sector.
How do cows and other animals produce methane?
- Ruminant animals such as cows, sheep, goats, and buffaloes release this methane mainly through burping.
- They have a special type of digestive system that allows them to break down and digest food that non-ruminant species would be unable to digest.
- Stomachs of ruminant animals have four compartments, one of which, the rumen, helps them to store partially digested food and let it ferment.
- This partially digested and fermented food is regurgitated by the animals who chew through it again and finish the digestive process.
- However, as grass and other vegetation ferments in the rumen, it generates methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
How much do these ruminants contribute to emissions?
- Given the very large numbers of cattle and sheep on farms in dairy-producing countries, these emissions add up to a significant volume.
- It is estimated that the ruminant digestive system is responsible for 27 per cent of all methane emissions from human activity.
Why is methane such a big problem?
- Methane is one of the main drivers of climate change, responsible for 30 per cent of the warming since preindustrial times, second only to carbon dioxide.
- Over a 20-year period, methane is 80 times more potent at warming than carbon dioxide, according to a report by the UNEP.
- It’s also the primary contributor to the formation of ground-level ozone, a colourless and highly irritating gas that forms just above the Earth’s surface.
- According to a 2022 report, exposure to ground-level ozone could be contributing to 1 million premature deaths every year.
- Several studies have shown that in recent years, the amount of methane in the atmosphere has dramatically shot up.
Mitigating methane emissions
- Scientists have been working on to make these animals more sustainable and less gassy.
- A 2021 study, published in the journal PLUS ONE, found that adding seaweed to cow feed can reduce methane formation in their guts by more than 80 per cent.
- Apart from this, researchers are also trying to find gene-modifying techniques to curtail methane emissions in these animals.
- Last year, scientists in New Zealand announced they had started the world’s first genetic programme to address the challenge of climate change by breeding sheep that emit lower amounts of methane.
Global collaboration against methane pollution
Ans. Global Methane Initiative (GMI)
- GMI is a voluntary Government and an informal international partnership having members from 45 countries including the United States and Canada.
- India last year co-chaired along with Canada the GMI leadership meet held virtually.
- The forum has been created to achieve global reduction in anthropogenic methane emission through partnership among developed and developing countries having economies in transition.
- The forum was created in 2004 and India is one of the members since its inception and has taken up Vice-Chairmanship for the first time in the Steering Leadership along with USA.
Back2Basics: CO2 Equivalents
- Each greenhouse gas (GHG) has a different global warming potential (GWP) and persists for a different length of time in the atmosphere.
- The three main greenhouse gases (along with water vapour) and their 100-year global warming potential (GWP) compared to carbon dioxide are:
1 x – carbon dioxide (CO2)
25 x – methane (CH4) – I.e. Releasing 1 kg of CH4into the atmosphere is about equivalent to releasing 25 kg of CO2
298 x – nitrous oxide (N2O)
- Water vapour is not considered to be a cause of man-made global warming because it does not persist in the atmosphere for more than a few days.
- There are other greenhouse gases which have far greater global warming potential (GWP) but are much less prevalent. These are sulphur hexafluoride (SF6), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorocarbons (PFCs).
- There are a wide variety of uses for SF6, HFCs, and PFCs but they have been most commonly used as refrigerants and for fire suppression.
- Many of these compounds also have a depleting effect on ozone in the upper atmosphere.
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Munroe Thuruthu: Kerala’s Sinking Island
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Munroe Island
Mains level: Not Much
A study conducted by the National Centre for Earth Science Studies (NCESS) has revealed anthropogenic interventions as the main reason for the sinking of Munroe Thuruthu Kerala’s, Kerala’s Sinking Island.
Note: This Island has nothing to do with Thomas Monroe, the erstwhile Governor of Madras Presidency (1820-27).
Munroe Thuruthu
- Munroe Thuruthu is an inland island group located at the confluence of Ashtamudi Lake and the Kallada River, in Kollam district of Kerala.
- The place is named in honour of Resident Colonel John Munro of the former Princely State of Travancore.
- It is a group of eight small islets comprising a total area of about 13.4 km2.
- This island is also known as “Sinking Island of Kerala”.
How was this island inhabited?
- In 1795 the British established their supremacy in South India and the princely state of Travancore came under their governance.
- From 1800 onwards, a Resident was appointed by East India Company as administrative head of Travancore.
- The first Resident was Colonel Colin Macaulay, followed by Colonel John Munro.
- During his tenure Munro oversaw the land reclamation efforts in the delta where Kallada River joins Ashtamudi Lake and the reclaimed island was named after him as Munroe Island.
Why in news?
- The islanders are facing steady land subsidence, tidal flooding and lower agricultural productivity, all of which have triggered a mass exodus from the region.
- According to the study, almost 39% of the land area of the Munroe Thuruthu has been lost with Peringalam and Cheriyakadavu islands recording a land depletion of around 12% and 47% respectively.
- The study finds that anthropogenic activities have considerably affected the isostatic conditions and land neutrality of Munroe Thuruthu.
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Ozone Hole filling up now
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ozone Layer, Ozone Hole
Mains level: Not Much
The ozone ‘hole’, once considered to be the gravest danger to planetary life, is now expected to be completely repaired by 2066, a scientific assessment has suggested.
What is Ozone and Ozone Layer?
- An ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms instead of the usual two (the oxygen we breathe, O2, makes up 21% of the atmosphere).
- It only exists in the atmosphere in trace quantities (less than 0.001%), but its effects are very important.
- Ozone molecules are created by the interaction of ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the Sun with O2 molecules.
- Because UV radiation is more intense at higher altitudes where the air is thinner, it is in the stratosphere where most of the ozone is produced, giving rise to what is called the ‘ozone layer’.
- The ozone layer, containing over 90% of all atmospheric ozone, extends between about 10 and 40km altitude, peaking at about 25km in Stratosphere.
Why need Ozone Layer?
- The ozone layer is very important for life on Earth because it has the property of absorbing the most damaging form of UV radiation, UV-B radiation which has a wavelength of between 280 and 315 nanometres.
- As UV radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere, it heats up the surrounding air to produce the stratospheric temperature inversion.
What is Ozone Hole?
- Each year for the past few decades during the Southern Hemisphere spring, chemical reactions involving chlorine and bromine cause ozone in the southern polar region to be destroyed rapidly and severely.
- The Dobson Unit (DU) is the unit of measure for total ozone.
- The chemicals involved ozone depletion are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs for short), halons, and carbon tetrachloride.
- They are used for a wide range of applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam packaging, and making aerosol spray cans.
- The ozone-depleted region is known as the “ozone hole”.
Tropical Ozone Hole
- According to the study, the ozone hole is located at altitudes of 10-25 km over the tropics.
- This hole is about seven times larger than Antarctica, the study suggested.
- It also appears across all seasons, unlike that of Antarctica, which is visible only in the spring.
- The hole has become significant since the 1980s. But it was not discovered until this study.
What caused an ozone hole in the tropics?
- Studies suggested another mechanism of ozone depletion: Cosmic rays.
- Chlorofluorocarbon’s (CFC) role in depleting the ozone layer is well-documented.
- The tropical stratosphere recorded a low temperature of 190-200 Kelvin (K).
- This can explain why the tropical ozone hole is constantly formed over the seasons.
Try this PYQ
Q.Consider the following statements:
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting substances are used:
- In the production of plastic foams
- In the production of tubeless tyres
- In cleaning certain electronic components
- As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Post your answers here:
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What are Black Carbon Aerosols?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Black Carbon Aerosols
Mains level: Not Much
Black carbon aerosols have indirectly affected the mass gain of the Tibetan Plateau glaciers by changing long-range water vapour transport from the South Asian monsoon region, a study has found.
What are Black Carbon Aerosols?
- Black Carbon (BC) aerosol, often called soot, is the dominant form of light absorbing particulate matter in the atmosphere.
- They are emitted by incomplete combustion processes, both human (e.g., diesel engines) and natural (e.g., wildfire).
- Its ability to absorb visible and infrared radiation means BC can heat the atmosphere and darken surfaces, specifically snow and ice.
- These effects have important consequences on earth’s climate and climate change.
- BC may also have adverse impacts on human health. Unlike long-lived greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, BC is removed from the atmosphere in 1-2 weeks, so its impacts tend to be more regional rather than global.
Deposition over Himalayas
- The South Asia region adjacent to the Tibetan Plateau has among the highest levels of black carbon emission in the world.
- Many studies have emphasised black carbon aerosols from South Asia can be transported across the Himalayas to the inland region of the Tibetan Plateau.
Impact on glaciers melting
- Black carbon deposition in snow reduces the albedo of surfaces — a measure of how much of Sun’s radiations are reflected.
- This accelerates the melting of glaciers and snow cover, thus changing the hydrological process and water resources in the region.
- They heat up the middle and upper atmosphere, thus increasing the North-South temperature gradient.
- As a result, precipitation in the central and the southern Tibetan Plateau decreases during the monsoon, especially in the southern Tibetan Plateau.
- The decrease in precipitation further leads to a decrease of mass gain of glaciers.
- From 2007 to 2016, the reduced mass gain by precipitation decrease accounted for 11% of the average glacier mass loss on the Tibetan Plateau and 22.1% in the Himalayas.
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What is a ‘Bomb Cyclone’?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Bomb Cyclone
Mains level: Not Much
Bomb cyclone continued to unleash havoc as the death toll due to weather-related incidents in the United States mounted to 34 and has left millions without power.
What is Bomb Cyclone?
- A bomb cyclone is a large, intense mid-latitude storm that has low pressure at its center, weather fronts and an array of associated weather, from blizzards to severe thunderstorms to heavy precipitation.
- It becomes a bomb when its central pressure decreases very quickly—by at least 24 millibars in 24 hours.
- When a cyclone “bombs,” or undergoes bombogenesis, this tells us that it has access to the optimal ingredients for strengthening, such as high amounts of heat, moisture and rising air.
Why is it called a bomb?
- Most cyclones don’t intensify rapidly in this way.
- Bomb cyclones put forecasters on high alert, because they can produce significant harmful impacts.
Its etymology
- The word “bombogenesis” is a combination of cyclogenesis, which describes the formation of a cyclone or storm, and bomb, which is, well, pretty self-explanatory.
- This can happen when a cold air mass collides with a warm air mass, such as air over warm ocean waters.
- The formation of this rapidly strengthening weather system is a process called bombogenesis, which creates what is known as a bomb cyclone.
How does it occur?
- Over the warmer ocean, heat and moisture are abundant.
- But as cool continental air moves overhead and creates a large difference in temperature, the lower atmosphere becomes unstable and buoyant.
- Air rises, cools and condenses, forming clouds and precipitation.
Where does it occur the most?
- The US coast is one of the regions where bombogenesis is most common.
- That’s because storms in the mid-latitudes – a temperate zone north of the tropics that includes the entire continental US – draw their energy from large temperature contrasts.
- Along the US East Coast during winter, there’s a naturally potent thermal contrast between the cool land and the warm Gulf Stream current.
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Mapping: Great Lakes
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Great Lakes
Mains level: Not Much
Scientists are building a sensor network to detect the trends in the water chemistry of Lake Huron, one of the five Great Lakes of North America.
What is the Acidification of water bodies?
- Acidification of oceans or freshwater bodies takes place when excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere gets rapidly absorbed into them.
- Scientists initially believed this might be a good thing, as it leaves less carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
- But in the past decade or so, it has been established that absorption of carbon dioxide leads to a lowering of the pH, which makes the water bodies more acidic.
What are Great Lakes?
- The Great Lakes are a series of large interconnected freshwater lakes in the mid-east region of North America that connect to the Atlantic Ocean via the Saint Lawrence River.
- There are five lakes, which are Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario and are in general on or near the Canada–US border.
- Hydrologically, lakes Michigan and Huron are a single body joined at the Straits of Mackinac.
- By itself, Lake Huron is the world’s third largest freshwater lake, after Lake Superior and Lake Victoria.
- The Great Lakes Waterway enables modern travel and shipping by water among the lakes.
Why are they significant?
- The Great Lakes contain a fifth of the world’s total freshwater, and is a crucial source of irrigation and transportation.
- They also serve as the habitat for more than 3,500 species of plants and animals.
Acidification of Great Lakes
- Scientists are developing a system that would be capable of measuring the carbon dioxide and pH levels of the Great Lakes over several years.
- It is known that the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide has caused the world’s oceans to turn more acidic.
- Recently, it has been observed that by 2100, even the Great Lakes — Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario — might approach acidity at around the same rate as the oceans.
- Researchers hope the data from the Lake Huron project would add to scientific information on the subject.
Consequences of acidification
- The Great Lakes are believed to have been born some 20,000 years ago, when the Earth started to warm and water from melting glaciers filled the basins on its surface.
- However, this rich ecosphere is under threat as the five lakes would witness a pH decline of 0.29-0.49 pH units — meaning they would become more acidic — by 2100.
- This may lead to a decrease in native biodiversity, create physiological challenges for organisms, and permanently alter the structure of the ecosystem, scientists say.
- It would also severely impact the hundreds of wooden shipwrecks that are believed to be resting at the bottom of these lakes.
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Climate Change Induced Migration
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Climate change and associated migration
Context
- Climate-induced displacements have increased both in numbers and magnitude worldwide. According to the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre’s (IDMC) report, 23.7 million people experienced displacements in 2021 as a result of cyclones and floods.
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Estimates about Migration
- IOM estimates: The International Organisation on Migration (IOM) estimates that on a global scale, between 25 million and 1 billion people would be compelled to migrate from their homes because of climate change and environmental degradation by 2050.
- Situation in south Asia: South Asia is no exception to it. Disasters cause most of the internal displacements occurring in South Asia every year, and in the year 2021, nearly 5.3 million disaster displacements were reported.
- CANSA Report: The Climate Action Network South Asia (CANSA) reports that approximately 45 million people in India alone, shall be compelled to migrate by 2050 due to climate disasters, with a threefold increase in current figures.
How women and children are most vulnerable?
- UN report: The United Nations asserts that around 80 percent of climate change displaces include women.
- Global International Migrant Stock: The present share of women migrants in the Global International Migrant Stock oscillates between 48 percent and 52 percent, as they frequently experience ‘triple discrimination’ given their positions as women, unprotected workers and migrants.
- Developing countries are most vulnerable: The situation becomes even more precarious in developing countries like India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and several small island nations in the Pacific Ocean.
- Violence is likely: Women uprooted due to climate change become more vulnerable to violence, human trafficking, and armed conflicts. For instance, a study by the Sierra Club (2018) revealed how women impacted by Cyclone Nargis in Myanmar witnessed increased occurrences of sexual and domestic abuse, forced prostitution, and sex and labour trafficking.
What is the New York Declaration on international Migration?
- Global compact for migration (GCM): It mandated the adoption of the Global Compact for Safe, Orderly and Regular Migration (GCM) in 2018 and for the first time, a comprehensive framework recognising the concept of climate change-induced migration within the broader concept of international migration was developed.
- Global compact on refugee: The Declaration also paved the way for an adoption of a Global Compact on Refugees (GCR) in the same year, but an extension of refugee law to cater to the needs of those displaced by the forces of climate change does not really resolve this humanitarian concern.
- More investment in research: It also highlights the need for pumping in more investments towards research to tackle the challenges of environmental migration and rests on important climate change mitigation instruments like the Paris Climate Agreement, Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD).
- Share responsibility on states: The Zero Draft of the GCM itself highlights how it sets out shared responsibilities of the states in commitment to the causes of migration– showing how the GCM relies on the countries having a sense of moral responsibility for the fulfilment of its goals and objectives.
Discussion in COP27 about climate migration
- Global goal on adaptation: The 2022 Conference of the Parties’ (or COP27) summit was seen as a platform that would lend visibility to the concept of climate migration, especially in light of how a work programme for defining a Global Goal on Adaptation (GGA) towards identifying collective needs and solutions in light of the ongoing climate crisis that has already affected so many countries around the world, was established in the 2021 COP26 summit.
- Lack of progress on migration: While COP27 established a framework towards the attainment of the GGA (likely to be adopted in 2023 at COP28), its progress towards protecting and assisting climate migrants remains in a state of limbo.
- Task force on displacement: As highlighted in a study by the ECDM, the key problem lies in how the Task Force on Displacement has projected climate-induced mobility as a “loss and damage” concern, in turn putting forth the idea that this kind of human mobility stands as a failed adoption strategy.
What role India can play on climate-induced migration?
- No clear reference to climate migration: Paragraph 40 of the G20 Bali Leaders’ Declaration talks about preventing irregular migration flows, the trafficking of migrants and holding such talks in the future G20 summits to come, but the term “climate migration” fails to make an appearance.
- Leverage G20 for climate migration consensus: India seeks to play a significant role in the international efforts for climate action, and its commitment can be reflected in it being party to the UNFCCC and its instruments–the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. Its presidency could provide a platform for the G20 countries to work together in addressing the growing concerns of human mobility in forms of both migration and displacements.
- Intergovernmental dialogue: Also, knowledge gaps pertaining to human mobility because of climate change and environmental degradation can be addressed through intergovernmental dialogues to be held at the G20 platform under India’s Presidency.
Conclusion
- Policymakers meet to discuss the several concerns of climate change at various platforms, progress concerning any support for the climate migrants remain insufficient till date, resting on goodwill gestures instead. World must pay attention and money to firmly address the climate migration issue.
Mains Question
Q. What is climate induced migration? How women and children are most vulnerable to climate migration? What role India can play to address the issue?
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What are Western Disturbances?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Western Disturbances
Mains level: Not Much
The days have been unusually warm for winter in New Delhi with the maximum temperature remaining above normal mostly on account of fewer western disturbances affecting this year.
Western Disturbances
- A western disturbance is an extratropical storm originating in the Mediterranean region that brings sudden winter rain to the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent.
- They are labelled as an extra-tropical storm originating in the Mediterranean, is an area of low pressure that brings sudden showers, snow, and fog in northwest India.
- In the term “extra-tropical storm”, storm refers to low pressure. “Extra-tropical” means outside the tropics. As the WD originates outside the tropical region, the word “extra-tropical” has been associated with them.
- It is a non-monsoonal precipitation pattern driven by the westerlies.
- The moisture in these storms usually originates over the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea and the Black Sea.
- Extratropical storms are global phenomena with moisture usually carried in the upper atmosphere, unlike their tropical counterparts where the moisture is carried in the lower atmosphere.
- In the case of the Indian subcontinent, moisture is sometimes shed as rain when the storm system encounters the Himalayas.
- Western disturbances are more frequent and strong in the winter season.
Impact: Winter Rainfall and Extreme Cold
- Western disturbances, specifically the ones in winter, bring moderate to heavy rain in low-lying areas and heavy snow to mountainous areas of the Indian Subcontinent.
- They are the cause of most winter and pre-monsoon season rainfall across northwest India.
- An average of four to five western disturbances forms during the winter season.
Its significance
- Precipitation during the winter season has great importance in agriculture, particularly for the rabi crops.
- Wheat among them is one of the most important crops, which helps to meet India’s food security.
Try this PYQ:
Consider the following statements:
- The winds which blow between 30°N and 60°S latitudes throughout the year are known as westerlies.
- The moist air masses that cause winter rains in the North-Western region of India are part of westerlies.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Post your answers here.
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Cyclone Mandous makes landfall in Tamil Nadu
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cyclone Mandous
Mains level: Tropical Cyclones
Cyclone Mandous crossed the north Tamil Nadu coast with fierce winds and heavy downpour.
Cyclone Mandous
- ‘Mandous’ was a name submitted by WMO member United Arab Emirates and is pronounced as ‘Man-Dous.’
- It means ‘treasure box’ in Arabic.
What are Tropical Cyclones?
- A tropical cyclone is an intense circular storm that originates over warm tropical oceans and is characterized by low atmospheric pressure, high winds, and heavy rain.
- Cyclones are formed over slightly warm ocean waters. The temperature of the top layer of the sea, up to a depth of about 60 meters, need to be at least 28°C to support the formation of a cyclone.
- This explains why the April-May and October-December periods are conducive for cyclones.
- Then, the low level of air above the waters needs to have an ‘anticlockwise’ rotation (in the northern hemisphere; clockwise in the southern hemisphere).
- During these periods, there is an ITCZ in the Bay of Bengal whose southern boundary experiences winds from west to east, while the northern boundary has winds flowing east to west.
- Once formed, cyclones in this area usually move northwest. As it travels over the sea, the cyclone gathers more moist air from the warm sea which adds to its heft.
Requirements for a Cyclone to form
There are six main requirements for tropical cyclogenesis:
- Sufficiently warm sea surface temperatures
- Atmospheric instability
- High humidity in the lower to middle levels of the troposphere
- Enough Coriolis force to develop a low-pressure centre
- A pre-existing low-level focus or disturbance
- Low vertical wind shear
How are the cyclones named?
- In 2000, a group of nations called WMO/ESCAP (World Meteorological Organisation/United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific) decided to name cyclones.
- It comprised Bangladesh, India, the Maldives, Myanmar, Oman, Pakistan, Sri Lanka and Thailand, decided to start naming cyclones in the region.
- After each country sent in suggestions, the WMO/ESCAP Panel on Tropical Cyclones (PTC) finalized the list.
- The WMO/ESCAP expanded to include five more countries in 2018 — Iran, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates and Yemen.
Basics
Cyclones
- The atmospheric disturbances which involve a closed circulation of air around a low pressure at the center and high pressure at the periphery, rotating anti-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern hemisphere (due to the Coriolis force) are called “cyclones”.
Cyclones are broadly classified into two types based on the latitudes of their origin-
- Tropical cyclones
- Temperate/Extra-tropical cyclones
Tropical Cyclones
- Tropical cyclones develop in the region between the tropics of Capricorn and Cancer. These are violent storms that originate over oceans in tropical areas and move on to the coastal regions bringing large-scale destruction caused by violent winds, very heavy rainfall and storm surges. These cyclones are one of the most devastating natural calamities.
- Tropical cyclones mostly move along with the direction of trade winds, so they travel from east to west and make landfall on the eastern coasts of the continents.
- Tropical cyclones are known by different names depending on the regions of the world. They are known as Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western Pacific and South China Sea, Willy-willies in Western Australia and Cyclones in the Indian Ocean.
Temperate Cyclones/Extra-Tropical Cyclones
- It occurs between 30°-60° latitude in both hemispheres (in between the Tropic of Cancer and the Arctic circle in the northern hemisphere and in between the Tropic of Capricorn and the Antarctic Circle in the southern hemisphere).
- These cyclones move with the westerlies and are therefore oriented from west to east.
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Places in news: Great Barrier Reef
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Corals, Coral Bleaching
Mains level: Great Barrier Reef
A joint report by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre (WHC) expressed concern about the status of the Great Barrier Reef (GBR) in Australia, recommending that it “be inscribed on the List of World Heritage in Danger.”
About Great Barrier Reef
- Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest reef system stretching across 2,300 km and having nearly 3,000 individual reefs.
- It hosts 400 different types of coral, gives shelter to 1,500 species of fish and 4,000 types of mollusc.
- Coral reefs support over 25% of marine biodiversity even as they take up only 1% of the seafloor.
- The marine life supported by reefs further fuels global fishing industries.
- Besides, coral reef systems generate $2.7 trillion in annual economic value through goods and service trade and tourism.
- In Australia, the Barrier Reef, in pre-COVID times, generated $4.6 billion annually through tourism and employed over 60,000 people including divers and guides.
What does the new report say?
- The current report surveyed 87 reefs in the GBR between August 2021 and May 2022.
- Coral cover is measured by determining the increase in the cover of hard corals.
- The hard coral cover in northern GBR had reached 36% while that in the central region had reached 33%.
- Meanwhile, coral cover levels declined in the southern region from 38% in 2021 to 34% in 2022.
- The record levels of recovery, the report showed, were fuelled largely by increases in the fast-growing Acropora corals, which are a dominant type in the GBR.
Threats found
- Acropora corals are also the most susceptible to environmental pressures such as rising temperatures, cyclones, pollution, crown-of-thorn starfish (COTs) attacks which prey on hard corals and so on.
Does this mean the reef is out of the woods?
- Behind the recent recovery in parts of the reef, are the low levels of acute stressors in the past 12 months — no tropical cyclones, lesser heat stress in 2020 and 2022 as opposed to earlier.
- Besides predatory attacks and tropical cyclones, scientists say that the biggest threat to the health of the reef is climate change-induced heat stress, resulting in coral bleaching.
- The concern is that in the past decade, mass bleaching events have become more closely spaced in time.
- The first mass bleaching event occurred in 1998 when the El Niño weather pattern caused sea surfaces to heat, causing 8% of the world’s coral to die.
- The second event took place in 2002.
- But the longest and most damaging bleaching event took place from 2014 to 2017. Mass bleaching then occurred again in 2020, followed by earlier this year.
Back2Basics: Coral Reefs
- Corals are marine invertebrates or animals which do not possess a spine.
- They are the largest living structures on the planet.
- Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grow when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.
- Corals are of two types — hard corals and soft corals.
- Hard corals extract calcium carbonate from seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons. Hard corals are in a way the engineers of reef ecosystems and measuring the extent of hard coral is a widely-accepted metric for measuring the condition of coral reefs.
- Soft corals attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years. These growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs.
How do corals bleach?
- Corals share a symbiotic relationship with single-celled algae called zooxanthellae.
- The algae prepares food for corals through photosynthesis and also gives them their vibrant colouration.
- When exposed to conditions like heat stress, pollution, or high levels of ocean acidity, the zooxanthellae start producing reactive oxygen species not beneficial to the corals.
- So, the corals kick out the colour-giving algae from their polyps, exposing their pale white exoskeleton and leading to coral starvation as corals cannot produce their own food.
- Bleached corals can survive depending on the levels of bleaching and the recovery of sea temperatures to normal levels.
- Severe bleaching and prolonged stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.
Try this PYQ:
Consider the following statements:
- Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
- More than one third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines.
- Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
Post your answers here.
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Education as a tool of innovation for the climate change generation.
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate change. LiFE movement
Mains level: A climate-resilient education system.
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Context
- Instead of mirroring a broken development paradigm predicated on an extractive relationship with nature, India can lead with an approach that’s better for both people and the planet. A climate-resilient education system will be essential to realising this opportunity.
Background
- India’s LiFE mass movement: At COP27, India released its Long-Term Low Emissions and Development Strategies (LT-LEDS). This outlines priorities for carbon-intensive sectors like electricity and industry and transport, and emphasizes the role of a Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE) as a mass movement towards sustainable consumption and production.
- Education is vital: From behavioral shifts of individuals to the re-shaping of markets, education has a vital role in the LiFE movement.
- Potential of demand side actions: According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), this could make a significant dent in reducing planet-warming gases, demand-side actions have the potential to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 40-70 per cent in 2050.
What are the challenges facing the education sector and children at present?
- School closures during the Covid pandemic affect productivity: school closures during the pandemic have led to a learning deficit that’s getting reflected in reduced test scores. This will likely impact productivity and per capita income levels in the long term. One year of school closures could reduce GDP levels by anywhere from 1.1 to 4.7 per cent by mid-century, according to a paper by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.
- Hinderance to the economic mobility: The lasting impacts of Covid-19 could hinder economic mobility for a generation of Indians and alter the arithmetic for public finance.
- Climate change impacts children more: Climate impacts are already disrupting children’s learning and well-being globally. For instance, extreme heat reduces students’ learning levels and causes physiological harm. Schools are temporarily shut down and children’s health is affected due to persistently poor air quality in cities like Delhi.
- Disasters and displacing families affecting children: Debilitating deluges are permanently displacing families, often leading to children (and disproportionately girls) dropping out of schools and being trafficked or subject to child labour due to distressed household incomes. As these disasters grow more frequent and intense, we must prepare the infrastructure, content, and delivery of the public education system to protect the most vulnerable citizens, many of whom will be climate refugees.
- Anxiety about the future: The lived experiences of climate-induced disasters and anxiety about the future are causing despair and dread among young people. This is compounded by digital platforms and news cycles that don’t linger long enough to make sense of challenges or build a widespread understanding of breakthroughs like the significant reductions in the costs of renewable energy.
How can the climate education system be used to both prevent crisis and create opportunity?
- Creating a strong and inclusive climate-resilient education system at national level: At a national level, a strong enabling framework for a climate-resilient education system shall cover matters from curricula to nutrition to school building codes in a climate-changed world. With its scale and reach, the public school system is not only a source of learning but also shelter, clothing, food, and community for millions.
- Programs in states shall be implemented according to the local demands: Design and implementation in states and districts should be shaped by existing local needs and anticipated climate risks. This could involve infrastructure investments so school buildings can double up as emergency shelters in cyclone-prone areas and capacity additions so government schools in mega-cities that are destinations for climate migrants can integrate and empower children
- Emphasize should be on social and emotional learning: Students’ mental health needs should be served through an empathic expansion and an emphasis on social and emotional learning. Across the board, children should be able to access clean water and nutritious food.
- Technical curriculum with indigenous knowledge shall be applied: Curricula can be infused with scientific and technical know-how alongside indigenous and local knowledge. In pockets, there are already innovative initiatives under-way where non-government organisations are adding tremendous value through contextualisation and close work with communities.
- Integrating biodiversity conservation learning process: Students should be taught about the potential of integrating biodiversity conservation with regenerative agriculture. Youth must be empowered and encourages to take civic and climate actions from waste management to recycle, to lake restorations and to make their city more liveable.
- Fostering critical thinking: The cross-cutting imperative should be to foster critical thinking instead of rote learning so that the next generation can embrace complexity and make informed choices.
Way ahead
- There is a need for climate education across society rather than simply at the primary and secondary levels.
- There is need to retrain workers in industries that have a future in a green economy.
- So is the need to priorities technical training in colleges and universities so we can rapidly accelerate our decarbonization pathway.
Conclusion
- We can’t afford to be narrowly focusing on technical training for the innovation, research, and development of climate technologies. Rather, we should develop strong analytical capabilities and holistic thinking about societal transformations and how new technologies will be embedded in communities. As Elizabeth Kolbert, the Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist put it, “the ‘invisible hand’ always grasps for more”.
Mains question
Q. Climate change is rapidly altering the environment and economy, especially affecting children. In this light, Climate resilient education systems can be used to prevent crises and create opportunities. Discuss.
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Climate Change and the role of Panchayat Raj Institutes (PRI’s)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Role of PRI's in a fight against climate change
Context
- If India has to achieve the set of goals enunciated in the ‘Panchamrit’ resolution of the COP26 climate summit in Glasgow 2021, it is necessary that Panchayati raj institutions, the third tier of government which are closest to the people are involved.
Climate change and rural area
- Major impact on rural areas: The greater variability in rainfall and temperatures, etc. experienced of late has directly affected the livelihood and well-being of millions of rural households.
- PRI excluded from National action plan: India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change 2008 identifies a range of priority areas for coordinated intervention at the national and State levels. However, there would have been better results had Panchayati raj institutions been given a greater role.
- Decentralization of climate efforts are necessary: Through the ongoing decentralization process which ensures people’s participation, panchayats can play a crucial and frontline role in coordinating effective responses to climate risks, enabling adaptation and building climate-change resilient communities.
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What is carbon neutrality?
- Zero carbon production:
- The climate change discussion also focuses on the emerging and widely accepted concept of ‘carbon neutrality’ which puts forth the notion of zero carbon developments, nature conservation, food, energy and seeds sufficiency, and economic development.
- As human activities are the cause of the current climate crisis, mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and adapting to growing and extreme weather events are critical.
- Zero carbon development which promotes sustainable living is the effective solution to reducing anthropogenic emissions and improving climate resilience.
Efforts of Panchayat raj institutes to fight climate change: Case study of Meenangadi
- Carbon neutral Meenangadi: In 2016, the panchayat envisaged a project called ‘Carbon neutral Meenangadi’, the aim being to transform Meenangadi into a state of carbon neutrality. There were campaigns, classes and studies to begin with. An awareness programme was conducted initially. A greenhouse gases emission inventory was also prepared. The panchayat was found to be carbon positive.
- Implementation of Multi-sectoral schemes: An action plan was prepared by organising gram Sabha meetings. Socio-economic surveys and energy-use mapping were also carried out. Several multi sector schemes were implemented to reduce emissions, increase carbon sequestration, and preserve the ecology and bio-diversity.
- Tree plantation Initiative: ‘Tree banking’ was one of landmark schemes introduced to aid carbon neutral activities which encouraged the planting of more trees by extending interest-free loans. Interestingly 1,58,816 trees were planted which have also been geo-tagged to monitor their growth.
- People’s participation: The entire community was involved in the process, with school students, youth, and technical and academic institutions given different assignments. Five years have passed and the changes are visible. Local economic development was another thrust area where LED bulb manufacturing and related micro-enterprises were initiated.
Government of India’s effort to support climate change: ‘Clean and Green Village’
- SDG theme: The Ministry of Panchayati Raj has focused its attention on localising the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) on a thematic basis.
- Various activities delegated to PRI: ‘Clean and Green Village’ has been identified as the fifth theme where panchayats can take up activities on natural resource management, biodiversity protection, waste management and afforestation activities.
- Documentation of best practices: According to the latest data, 1,09,135-gram panchayats have prioritised ‘Clean & Green Village’ as one of their focus areas for 2022-23. The Ministry has highlighted the need for the documentation of best practices and for wider dissemination.
- Integrated panchayat development plan: The net result is that many panchayats are coming forward with their eco plans. The integrated Panchayat Development Plan prepared by all panchayats is a stepping stone towards addressing many of the environmental concerns of villages.
Conclusion
- In today’s age of rapid technological advancements and digital transformation, India’s rural local bodies are silently contributing their strength to ensuring the global target of carbon neutrality, as envisaged in the UN conference on climate change.
Mains Question
Q. What role PRIs can play in a fight against climate change? What is the scheme of “Clean and Green Village” of Ministry of Panchayat Raj?
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What is the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture (KJWA)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: KJWA
Mains level: Agricultural emissions
India has expressed its concern over the draft decision text to implement the Koronivia Joint Work on Agriculture.
What is the news?
- India said developed countries are blocking a pro-poor and pro-farmer decision by insisting on expanding the scope for mitigation to agriculture.
- Developed countries are thereby compromising the very foundation of food security in the world.
What is the Koronivia Joint Work?
- The KJWA is a decision under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
- It seeks to recognize the unique potential of agriculture in tackling climate change.
- It emphasizes reducing emissions of greenhouse gases due to the agriculture sector.
- The Koronivia decision addresses six interrelated topics on soils, nutrient use, water, livestock, methods for assessing adaptation, and the socio-economic and food security dimensions of climate change across the agricultural sectors.
India’s arguments against Koronivia joint work
- India said that agricultural emissions are not “luxury” emissions but “survival” emissions of the poor.
- The world is facing a climate crisis today because of the excessive historic cumulative emissions by the developed nations.
- These nations are unable to reduce their emissions domestically by any worthwhile change in their lifestyles.
- Rather, they are searching for cheaper solutions abroad.
- In most developing countries across the world, agriculture is done by small and marginal farmers who toil hard and brave the vagaries of extreme weather and climate variability to ensure food security.
Back2Basics: Agricultural Emissions
- Farms emitted 6 billion tonnes of GHGs in 2011, or about 13 percent of total global emissions.
- That makes the agricultural sector the world’s second-largest emitter, after the energy sector (which includes emissions from power generation and transport).
- Most farm-related emissions come in the form of methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O).
- Cattle belching (CH4) and the addition of natural or synthetic fertilizers and wastes to soils (N2O) represent the largest sources, making up 65 percent of agricultural emissions globally.
- Smaller sources include manure management, rice cultivation, field burning of crop residues, and fuel use on farms.
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Is climate change affecting global health?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NA
Mains level: Impact of climate change on human health
A recent report by Lancet, has traced in detail the intimate link between changing weather events and their impact on the health of people.
What is the news?
- The 2022 Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change: Health at the Mercy of Fossil Fuels points out that the world’s reliance on fossil fuels increases the risk of disease, food insecurity and other illnesses related to heat.
Impact of climate change on health
(1) Extreme Events
- Heatwaves: The Lancet report indicates that rapidly increasing temperatures exposed vulnerable populations (adults above 65 years old and children younger than 1) to 3.7 billion more heatwave days in 2021 than annually in 1986–2005.
- Shift in patterns: There is no doubt that events such as floods, droughts and recurrent cyclones are direct outcome of climate change.
(2) Impact on health
- Infectious diseases: The changing climate is affecting the spread of infectious disease, raising the risk of emerging diseases and co-epidemics. For instance, coastal waters are becoming more suited for the transmission of Vibrio pathogens.
- More vector borne diseases: The number of months suitable for malaria transmission has increased in the highland areas of the Americas and Africa.
- More lives loss: The WHO has predicted that between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause approximately 2,50,000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress.
- Others: Low air quality, Rise in zoonotic diseases.
(3) Food security
- Crop loss: Higher temperatures threaten crop yields directly, with the growth season shortening for many cereal crops.
- Supply chain disruptions: Extreme weather events disrupt supply chains, thereby undermining food availability, access, stability, and utilisation.
- Malnutrition: The prevalence of undernourishment increased during the COVID-19 pandemic, and up to 161 million more people faced hunger in 2020 than in 2019.
Way forward
- Health-centred response: A health-centred response to the coexisting climate, energy, and cost-of-living crises provides an opportunity to deliver a healthy, low-carbon future.
- Realization of the problem: The governments’ commitment to assess and address the threats from climate change, are positive signs, the report stresses.
- Holistic approach: This is the way a health-centred response would work – it would reduce the likelihood of the most catastrophic climate change impacts, while improving energy security and creating an opportunity for economic recovery.
- Shift in dietary patterns: The report also calls for an accelerated transition to balanced and more plant-based diets, as that would help reduce emissions from red meat and milk production, and prevent diet-related deaths.
- Easing the healthcare: The report emphasizes reducing the strain on health-care providers, and leading to more robust health systems.
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PM launches Mission LiFE
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mission LiFE
Mains level: Read the attached story
Prime Minister, in the presence of UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres, launched ‘Mission LiFE’ (Lifestyle For Environment).
What is Mission LiFE?
- NITI Aayog has conceptualized the idea of mission LiFE.
- It states that the aim of the mission is to follow a three-pronged strategy for changing our collective approach toward sustainability.
- PM elaborated that Mission LiFE emboldens the spirit of the P3 model i.e. Pro Planet People.
- The approach of LiFe campaign includes:
- Focus on individual behaviours: To make life a mass movement (Jan Andolan).
- Co-create globally: Crowdsourcing empirical and scalable ideas
- Leverage Local Cultures: Leverage climate-friendly social norms and beliefs of different cultures worldwide to drive the campaign
Understanding Sustainable living
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is the global authority that sets environmental agenda and promotes the implementation of environmental dimension of sustainable development.
- UNEP says that as the population of the world is increasing the demand for food, fashion, travel, housing, etc also increases.
- Hence, a sustainable living approach is necessary to make a balance between the needs of the present generation with that of the future.
- Sustainable living means acknowledging day-to-day life choices and reflecting if there can be alternatives that may impact the environment less.
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Private: Early warning for heatwaves sees huge improvement
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heatwaves
Mains level: Heatwaves prediction
Indian scientists have, for the first time, been able to predict heatwaves even one season in advance.
What is the news?
- In a recent study, the India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences have documented for the first time that Indian heatwaves can be predicted even one season in advance.
- They used 37 years (1981-2017) of hindcasts from the Monsoon Mission Coupled Climate Forecast Model (MMCFS).
- It documented the seasonal predictions of frequency and duration of Indian heatwaves during April-June are very useful.
What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?
- Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
- IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
- Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.
How are they formed?
- Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
- This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
- On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
- Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
- Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
- Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
- A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
- Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.
Following criteria are used to declare heatwave:
To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.
a) Based on Departure from Normal
- Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
- Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
- Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
- Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
How long can a heatwave spell last?
- A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days.
- On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.
- The longest recorded heatwave spell, in recent years, was between 18 and 31 May 2015.
Impact of Heatwaves
- Heat Strokes: Very high temperatures or humid conditions pose an elevated risk of heat stroke or heat exhaustion.
- Increased healthcare costs: Effects from extreme heat are also associated with increased hospitalizations and emergency room visits, increased deaths from cardio-respiratory and other diseases, mental health issues, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, etc.
- Lesser work productivity: Extreme heat also lessens worker productivity, especially among the more than 1 billion workers who are exposed to high heat on a regular basis.
- Risk of wildfires: The heat domes act as fuel to wildfires, which destroys a lot of land area every year in countries like the US.
- Weather impacts: The condition also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit the ground.
- Effect on Vegetation: The trapping of heat can also damage crops, dry out vegetation and result in
- Increased energy demands: The sweltering heat wave also leads to rise in energy demand, especially electricity, leading to pushing up rates.
Mitigating its impacts
- Adaptation to heatwaves can be effective to minimise the negative impacts.
- This can be done by developing a comprehensive heat response plan that includes early warnings, awareness rising and technology intervention.
- India has now a strong national framework for heat action plans involving the India Meteorological Department (IMD), the National and State disaster management authorities, and local bodies.
- Early warning systems are an integral part of this heat action plan.
Way forward
- Seasonal forecasts should use a multi-model ensemble (MME) forecasting strategy.
- Short-range ensemble forecasts should use higher-resolution global models, initialized with observed soil moisture data, which are available from microwave satellites and IMD’s soil moisture network.
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What is International Argo Program?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Argo
Mains level: Not Much
The International Argo Program system to observe carbon concentration in the world’s oceans is extremely inadequate to meet the growing and urgent need for information on oceanic carbon, says a report.
What is Argo?
- Argo is an international program that uses profiling floats to observe temperature, salinity, currents, and, recently, bio-optical properties in the Earth’s oceans; it has been operational since the early 2000s.
- The real-time data it provides is used in climate and oceanographic research.
- A special research interest is to quantify the ocean heat content (OHC).
- Each instrument (float) spends almost all its life below the surface.
- The name Argo was chosen because the array of floats works in partnership with the Jason earth observing satellites that measure the shape of the ocean surface.
- In Greek mythology Jason sailed on his ship the Argo in search of the Golden Fleece.
What are its aims?
- The data that Argo collects describes the temperature and salinity of the water and some of the floats measure other properties that describe the biology/chemistry of the ocean.
- The main reason for collecting these data is to help us understand the oceans’ role in earth’s climate.
- For example, the changes in sea level (once the tides are averaged out) depend partly on the melting of icecaps and partly on the amount of heat stored in the oceans.
- Argo’s temperature measurements allow us to calculate how much heat is stored and to monitor from year to year how the distribution of heat changes with depth and from area to area.
- As ocean heat content increases, sea level rises, just like the mercury in a thermometer.
How does it work?
- Each Argo float (costing between $20,000 and $150,000 depending on the individual float’s technical specification) is launched from a ship.
- The float’s weight is carefully adjusted so that, as it sinks, it eventually stabilizes at a pre-set level, usually 1 km.
- Ten days later, an internal battery-driven pump transfers oil between a reservoir inside the float and an external bladder.
- This makes the float first descend to 2km and then return to the surface measuring ocean properties as it rises.
- The data and the float position are relayed to satellites and then on to receiving stations on shore.
- The float then sinks again to repeat the 10 day cycle until its batteries are exhausted.
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Why Cloudbursts forecast in India still remains elusive?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cloudburst
Mains level: Flash floods and cloudbursts
The characteristics of cloud burst events remain elusive, and our efforts in monitoring and forecasting them is at an embryonic stage.
Cyclones can be predicted about one week in advance. However, cloudburst forecasts still remain elusive.
What is Cloudbursts?
- A cloudburst is a localised but intense rainfall activity.
- Short spells of very heavy rainfall over a small geographical area can cause widespread destruction, especially in hilly regions where this phenomenon is the most common.
- Not all instances of very heavy rainfall, however, are cloudbursts.
- A cloudburst has a very specific definition: Rainfall of 10 cm or more in an hour over a roughly 10 km x 10-km area is classified as a cloudburst event.
- By this definition, 5 cm of rainfall in a half-hour period over the same area would also be categorized as a cloudburst.
Which clouds do burst?
- Cloudburst events are often associated with cumulonimbus clouds that cause thunderstorms and occasionally due to monsoon wind surges and other weather phenomena.
- Cumulonimbus clouds can grow up to 12-15 km in height through the entire troposphere (occasionally up to 21 km) and can hold huge amounts of water.
- Tall cumulonimbus clouds can develop in about half an hour as the moisture updraft happens rapidly, at a pace of 60 to 120 km/hr.
- A single-cell cloud may last for an hour and dump all the rain in the last 20 to 30 minutes, while some of these clouds merge to form multi-cell storms and last for several hours.
- However, cloudbursts are not defined based on cloud characteristics and do not indicate clouds exploding. Cloudbursts are defined by the amount of rainfall.
How is it different from normal rainfall?
- According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), 100 mm of rain in an hour is called a cloudburst.
- Usually, cloudbursts occur over a small geographical region of 20 to 30 sq. km.
When do they occur?
- In India, cloudbursts often occur during the monsoon season, when the southwesterly monsoon winds bring in copious amounts of moisture inland.
- The moist air that converges over land gets lifted as they encounter the hills.
- The moist air reaches an altitude and gets saturated, and the water starts condensing out of the air forming clouds.
- This is how clouds usually form, but such an orographic lifting together with a strong moisture convergence can lead to intense cumulonimbus clouds taking in huge volumes of moisture that is dumped during cloudbursts.
How common are cloudbursts?
- Cloudbursts are not uncommon events, particularly during the monsoon months.
- Most of these happen in the Himalayan states where the local topology, wind systems, and temperature gradients between the lower and upper atmosphere facilitate the occurrence of such events.
- However, not every event that is described as a cloudburst is actually, by definition, a cloudburst.
- That is because these events are highly localized.
- They take place in very small areas which are often devoid of rainfall measuring instruments.
Climate change and cloudbursts: How are they related?
- Climate change is projected to increase the frequency and intensity of cloudbursts worldwide.
- As the air gets warmer, it can hold more moisture and for a longer time. We call this the Clausius Clapeyron relationship.
- A 1-degree Celsius rise in temperature may correspond to a 7-10% increase in moisture and rainfall.
- This increase in rainfall amount does not get spread moderately throughout the season.
- As the moisture holding capacity of air increases, it results in prolonged dry periods intermittent with short spells of extreme rains.
- Deeper cumulonimbus clouds will form and the chances of cloudbursts also increase.
Why are they so destructive?
- The consequences of these events, however, are not confined to small areas.
- Because of the nature of terrain, the heavy rainfall events often trigger landslides and flash floods, causing extensive destruction downstream.
- This is the reason why every sudden downpour that leads to destruction of life and property in the hilly areas gets described as a “cloudburst”, irrespective of whether the amount of rainfall meets the defining criteria.
- At the same time, it is also possible that actual cloudburst events in remote locations aren’t recorded.
Detecting cloudbursts
- Satellites are extensively useful in detecting large-scale monsoon weather systems.
- However the resolution of the precipitation radars of these satellites can be much smaller than the area of individual cloudburst events, and hence they go undetected.
- Weather forecast models also face a similar challenge in simulating the clouds at a high resolution.
- The skillful forecasting of rainfall in hilly regions remains challenging due to the uncertainties in the interaction between the moisture convergence and the hilly terrain.
- There also involves the cloud microphysics, and the heating-cooling mechanisms at different atmospheric levels.
- Multiple radars can be a quick measure for providing warnings, but radars are an expensive affair, and installing them across the country may not be practically feasible.
Solutions to cloudbursts forecast
- Multiple doppler weather radars can be used to monitor moving cloud droplets and help to provide nowcasts (forecasts for the next three hours).
- A long-term measure would be mapping the cloudburst-prone regions using automatic rain gauges.
- If cloudburst-prone regions are co-located with landslide-prone regions, these locations can be designated as hazardous.
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What causes Rainbow Clouds (Cloud Iridescence)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cloud iridescence
Mains level: NA
Last week, pictures of an unusually-shaped rainbow cloud that appeared over China were widely shared on social media.
What is the news?
- The cloud in question resembles a pileus cloud.
- Such phenomenon of bright colours appearing on a cloud is called cloud iridescence.
What is a Pileus Cloud?
- A pileus cloud is usually formed over a cumulus or cumulonimbus cloud.
- It is formed when the base cloud pushes a moist current of air upwards and the water vapour from the current condenses to somewhat resemble wave-like crests, or umbrellas.
- In popular western culture, it is called as an “accessory cloud” that is “rather like a cloud haircut”.
- A pileus cloud is transient in nature and lasts barely for a few minutes, making it difficult, and at the same time, exciting, to spot.
What is cloud iridescence?
- Cloud iridescence or Irisation is an optical phenomenon that mostly occurs in wave-like clouds, including pileus and Altocumulus lenticularis.
- Iridescence in clouds means the appearance of colours on clouds, which can either be in the form of parallel bands like in a rainbow, or mingled in patches.
- In ancient Greek mythology, Iris is the goddess of rainbow. “Irisation”, the phenomenon of rainbow-like colours in clouds, is derived from her name.
What is a photometeor?
- Iridescence of clouds is a photometeor.
- It is an optical phenomenon produced by the reflection, refraction, diffraction or interference of sunlight.
What causes cloud iridescence?
- In pileus clouds, small water droplets or ice crystals, usually of a similar size, diffract the sunlight falling on them.
- The thinness of the cloud ensures more exposure to sunlight for each water droplet or ice crystal.
- To ensure its wave crest-like appearance, water droplets or ice crystals in these clouds are always moving – droplets form at one side of the cloud and evaporate from the other end – and hence these clouds remain small and thin since the droplets have no way of combining and growing in size.
- In its International Cloud Atlas, the World Meteorological Organisation says that iridescence or Irisation is caused by diffraction within 10 degrees from the sun.
- Beyond ten degrees and up till about 40 degrees, interference of light is the main cause of iridescence.
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Concept of ‘Lifestyle for the Environment’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Concept of LiFE
Mains level: Paper 3- LiFE movement
Context
In the midst of a global climate crisis, and as India gets closer to hosting the G20 presidency, it is important to recognise our country’s leadership at both ends of the climate debate: By walking the talk on our climate commitments as well as leading people-powered climate action.
Power of individual and collective action to address the climate change
- Adopting eco-friendly behaviours: According to the United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP), if one billion people out of the global population of close to eight billion adopt eco-friendly behaviours in their daily lives, global carbon emissions could drop by approximately 20 per cent.
- Such eco-friendly behaviours include turning off ACs, heaters and lights when not in use, as this, for instance, can conserve up to 282 kilowatts of electricity per day.
- Avoiding food wastage can reduce an individual’s carbon footprint by 370 kg per year.
The concept of Lifestyle for Environment
- In November 2021, at the CoP 26 in Glasgow, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, in addition to announcing the panchamrit, or five climate-related commitments of the country, also articulated the concept of “Lifestyle for the Environment” (LiFE).
- Mindful and deliberate utilisation: The concept advocate for mindful and deliberate utilisation by people worldwide, instead of “mindful and wasteful consumption”.
- LiFE was launched on June 5, 2022, World Environment Day, by PM Modi, with a vision of harnessing the power of individual and collective action across the world to address the climate crisis.
- The objective of the movement is to nudge individuals and communities to adopt simple and specific climate-friendly behaviours in their daily lifestyles.
- For instance, an individual can carry a reusable cloth bag instead of a plastic bag.
- By making such daily actions an integral part of our collective social norms, LiFE aims to activate a global community of “Pro Planet People” and steer the world towards a sustainable model of development.
- Global precedents: There are already precedents of pro-planet initiatives around the world.
- For example, Denmark promotes the use of bicycles by limiting parking within the city centre and providing exclusive bike lanes.
- Japan has its unique “walk-to-school” mandate, which has been in practice since the early 1950s.
- LiFE, however, is planned as a first-of-its-kind global movement, led by India in partnership with other countries, that will provide the world with a unique people-powered platform to relentlessly focus on bringing individual and collective actions to the core of the climate action narrative.
How the LiFE moment can change people’s behaviour
- 1] Consume responsibly: The prevailing perception that climate-friendly behaviour necessarily implies a frugal lifestyle has played a major role in preventing populations worldwide from adopting a sustainable lifestyle.
- LiFE plans to methodically break down this mental model by nudging the world to consume responsibly, rather than consuming less.
- Using behavioural technique: Building on the unique insights from Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM), LiFE will deploy a range of tested behavioural techniques, including nudges, social and behaviour change communication and norm influencing to make mindful consumption a mass movement.
- 2] Produce responsibly: Our society reflects our markets and vice versa.
- If sustainable choices are not supported from the supply-side, any change in our consumption patterns will only be temporary.
- By nudging the consumption patterns of the society at scale, LiFE can also trigger a huge boost for the sustainability market.
- Several green industries and a large number of jobs are likely to be initiated as a positive externality of LiFE.
- 3] Live responsibly: The Covid pandemic is a wake-up call to all of us that no matter how much technological progress we make as a global society, we all remain at the mercy of the natural world.
- As a global community of people with a shared natural world, a threat to one is a threat to all.
- In this context, through its multi-dimensional, multi-cultural and global approach, the LiFE movement can play a pivotal role in not merely reversing the effects of climate change but, at a broader level, mainstream a harmonious and mindful way of living.
Conclusion
As the world moves in fits and starts towards its shared commitment to achieve ambitious climate goals, the time is ripe for India to lead the LiFE movement and mainstream it into the climate narrative.
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What is causing Arctic Amplification?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Arctic Amplification
Mains level: Climate Change
Finnish researchers have found that the Arctic is heating four times faster than the rest of the planet.
Arctic is warming faster
- The warming is concentrated in the Eurasian part of the Arctic, where the Barents Sea north of Russia and Norway is warming at an alarming rate — seven times faster than the global average.
- Other studies indicate that the Arctic amplification is four times the global rate.
What is Arctic Amplification?
- Global warming has hastened due to anthropogenic forces or human activities since pre-industrial times and has increased the planet’s average temperature by 1.1 degrees Celsius.
- While changes are witnessed across the planet, any change in the surface air temperature and the net radiation balance tend to produce larger changes at the north and south poles.
- This phenomenon is known as polar amplification; these changes are more pronounced at the northern latitudes and are known as the Arctic amplification.
What causes amplification?
- Among the many global warming-driven causes for this amplification, the ice-albedo feedback, lapse rate feedback, water vapour feedback and ocean heat transport are the primary causes.
- Sea ice and snow have high albedo (measure of reflectivity of the surface), implying that they are capable of reflecting most of the solar radiation as opposed to water and land.
- In the Arctic’s case, global warming is resulting in diminishing sea ice.
- As the sea ice melts, the Arctic Ocean will be more capable of absorbing solar radiation, thereby driving the amplification.
- The rate at which the temperature drops with elevation i.e. lapse rate decreases with warming.
- Studies show that the ice-albedo feedback and the lapse rate feedback are responsible for 40% and 15% of polar amplification respectively.
What do the previous studies say?
- The extent of Arctic amplification is debated, as studies show various rates of amplification against the global rate.
- Studies have shown that the Arctic was warming at twice the global rate prior to the beginning of the 21st century.
- Already the Arctic surface air temperature has likely increased by more than double the global average over the last two decades.
What are the consequences of Arctic warming?
- The causes and consequences of Arctic amplification are cyclical — what might be a cause can be a consequence too.
- The Greenland ice sheet is melting at an alarming rate, and the rate of accumulation of sea ice has been remarkably low since 2000.
- This is also marked by young and thinner ice replacing the old and thicker ice sheets.
- Greenlandic ice sheet holds the second largest amount of ice, after Antarctica, and therefore it is crucial for maintaining the sea level.
- In 2019, this was the single biggest cause for the rise in the sea level, about 1.5 metres.
Visible impacts
- If the sheet melts completely, the sea level would rise by seven metres, capable of subsuming island countries and major coastal cities.
- The warming of the Arctic Ocean and the seas in the region, the acidification of water, changes in the salinity levels, are impacting the biodiversity, including the marine species and the dependent species.
- The warming is also increasing the incidence of rainfall which is affecting the availability and accessibility of lichens to the reindeer.
- The Arctic amplification is causing widespread starvation and death among the Arctic fauna.
- The permafrost in the Arctic is thawing and in turn releasing carbon and methane which are among the major greenhouse gases responsible for global warming.
- Experts fear that the thaw and the melt will also release the long-dormant bacteria and viruses that were trapped in the permafrost and can potentially give rise to diseases.
What is the impact on India?
- In recent years, scientists have pondered over the impact the changing Arctic can have on the monsoons in the subcontinent.
- The link between the two is growing in importance due to the extreme weather events the country faces, and the heavy reliance on rainfall for water and food security.
- A study says that reduced sea ice in the Barents-Kara sea region can lead to extreme rainfall events in the latter half of the monsoons — in September and October.
- The changes in the atmospheric circulation due to diminishing sea ice combined with the warm temperatures in the Arabian Sea contribute to enhanced moisture and drive extreme rainfall events.
Steps taken by India
- In 2014, India deployed IndARC, India’s first moored-underwater observatory in the Kongsfjorden fjord, Svalbard.
- It aims to monitor the impact of the changes in the Arctic Ocean on tropical processes such as the monsoons.
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Development vs sustainability
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green carbon fee
Mains level: Sustainable development
Context
- According to NITI Aayog, “600 million people in India face high to extreme water stress with nearly 70% of water being contaminated; India is placed at 120th amongst 122 countries in the water quality index”.
- The latest global environmental ranking by Yale and Columbia Universities puts India at the bottom among 180 countries.
What is development?
- Economic development means different things to different people. On a broad scale, anything a community does to foster and create a healthy economy can fall under the auspice of economic development.
What is sustainability?
- The integration of environmental health, social equity and economic vitality in order to create thriving, healthy, diverse and resilient communities for this generation and generations to come. The practice of sustainability recognizes how these issues are interconnected and requires a systems approach and an acknowledgement of complexity.
- Sustainability is the balance between the environment, equity, and economy.
What sustainability do for us?
- Sustainable practices support ecological, human, and economic health and vitality.
- Sustainability presumes that resources are finite, and should be used conservatively and wisely with a view to long-term priorities and consequences of the ways in which resources are used.
- In simplest terms, sustainability is about our children and our grandchildren, and the world we will leave them.
Definition of carrying capacity of earth
- Carrying capacity: Carrying capacity is the maximum number of a species an environment can support indefinitely. Every species has a carrying capacity, even humans. The species population size is limited by environmental factors like adequate food, shelter, water, and mates. If these needs are not met, the population will decrease until the resource rebounds.
Mother earth has reached its carrying capacity now
- No species has altered the Earth’s natural landscape the way humans have.
- Global climate change, mass extinction, and overexploitation of our global commons are all examples of the ways in which humans have altered the natural landscape.
- Our growing population, coupled with rising affluence and per capita impact, is driving our planet closer to its tipping point.
- With population expected to reach 5 billion by 2050, many wonder if our natural resources can keep up with our growing demands.
Enrich your mains answer with this
8 Billion dreams, ambitions, aspirations and only one earth to support them all . Human population, now nearing 8 billion, cannot continue to grow indefinitely. There are limits to the life-sustaining resources earth can provide us. In other words, there is a carrying capacity for human life on our planet.
Development vs environment issues
- Unemployment: For India, the national context is shaped by high youth unemployment, millions more entering the workforce each year, and a country hungry for substantial investments in hard infrastructure to industrialise and urbanise.
- Growth with low emission footprint: India’s economic growth in the last three decades, led by growth in the services sector, has come at a significantly lower emissions footprint.
- Infrastructure: But in the coming decades, India will have to move to an investment-led and manufacturing-intensive growth model to create job opportunities and create entirely new cities and infrastructure to accommodate and connect an increasingly urban population.
Why a Carbon Fee and Dividend is Imperative
It is clear that we will soon pass the limit on carbon emissions, because it requires decades to replace fossil fuel energy infrastructure with carbon-neutral and carbon negative energies.
What could India do to pursue an industrialization pathway that is climate-compatible?
- A coherent national transition strategy is important in a global context where industrialised countries are discussing the imposition of carbon border taxes while failing to provide developing countries the necessary carbon space to grow or the finance and technological assistance necessary to decarbonise.
- What India needs is an overarching green industrialisation strategy that combines laws, policy instruments, and new or reformed implementing institutions to steer its decentralised economic activities to become climate-friendly and resilient.
Case study for value addition
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Way forward
- India should set its pace based on its ability to capitalise on the opportunities to create wealth through green industrialisation.
Mains question
Do you think mother earth has reached its carrying capacity? Discuss this in context of development vs environment debate.
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Earth has recorded its shortest day since the 1960s- why?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Earth's spin
Mains level: Read the attached story
On June 29, the Earth completed one full spin — a day — in 1.59 milliseconds less than its routine 24 hours. It was the shortest day recorded since the 1960s.
Note: A millisecond is one-thousandth of a second.
Earth spinning faster
- While the Earth has been completing its rotations faster in recent years, when looked at over a much longer period of time, our planet is actually spinning slower.
- Every century, the Earth takes a few milliseconds longer to complete one rotation — and on average, days are actually getting longer.
- So, 1.4 billion years ago, a day would have ended in less than 19 hours,
How did scientists find that?
- Scientists got to know by using precise atomic clocks to measure the Earth’s rotational speed.
Why are days getting shorter these days?
- Scientists aren’t entirely sure.
- Something has changed and changed in a way we haven’t seen since the beginning of precise radio astronomy in the 1970s.
Factors attributing Earth’s Spin
(1) Tidal Braking
- The research attributed the larger trend of the Earth’s slower spin mostly to the gravitational pull of the Moon, which causes tidal friction and slows down the Earth’s rotations.
(2) Climate change-induced surface variations
- Melting ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica
- Changes in ocean circulation
(3) Geomorphic factors
- Movements in the planet’s inner molten core
- Seismic activity
- Wind speed, and shifting atmospheric gases
(4) Chandler wobble phenomenon
- This refers to the small deviation in the movement of Earth’s geographical poles.
- The normal amplitude of the Chandler wobble is about three to four metres at Earth’s surface, but from 2017 to 2020 it disappeared.
(5) Other propositions
- Activities that push mass towards the centre of the Earth will hasten the planet’s rotation.
- Anything that pushes mass outwards will slow down the spin, a report noted.
What can happen if the Earth continues to spin faster on a sustained basis?
- To ensure that the time on clocks matches the speed of the Earth’s rotation, a system of leap seconds has been used since the 1970s.
- They involve one-second adjustments to Universal Coordinated Time (UTC), the time standard used to synchronize clocks around the world.
- Due to the long-term slowing in the planet’s spin, 27 leap seconds have been added to UTC.
- However, if the Earth continues to spin faster and days subsequently become shorter, scientists may have to introduce the first ever ‘negative leap second,’ which involves subtraction of a second from clocks.
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Heat Waves across the Europe
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat waves
Mains level: Read the attached story
The UK posted its highest temperature ever recorded — crossing 40°C. Parts of France, Spain and Portugal recorded temperatures between 42 and 46 degrees.
Why in news?
- Dozens of towns and regions across Europe reeled under what has been described as a “heat apocalypse”, which has caused widespread devastation this year.
- Wildfires caused by a combination of extreme heat and dry weather have destroyed 19,000 hectares of forest in southwestern France.
What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?
- Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
- IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
- Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.
How are they formed?
- Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
- This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
- On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
- Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
- Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
- Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
- A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
- Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.
Following criteria are used to declare a heatwave:
To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.
a) Based on Departure from Normal
- Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
- Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
- Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
- Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
How long can a heatwave spell last?
- A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days.
- On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.
Impact of Heat Waves
- Heat Strokes: The very high temperatures or humid conditions pose an elevated risk of heat stroke or heat exhaustion.
- Healthcare crisis: Effects from extreme heat are also associated with increased hospitalisations and emergency room visits, increased deaths from cardio-respiratory and other diseases, mental health issues, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, etc.
- Productivity loss: Extreme heat also lessens worker productivity, especially among the more than 1 billion workers who are exposed to high heat on a regular basis.
- Risk of Wildfires: The heat domes act as fuel to wildfires, which destroys a lot of land area every year in countries like the US.
- Prevents Cloud Formation: The condition also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit the ground.
- Effect on Vegetation: The trapping of heat can also damage crops, dry out vegetation and result in
- Increased Energy Demands: The sweltering heat wave also leads to rise in energy demand, especially electricity, leading to pushing up rates.
- Power Related Issues: Heat waves are often high mortality disasters.
- Infrastructure failure: Avoiding heat-related disasters depends on the resilience of the electrical grid, which can fail if electricity demand due to air conditioning use exceeds supply.
What is behind the extreme heat waves in Europe?
Ans. Climate change, but exactly how
- Scientists are near-unanimous that the heat waves are a result of climate change caused by human activity.
- Global temperatures have already risen by more than 1°C , and studies in the UK had shown that a one degree rise in temperature raises the probability of the country witnessing 40°C by ten times.
- The rising global temperature, which this year led to deviations above the normal by as much as 15 degrees in Antarctica, and by more than 3 degrees in the north pole.
Major factor: Changes in old wind patterns
- In the case of the US, the record temperatures are being linked to changes in the jet stream — a narrow band of westerly air currents that circulate several km above the earth’s surface.
- While a conventionally strong jet stream would bring cooler air from the northern Atlantic, in recent years the jet stream has weakened and split into two.
- This has led to intense and more frequent heat waves over parts of the American continent.
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India’s climate Vulnerability
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Environmental Impact Assessment
Mains level: Paper 3- Climate change and its impact on India
Context
In the absence of COVID-19, climate change-induced disasters would have been India’s biggest red alert in recent years.
India’s vulnerabilities
- Temperatures over the Indian Ocean have risen by over 1°C since the 1950s, increasing extreme weather events.
- India is the fourth worst-hit in climate migration.
- Heat waves in India have claimed an estimated 17,000 lives since the 1970s.
- Labour losses from rising heat, by one estimate, could reach ₹1.6 lakh crore annually if global warming exceeds 2°C, with India among the hardest hit.
- Extreme heat waves hit swathes of India. Heatwaves are aggravated by deforestation and land degradation, which also exacerbate fires.
- Agriculture, being water-intensive, does not do well in heat wave-prone areas.
Way forward
- Two part approach: India needs a two-part approach:
- Adaptation: one, to adapt to climate impacts by building resilience against weather extremes, and
- Mitigation: to mitigate environmental destruction to prevent climate change from becoming more lethal.
- Climate resistant agriculture: Agricultural practices which are not water-intensive and to support afforestation that has a salutary effect on warming.
- Financial transfers can be targeted to help farmers plant trees and buy equipment — for example, for drip irrigation that reduces heavy water usage.
- Crop diversification: Climate-resilient agriculture calls for diversification — for example, the cultivation of multiple crops on the same farm.
- Climate-resilient agriculture calls for diversification — for example, the cultivation of multiple crops on the same farm
- Managing vulnerable regions in coastal zones: Floods and storms are worsened by vast sea ingress and coastline erosion in the low-lying areas in the south.
- It is vital to map flood-risk zones to manage vulnerable regions.
- Environment Impact Assessments must be mandatory for commercial projects.
- Design changes: Communities can build round-shaped houses, considering optimum aerodynamic orientation to reduce the strength of the winds.
- Roofs with multiple slopes can stand well in strong winds, and central shafts reduce wind pressure on the roof by sucking in air from outside.
- Moving away from fossil fuels: Adaptation alone will not slow climate damages if the warming of the sea level temperatures is not confronted.
- Leading emitters, including India, must move away from fossil fuels.
- Expanding and protecting forest cover: a big part of climate action lies in protecting and expanding forest coverage.
- India gains from being part of the Glasgow declaration on forest protection that 141 countries signed in 2021.
- Management of dams: Nearly 295 dams in India are more than 100 years old and need repairs.
- In stemming landslides in Uttarakhand, regulations must stop the building of dams on steep slopes and eco-fragile areas, as well as the dynamiting of hills, sand mining, and quarrying.
- Climate financing: India’s share in disaster management should be raised to 2.5% of GDP.
- Climate finance is most suited for large-scale global funding from the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the Asian Development Bank.
- But smaller-scale financing can also be vital.
Conclusion
For public pressure to drive climate action, we need to consider climate catastrophes as largely man-made.
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Does Tropical Ozone Hole exist?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ozone, Ozone Hole
Mains level: Read the attached story
A new ozone hole has been detected over the tropics, at latitudes of 30 degrees South to 30 degrees North, a recent study claimed. But some experts are divided over this.
Do you know?
The Antarctic ozone hole — one of the deepest, largest gap in the ozone layer in the last 40 years — has closed, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
What is Ozone and Ozone Layer?
- An ozone molecule consists of three oxygen atoms instead of the usual two (the oxygen we breathe, O2, makes up 21% of the atmosphere).
- It only exists in the atmosphere in trace quantities (less than 0.001%), but its effects are very important.
- Ozone molecules are created by the interaction of ultra-violet (UV) radiation from the Sun with O2 molecules.
- Because UV radiation is more intense at higher altitudes where the air is thinner, it is in the stratosphere where most of the ozone is produced, giving rise to what is called the ‘ozone layer’.
- The ozone layer, containing over 90% of all atmospheric ozone, extends between about 10 and 40km altitude, peaking at about 25km in Stratosphere.
Why need Ozone Layer?
- The ozone layer is very important for life on Earth because it has the property of absorbing the most damaging form of UV radiation, UV-B radiation which has a wavelength of between 280 and 315 nanometres.
- As UV radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere, it heats up the surrounding air to produce the stratospheric temperature inversion.
What is Ozone Hole?
- Each year for the past few decades during the Southern Hemisphere spring, chemical reactions involving chlorine and bromine cause ozone in the southern polar region to be destroyed rapidly and severely.
- The Dobson Unit (DU) is the unit of measure for total ozone.
- The chemicals involved ozone depletion are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs for short), halons, and carbon tetrachloride.
- They are used for a wide range of applications, including refrigeration, air conditioning, foam packaging, and making aerosol spray cans.
- The ozone-depleted region is known as the “ozone hole”.
Tropical Ozone Hole
- According to the study, the ozone hole is located at altitudes of 10-25 km over the tropics.
- This hole is about seven times larger than Antarctica, the study suggested.
- It also appears across all seasons, unlike that of Antarctica, which is visible only in the spring.
- The hole has become significant since the 1980s. But it was not discovered until this study.
What caused an ozone hole in the tropics?
- Studies suggested another mechanism of ozone depletion: Cosmic rays.
- Chlorofluorocarbon’s (CFC) role in depleting the ozone layer is well-documented.
- The tropical stratosphere recorded a low temperature of 190-200 Kelvin (K).
- This can explain why the tropical ozone hole is constantly formed over the seasons.
Significance of the finding
- The tropical ozone hole, which makes up 50 percent of Earth’s surface, could cause a global concern due to the risks associated with it.
- It is likely to cause skin cancer, cataracts and other negative effects on the health and ecosystems in tropical regions.
Back2Basics: Antarctic Ozone Hole
- The Antarctic “ozone hole” was discovered by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin in 1985.
- It was caused by the chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive.
- Though localized and seasonal, an increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone-destroying forms.
Role of PSCs
- The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as −80 °C, and early spring conditions.
- In such conditions, the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for the conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.
Try this PYQ
Q.Consider the following statements:
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting substances are used:
- In the production of plastic foams
- In the production of tubeless tyres
- In cleaning certain electronic components
- As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Post your answers here.
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What are Cloudbursts?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cloudburst
Mains level: Extreme weather events
At least eight people have died after a cloudburst occurred at the Amarnath Cave Shrine near Pahalgam in south Kashmir.
What is a Cloudburst?
- Cloudbursts are short-duration, intense rainfall events over a small area.
- According to the IMD, it is a weather phenomenon with unexpected precipitation exceeding 100mm/h over a geographical region of approximately 20-30 square km.
What causes Cloudburst?
- A study published last year studied the meteorological factors behind the cloudburst over the Kedarnath region.
- They analysed atmospheric pressure, temperature, rainfall, cloud water content, cloud fraction, cloud particle radius, cloud mixing ratio, total cloud cover, wind speed, wind direction, and relative humidity during the cloudburst, before as well as after the cloudburst.
- The results showed that during the cloudburst, the relative humidity and cloud cover was at the maximum level with low temperature and slow winds.
- It is expected that because of this situation a high amount of clouds may get condensed at a very rapid rate and result in a cloudburst.
Impact of climate change
- Several studies have shown that climate change will increase the frequency and intensity of cloudbursts in many cities across the globe.
- As temperatures increase the atmosphere can hold more and more moisture and this moisture comes down as a short very intense rainfall for a short duration.
- This results in flash floods in the mountainous areas and urban floods in the cities.
- Also, there is evidence suggesting that globally short-duration rainfall extremes are going to become more intense and frequent.
Try this PYQ
Q.During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the:
- meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky
- lightning that separates the nimbus clouds
- violent upward movement of air and water particles
Select the correct option using the codes given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) None of the above
Post your answers here.
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Derecho: A storm that turned the sky green in the US
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Derecho
Mains level: Not Much
States of Nebraska, Minnesota and Illinois in the US were hit by a storm system called a Derecho which turned the skies green.
What is a Derecho?
- A derecho is a widespread, long-lived, straight-line windstorm that is associated with a band of rapidly moving showers or thunderstorms.
- The name comes from the Spanish word ‘la derecha’ which means ‘straight’.
- Straight-line storms are those in which thunderstorm winds have no rotation unlike a tornado.
- Being a warm-weather phenomenon, a derecho generally – not always – occurs during summertime beginning May, with most hitting in June and July.
- However, they are a rare occurrence as compared to other storm systems like tornadoes or hurricanes.
Why does the sky turn green during the derecho?
- Severe thunderstorms result in a ‘green sky’ due to light interacting with the huge amount of water they hold.
- The big raindrops and hail scatter away all but the blue wavelengths due to which primarily blue light penetrates below the storm cloud.
- This blue then combines with the red-yellow of the afternoon or the evening sun to produce green.
Are there different types of derechos?
They fall into three categories – progressive, serial and hybrid.
- Progressive derecho is associated with a short line of thunderstorms that may travel for hundreds of miles along a relatively narrow path. It is a summer phenomenon.
- Serial derecho, on the other hand, has an extensive squall line – wide and long – sweeping across a large area. It usually occurs during spring or fall.
- Hybrid derecho are that ones have the features of both progressive and serial derechos.
Where do derechos usually occur?
- They mostly occur across central and eastern parts of the United States.
- Derechos have also been documented elsewhere across the world.
- In 2010, Russia witnessed its first documented derecho.
- They have also swept through Germany and Finland, and more recently in Bulgaria and Poland.
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Odisha’s Mo Bus: Recipient of the UN’s prestigious public service award
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green mobility
Mains level: NA
Mo Bus, the bus service of Odisha’s Capital Region Urban Transport (CRUT) authority, has been recognized by the United Nations as one of 10 global recipients of its annual Public Service Awards for 2022.
Mo Bus service
- The Mo Bus service was launched on November 6, 2018.
- It aimed to ensure transformation of the urban public transport scenario in the city and its hinterland through use of smart technology, service benchmarking and customer satisfaction.
- The buses are designed to integrate smart technologies such as free on-board Wi-Fi service, digital announcements, surveillance cameras, and electronic ticketing.
- CRUT says that to increase women’s participation in the workforce, and to make women riders feel safer, it is committed to ensuring that 50% of Mo Bus Guides (conductors) are women.
What is the recent award?
- The public transport service has been recognised for its role in “promoting gender-responsive public services to achieve the SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)”.
- The “impact” is that 57 per cent of the city’s commuters now use the Mo Bus, the UN said.
- Mo E-Ride is estimated to reduce pollution by 30-50 per cent.
About UN Public Service Award
- The UN describes its Public Service Awards as the “most prestigious international recognition of excellence in public service”.
- The first Awards ceremony was held in 2003, and the UN has since received “an increasing number of submissions from all around the world”.
- It is intended to reward the creative achievements and contributions of public service institutions that lead to a more effective and responsive public administration in countries worldwide.
- Through an annual competition, the UN Public Service Awards promotes the role, professionalism and visibility of public service.
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Explained: Occurrence of Lightning
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lightening and Thunderstorms
Mains level: Disaster management
At least 70 people died in lightning strikes across Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan.
What is lightning?
- Scientifically, lightning is a rapid and massive discharge of electricity in the atmosphere some of which is directed towards earth.
- The discharges are generated in giant moisture-bearing clouds that are 10-12 km tall.
- The base of these clouds typically lie within 1-2 km of the Earth’s surface, while the top is 12-13 km away.
- Temperatures in the top of these clouds are in the range of –35° to –45°C.
Its formation
- As water vapour moves upward in the cloud, the falling temperature causes it to condense.
- As they move to temperatures below 0°C, the water droplets change into small ice crystals.
- They continue to move up, gathering mass until they are so heavy that they start to fall to Earth.
- This leads to a system in which, simultaneously, smaller ice crystals are moving up and bigger crystals are coming down.
- Collisions follow and trigger the release of electrons, a process that is very similar to the generation of sparks of electricity.
- As the moving free electrons cause more collisions and more electrons, a chain reaction ensues.
- This process results in a situation in which the top layer of the cloud gets positively charged, while the middle layer is negatively charged.
- The electrical potential difference between the two layers is huge, of the order of a billion to 10 billion volts.
- In very little time, a massive current, of the order of 100,000 to a million amperes, starts to flow between the layers.
Types of lightning
- Broadly, there are three forms of lightning:
- Inter-cloud
- Intra-cloud
- Cloud-to-ground
- It is the cloud-to-ground form of lightning that kills humans, as well as animals and livestock, and can substantially damage property.
- While the Earth is a good conductor of electricity, it is electrically neutral.
- However, in comparison to the middle layer of the cloud, it becomes positively charged.
- As a result, about 15%-20% of the current gets directed towards the Earth as well.
- It is this flow of current that results in damage to life and property on Earth.
How intensely does it strike?
- A typical lightning flash is about 300 million volts and 30,000 amps.
- To put it in perspective, household current is 120 volts and 15 amps.
- A flash of lightning is enough to light a 100-watt incandescent bulb for about three months.
Why does lightning kill so many people in India?
- The reason for the high number of deaths is due to people being caught unawares and more than 70% of fatalities happened due to people standing under isolated tall trees.
- About 25 per cent of the people were struck in the open.
- Also, lightning is the direct promulgation of climate change extremities.
Mitigating lightning incidents
- Lightning is not classified as a natural disaster in India.
- But recent efforts have resulted in the setting up of an early warning system that is already saving many lives.
- More than 96% of lightning deaths happen in rural areas.
- As such, most of the mitigation and public awareness programmes need to focus on these communities.
- Lightning protection devices are fairly unsophisticated and low-cost. Yet, their deployment in the rural areas, as of now, is extremely low.
- States are being encouraged to prepare and implement lightning action plans, on the lines of heat action plans.
- An international centre for excellence on lightning research to boost detection and early warning systems is also in the process of being set up.
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How Marine Heatwave fuelled super cyclone Amphan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marine Heatwaves
Mains level: Climate Change
The super-cyclone Amphan is said to have been triggered by Marine Heatwaves.
What is the news?
- A study has found the presence of a strong MHW beneath the track of the cyclone with an extremely high anomalous sea surface temperature of more than 2.5°C.
- This coincided with the cyclone track and facilitated its rapid intensification in a short period.
What are Marine Heatwaves?
- We know that heatwaves occur in the atmosphere. We are all familiar with these extended periods of excessively hot weather.
- However, heatwaves can also occur in the ocean and these are known as marine heatwaves, or MHWs.
- These marine heatwaves, when ocean temperatures are extremely warm for an extended period of time can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems and industries.
When do they occur?
- Heatwaves can happen in summer and also in winter, where they are known as “winter warm-spells”.
- These winter events can have important impacts, such as in the southeast of Australia where the spiny sea urchin can only colonize further south when winter temperatures are above 12 °C.
What causes marine heatwaves?
- Marine heatwaves can be caused by a whole range of factors, and not all factors are important for each event.
- The most common drivers of marine heatwaves include ocean currents which can build up areas of warm water and air-sea heat flux, or warming through the ocean surface from the atmosphere.
- Winds can enhance or suppress the warming in a marine heatwave, and climate modes like El Niño can change the likelihood of events occurring in certain regions.
- MHWs can be caused due to large-scale drivers of the Earth’s climate like the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Impacts of the MHWs
- Marine heatwaves affect ecosystem structure, by supporting certain species and suppressing others.
- For example, after the 2011 marine heatwave in Western Australia, the fish communities had a much more “tropical” nature than previously and switched from kelp forests to seaweed turfs.
- Marine heatwaves can cause economic losses through impacts on fisheries and aquaculture.
- Temperature-sensitive species such as corals are especially vulnerable to MHWs. In 2016, marine heatwaves across northern Australia led to severe bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef.
How do we measure marine heatwaves?
- A marine heatwave occurs when seawater temperatures exceed a seasonally-varying threshold (usually the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days.
- Successive heatwaves with gaps of 2 days or less are considered part of the same event.
Why study MHWs?
- MHWs are increasing in frequency due to climate change. MHWs increased by 54 per cent in the last 30 years.
- MHW has severe socio-economic consequences such as fish mortality, and coral bleaching, and also has the potential to interact and modify other extreme events such as tropical cyclones.
Way Forward
- Marine heatwaves clearly have the potential to devastate marine ecosystems and cause economic losses in fisheries, aquaculture, and ecotourism industries.
- However, their effects are often hidden from view under the waves until it is too late.
- By raising general awareness of these phenomena, and by improving our scientific understanding of their physical properties and ecological impacts, we can better predict future conditions and protect vulnerable marine habitats and resources.
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Theri Desert in Tamil Nadu
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Theri Desert in Tamil Nadu
Mains level: Desertification of land and preventive measures
Most of us may not know the small desert situated in the state of Tamil Nadu. It consists of red sand dunes and is confined to the Thoothukudi district.
Theri Desert
- The red dunes are called theri in Tamil.
- They consist of sediments dating back to the Quaternary Period and are made of marine deposits.
- They have very low water and nutrient retention capacity.
- The dunes are susceptible to aerodynamic lift.
- This is the push that lets something move up. It is the force that is the opposite of weight.
Mineral composition of Theris
- The analysis of the red sand dunes reveal the presence of heavy and light minerals.
- These include Ilmenite, Magnetit, Rutile, Garnet, Zircon, Diopside, Tourmaline, Hematite, Goethite, Kyanite, Quartz, Feldspar, Biotite.
- The iron-rich heavy minerals like ilmenite, magnetite, garnet, hypersthene and rutile present in the soil had undergone leaching by surface water.
- They were then oxidised because of the favourable semi-arid climatic conditions.
How did they form?
- Theris appear as gentle, undulating terrain.
- The lithology of the area shows that the area might have been a paleo (ancient) coast in the past.
- The presence of limestone in many places indicates marine transgression.
- The present-day theris might have been formed by the confinement of beach sand locally, after regression of the sea.
- When high velocity winds from the Western Ghats blew east, they induced migration of sand grains and accumulation of dunes.
Another story of their formation
- Another view is that these are geological formations that appeared in a period of a few hundred years.
- The red sand is brought from the surface of a broad belt of red loam in the plains of the Nanguneri region (about 57 kilometres) by south west monsoon winds during May-September.
- The winds after draining the moisture behind the Mahendragiri hill and the Aralvaimozhi gap of the Western Ghats become dry and strike the plains in the foothills, where vegetation is sparse.
- Deforestation and the absence of vegetative cover in the Aralvaimozhi gap and the Nanguneri plains are considered to be the major causes of wind erosion.
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Environmental Performance Index (EPI), 2022
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Environmental Performance Index
Mains level: Western anti-India lobby
India has objected to a report, called the EPI, 2022, that places the country last (along with Nigeria) on a list of 180 countries on managing climate change, environmental health, and ecosystem vitality.
Environmental Performance Index
- The report is prepared by researchers at the Yale and Columbia universities.
- It provides a data-driven summary of the state of sustainability around the world.
- Using 40 performance indicators across 11 issue categories, the EPI ranks 180 countries on climate change performance, environmental health, and ecosystem vitality.
- These indicators provide a gauge at a national scale of how close countries are to established environmental policy targets.
- The EPI offers a scorecard that highlights leaders and laggards in environmental performance and provides practical guidance for countries that aspire to move toward a sustainable future.
Why the report is inherently biased?
- The US placed itself at the 20th spot of the 22 wealthy democracies in the global west and 43rd overall.
- The relatively low ranking has put all blame on the rollback policies during the Trump administration.
- It goes on to preach that developing countries do not have to sacrifice sustainability for economic security.
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India’s Vulnerability to Drought
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Drought
Mains level: Read the attached story
A United Nations report ‘Drought in Numbers’ has revealed that many parts of India fall under the list of regions that are vulnerable to drought globally.
What are Droughts?
- Drought is a prolonged dry period in the natural climate cycle that can occur anywhere in the world.
- It is a slow-onset disaster characterized by the lack of precipitation, resulting in a water shortage.
Types of Droughts
- Meteorological drought is defined usually on the basis of the degree of dryness (in comparison to some “normal” or average amount) and the duration of the dry period.
- Agricultural drought should be able to account for the variable susceptibility of crops during different stages of crop development, from emergence to maturity.
- Hydrological drought is associated with the effects of periods of precipitation (including snowfall) shortfalls on surface or subsurface water supply (i.e. streamflow, reservoir and lake levels, and groundwater).
- Socioeconomic drought is associated with the supply and demand of some economic goods with elements of meteorological, hydrological, and agricultural drought.
What is the Drought in Numbers report?
- The Drought in Numbers report is a collection of data on the effects of droughts on our ecosystem and how they can be mitigated through efficient planning for the future.
- The report also helps inform negotiations surrounding key decisions by the UNCCD’s 197 member parties at the 15th Conference of Parties (COP15), currently underway in Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire.
- Drought, land restoration, and related aspects such as land rights, gender equality and youth empowerment are among the top considerations at COP15.
What is COP15?
- The UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) COP15 focuses on desertification, land degradation, and drought.
- The theme for the conference is “Land. Life. Legacy: From scarcity to prosperity.”
- The conference has brought together government representatives, private sector members, and civil society stakeholders to ensure that land continues to benefit present and future generations.
What does the report entail?
- The number and duration of droughts around the world has increased by an alarming 29% since 2000.
- Globally, droughts in the same period caused economic losses of approximately $124 billion.
- Drought conditions can force up to 216 million people to migrate by 2050.
- Other factors at play along with drought could be water scarcity, declining crop productivity, rise in sea levels, and overpopulation.
- The report also stated that India’s GDP reduced by 2 to 5% between 1998 and 2017 due to severe droughts in the country.
Gendered impacts of drought
- Research shows that women and girls in emerging and developing countries suffer more in terms of education levels, nutrition, health, sanitation, and safety as a result of droughts.
- The burden of water collection also disproportionately falls on women (72%) and girls (9%).
- The report notes that they may spend up to 40% of their caloric intake fetching water.
What are the environmental aspects?
- The largest increase in drought losses is projected in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic regions of Europe.
- Australia’s megadrought in 2019-2020 contributed to “megafires” resulting in one of the most extensive losses of habitat for threatened species.
- About three billion animals were killed or displaced in the Australian wildfires.
- Around 12 million hectares of land are lost each year due to drought and desertification.
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What are Urban Heat Islands?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Urban Heat Islands
Mains level: Read the attached story
Several parts of the country are reeling under heat wave conditions. Cities, especially, are a lot hotter than rural areas. This is due to a phenomenon called an “urban heat island”.
Urban Heat Island
- An urban heat island is a local and temporary phenomenon experienced when certain pockets within a city experience higher heat load than surrounding or neighbouring areas on the same day.
- The variations are mainly due to heat remaining trapped within locations that often resemble concrete jungles.
- The temperature variation can range between 3 to 5 degrees Celsius.
Why are cities hotter than rural areas?
- Green cover: Rural areas have relatively larger green cover in the form of plantations, farmlands, forests and trees as compared to urban spaces.
- Transpiration: Transpiration is a natural way of heat regulation. This is the scientific process of roots absorbing water from the soil, storing it in the leaves and stems of plants, before processing it and releasing it in the form of water vapour.
- Heat-regulation: Urban areas are often developed with high-rise buildings, roads, parking spaces, pavements and transit routes for public transport. As a result, heat regulation is either completely absent or man-made.
- Construction: Cities usually have buildings constructed with glass, bricks, cement and concrete all of which are dark-coloured materials, meaning they attract and absorb higher heat content.
This forms temporary islands within cities where the heat remains trapped.
How can urban heat islands be reduced?
- The main way to cut heat load within urban areas is increasing the green cover; filling open spaces with trees and plants.
- Other ways of heat mitigation include appropriate choice of construction materials, promoting terrace and kitchen gardens, and painting white or light colours on terraces wherever possible to reflect heat.
What has NASA said on urban heat islands in India?
- NASA recently pointed out heat islands in urban parts of Delhi, where temperatures were far higher than nearby agricultural lands.
- It used its Ecosystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment (Ecostress) on the International Space Station.
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Is La Nina a fair weather friend of our country?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: El-Nino, La-Nina
Mains level: ENSO impact on Indian Monsson
This year the La Nina is being blamed for worsening the longest spell of heatwaves from March to April in north, west and Central India.
In most years, meteorologists considered the La Nina to be a friend of India.
What is El Nino and La Nina?
- While El Niño (Spanish for ‘little boy’), the more common expression, is the abnormal surface warming observed along the eastern and central regions of the Pacific Ocean (the region between Peru and Papua New Guinea).
- The La Niña (Spanish for ‘little girl’) is an abnormal cooling of these surface waters.
- Together, the El Niño (Warm Phase) and La Niña (Cool Phase) phenomena are termed as El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
- These are large-scale ocean phenomena which influence the global weather — winds, temperature and rainfall. They have the ability to trigger extreme weather events like droughts, floods, hot and cold conditions, globally.
- Each cycle can last anywhere between 9 to 12 months, at times extendable to 18 months — and re-occur after every three to five years.
- Meteorologists record the sea surface temperatures for four different regions, known as Niño regions, along this equatorial belt.
- Depending on the temperatures, they forecast either as an El Niño, an ENSO neutral phase, or a La Niña.
Impact on India
- El Nino during winter causes warm conditions over the Indian subcontinent and during summer, it leads to dry conditions and deficient monsoon.
- Whereas La Nina results in better than normal monsoon in India.
- It has been established that Indian summer monsoon is a fully coupled land-atmosphere-ocean system and that it is linked to ocean temperature variability.
- In an agricultural country like India, the extreme departure from normal seasonal rainfall seriously affects the agricultural output and thus the economy of the country.
Try this PYQ:
La Nina is suspected to have caused recent floods in Australia. How is La Nina different from El Nino?
- La Nina is characterized by unusually cold ocean temperature in equatorial Indian Ocean whereas El Nino is characterized by unusually warm ocean temperature in the equatorial Pacific Ocean.
- El Nino has an adverse effect on south-west monsoon of India, but La Nina has no effect on monsoon climate.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) Only 1
(b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Post your answers here.
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India must use markets to decarbonise
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: World Energy Outlook Report
Mains level: Paper 3- Carbon tax
Context
Climate change is bound to impact human lives and the global economy at an exceptionally high scale in the not-so-distant future. The solution to the problem calls for government intervention.
Carbon intensive nature of India’s energy ecosystem
- After China and the United States, India, which releases 2.44 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide annually, is the third-largest emitter of this GHG, making it a key player in emissions reduction.
- The International Energy Agency’s (IEA) World Energy Outlook 2017 Report estimates that India will account for nearly one-fourth of the global energy demand by 2040.
- As per the IEA’s India Energy Outlook 2021 Report, India’s energy system is highly dependent on fossil fuels — coal, oil and bioenergy — that supply about 90 per cent of the country’s demand.
- Low electrification: About 38 per cent of primary energy is consumed for power generation, implying that the level of electrification is still low in the country.
- Power generation is highly dependent on coal — about 78 per cent of it comes from this fossil fuel — and, transportation is almost entirely dependent on oil.
- The Indian energy ecosystem is, thus, highly carbon-intensive.
Climate change as a feature of market failure
- Market failure due to climate change: Economic activities by consumers (driving or air-conditioning, for instance) and by producers (such as electricity generation and manufacturing) cause emissions, leading to pollution and global warming.
- Negative externalities: These negative externalities, causing outcomes that are not efficient, are not reflected in the costs incurred by consumers or producers.
- The true costs to the consumers, producers and society are not reflected in the market interactions.
- This leads to an uncontrolled rise in emissions and also breeds apathy towards mitigation efforts.
Way forward
- Government intervention: Achieving economic growth sustainably requires a strategy for reducing carbon emissions aggressively while also focusing on efficiency, equity, fairness and behavioural aspects.
- The solution to the problem of market failure calls for government intervention.
- Limits of emission: The most natural option of government intervention for reducing emissions is by fixing limits of emissions through regulation, taking into consideration the Nationally Determined Contribution targets set by the country under the Paris Agreement.
- Experts have shown that the wrongly set emission levels could lead to cost-inefficient outcomes.
- It makes it difficult for the regulator to obtain the information about each firm’s abatement-cost and damage-cost schedules in advance.
- Therefore, setting emission targets and regulating emissions through command and control might be good only during the initial phase of the mitigation strategy.
- Why Carbon tax is a better option? The carbon tax is a better option than regulating the pre-fixed levels of emissions.
- The marginal cost of abatement rises as the firms keep on reducing the emissions further, and the firm will stop reducing emissions and choose to pay tax at the point when the cost of abatement becomes higher than the rate of tax.
- This option will lead to near-efficient outcomes.
- The trading scheme will bring in higher efficiency as the price of certificates will be determined by allowing firms facing low and high abatement costs to compete in the free market as per their own abatement and damage cost schedules.
- The emissions trading scheme will determine the optimal and cost-efficient levels of emissions reduction by providing a choice to the firms to either mitigate or trade — the net effect of this will be a reduction in emissions.
- The low abatement-cost firms will keep reducing emissions as they would profit by trading the certificates.
- Equity in energy access: The issue of equity in energy access must be addressed by channelling the revenues generated from carbon pricing to households and firms impacted by the carbon trading and carbon tax — these could be through incentives or lump-sum transfers.
Conclusion
The socio-economic impact of decarbonising the economy and the way humans live would be crucial in setting our priorities. We have limited time and our resources are scarce.
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What are Heatwaves?
India is gripped in the wrath of a long spell of heatwaves that too in the early month of April.
What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?
- Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
- IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
- Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.
How are they formed?
- Heatwaves form when high pressure aloft (3,000–7,600 metres) strengthens and remains over a region for several days up to several weeks.
- This is common in summer (in both Northern and Southern Hemispheres) as the jet stream ‘follows the sun’.
- On the equator side of the jet stream, in the upper layers of the atmosphere, is the high pressure area.
- Summertime weather patterns are generally slower to change than in winter. As a result, this upper level high pressure also moves slowly.
- Under high pressure, the air subsides (sinks) toward the surface, warming and drying adiabatically, inhibiting convection and preventing the formation of clouds.
- Reduction of clouds increases shortwave radiation reaching the surface.
- A low pressure at the surface leads to surface wind from lower latitudes that brings warm air, enhancing the warming.
- Alternatively, the surface winds could blow from the hot continental interior towards the coastal zone, leading to heat waves.
Following criteria are used to declare heatwave:
To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.
- a) Based on Departure from Normal
- Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
- Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
- b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
- Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
- Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
How long can a heatwave spell last?
- A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days. On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.
- The longest recorded heatwave spell, in recent years, was between 18 and 31 May 2015.
Impact of Heat Waves:
Heat Strokes: The very high temperatures or humid conditions pose an elevated risk of heat stroke or heat exhaustion.
Older people and people with chronic illness such as heart disease, respiratory disease, and diabetes are more susceptible to heatstroke, as the body’s ability to regulate heat deteriorates with age.
Increased Healthcare Costs: Effects from extreme heat are also associated with increased hospitalisations and emergency room visits, increased deaths from cardio-respiratory and other diseases, mental health issues, adverse pregnancy and birth outcomes, etc.
Lessens Workers’ Productivity: Extreme heat also lessens worker productivity, especially among the more than 1 billion workers who are exposed to high heat on a regular basis. These workers often report reduced work output due to heat stress.
Risk of Wildfires: The heat domes act as fuel to wildfires, which destroys a lot of land area every year in countries like the US.
Prevents Cloud Formation: The condition also prevents clouds from forming, allowing for more radiation from the sun to hit the ground.
Effect on Vegetation: The trapping of heat can also damage crops, dry out vegetation and result in droughts.
Increased Energy Demands: The sweltering heat wave also leads to rise in energy demand, especially electricity, leading to pushing up rates.
Power Related Issues: Heat waves are often high mortality disasters.
Avoiding heat-related disasters depends on the resilience of the electrical grid, which can fail if electricity demand due to air conditioning use exceeds supply.
As a result, there is the double risk of infrastructure failure and health impacts.
- Initiatives Taken:
- Global:
- Global forums dealing with climate change issues—such as the World Health Organization, World Economic Forum, First Global Forum on Heat and Health, and the Global Forum for Environment-OECD—also focus on heat waves by investing in research on health risks of extreme heat, climate and weather information, advice on surviving heat waves, partnerships and capacity building, and communications and outreach.
- Indian:
- The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued guidelines on dealing with heatwaves.
- However, India does not recognise heatwaves as a disasterunder its Disaster Management Act (2005).
- The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) has issued guidelines on dealing with heatwaves.
- Global:
Way Forward
- Adopting A More Sensitive Approach: The impact of such excessive heat needs to be understood from the point of view of common people — daily labourers; farmers; traders; fishermen etc.
- Beyond numbers and graphs that capture the impact of the climate crisis, the human experience of living in oppressive heat needs to be understood by policymakers and measures should be taken accordingly.
- Cooling Shelters: The government should come out with a policy to deal with the suffering and disability caused by heat extremes in different parts of the country.
- Water kiosks, staggered outdoor work hours, cool roofs for buildings and homes are certain things that should be put in place immediately.
- A number of emergency cooling shelters can be opened so that people without domestic air conditioning units can escape the heat.
- Portable air-conditioning units, along with fans and even ice are also useful.
- Passive Cooling to Reduce Urban Heat Islands: Passive cooling technology, a widely-used strategy to create naturally ventilated buildings, can be a vital alternative to address the urban heat island for residential and commercial buildings.
- The IPCC report cites ancient Indian building designs that have used this technology, which could be adapted to modern facilities in the context of global warming.
- Action Plans Similar to Ahmedabad: As per the IPCC Report, Ahmedabad has shown the way to combat heat extremes by heat-proofing buildings.
- After the heat action plan was implemented in 2013 in Ahmedabad, heat-related mortality reduced by 30% to 40% over the years. Similar plans like that of Ahmedabad can be implemented in vulnerable regions.
- Replacing Dark Roofs: A big reason that cities are so much hotter than rural areas is that they are covered by dark roofs, roads and parking lots that absorb and retain heat.
- One of the long term solutions can be replacing the dark surfaces with lighter and more reflective materials; it will result in a comparatively cooler environment.
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Palli in Jammu becomes India’s First Carbon-Neutral Panchayat
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon neutrality
Mains level: Not Much
Palli village in Samba district of Jammu and Kashmir has become the first panchayat in the country to become carbon-neutral, fully powered by solar energy.
Various feats achieved
- All its records have been digitised and the benefits of all the Central schemes are available in this village around 17 km from Jammu.
- Palli village, with its enthusiastic and dedicated elected representatives full of dreams, has shown how to implement the Glasgow pledge (Panchamrita) made by PM Modi.
- It has set an example of the slogan Sabka Prayas (everyone’s efforts).
What is Carbon Neutrality?
- Carbon neutrality refers to achieving net-zero carbon dioxide emissions or buying enough carbon credits to make up the difference.
- This can be done by balancing emissions of carbon dioxide with its removal (often through carbon offsetting) or by eliminating emissions from society.
- It is used in the context of carbon dioxide-releasing processes associated with transportation, energy production, agriculture, and industry.
- The term carbon neutral also includes other greenhouse gases, usually carbon-based, measured in terms of their carbon dioxide equivalence.
- The term “net-zero” is increasingly used to describe a broader and more comprehensive commitment to decarbonization and climate action.
- Net-zero emissions are achieved when your organization’s emissions of all greenhouse gases (CO2-e) are balanced by greenhouse gas removals
Methodology
Carbon-neutral status can be achieved in two ways:
- Carbon offsetting: Balancing carbon dioxide emissions with carbon offsets — the process of reducing or avoiding greenhouse gas emissions or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere to make up for emissions elsewhere. If the total greenhouse gasses emitted is equal to the total amount avoided or removed, then the two effects cancel each other out and the net emissions are ‘neutral’.
- Reducing emissions: Reducing carbon emissions can be done by moving towards energy sources and industrial processes that produce fewer greenhouse gases, thereby transitioning to a low-carbon economy. Shifting towards the use of renewable energy such as hydro, wind, geothermal, and solar power, as well as nuclear power, reduces greenhouse gas emissions.
Agreement and Target
- The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 196 Parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015 and entered into force on 4 November 2016.
- Its goal is to limit global warming to well below 2, preferably to 1.5 degrees Celsius, compared to pre-industrial levels.
- Article 4.1 of the Paris Agreement asks countries to reach global peaking of greenhouse gas emissions as soon as possible.
- It also requires countries to undertake rapid reductions in carbon emissions to achieve a balance between anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals by sinks of greenhouse gases.
Back2Basics: Panchamrita
- ‘Panchamrita’ is a traditional method of mixing five natural foods — milk, ghee, curd, honey, and jaggery.
- These are used in Hindu and Jain worship rituals. It is also used as a technique in Ayurveda.
- The PM euphemistically termed his scheme as ‘Panchamrita’ meaning the ‘five ambrosia’.
- Under Panchamrita’, India will:
- Get its non-fossil energy capacity to 500 gigawatts by 2030
- Meet 50 percent of its energy requirements till 2030 with renewable energy
- Reduce its projected carbon emission by one billion tonnes by 2030
- Reduce the carbon intensity of its economy by 45 percent by 2030
- Achieve net-zero by 2070
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Demand side strategies for climate change mitigation
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Demand-side strategies to tackle climate change
Context
A paradigm shift in the way we think about climate action has been reported for the first time in the recent IPCC report through a chapter on “demand, services and social aspects of mitigation”.
Demand side strategies and their impact
- The report shows how, through comprehensive demand-side strategies, carbon dioxide and non-carbon GHG emissions globally can be reduced by 40–70 per cent compared to the 2050 emissions projection.
- This can be achieved through reduced food waste, following sustainable healthy dietary choices that acknowledge nutritional needs, adaptive heating and cooling, climate-friendly dressing culture, integration of renewable energy in buildings, shifting to electric light-duty vehicles, and to walking, cycling, shared and public transit, sustainable consumption by intensive use of longer-lived repairable products, compact city design and efficient floor area use of buildings.
- The IPCC report also shows that individuals with high socioeconomic status contribute disproportionately to emissions and have the highest potential for emissions reductions, as citizens, investors, consumers, role models, and professionals.
- Of the 60 actions assessed in this report, on an individual level, the biggest contribution comes from walking and cycling wherever possible and using electricity-powered transport.
Need for systemic changes
- To be effective, these shifts will need to be supported by systemic changes in some areas — for example, land use and urban planning policies to avoid urban sprawl, support for green spaces, reallocation of street spaces for walking and physical exercise, investment in public transport and infrastructure design for active and electric vehicles.
- Electrification and shifts to public transport also bring benefits in terms of enhancing health, employment, and equality.
- By providing user-level access to more efficient energy conversion technologies, the need for primary energy can be reduced by 45 per cent by 2050, compared to 2020.
- Demand-side changes cannot deliver the net-zero goal on their own.
- But this requires investment in and transformation across every sector, along with policies and incentives that encourage people to make low-carbon choices in all aspects of their lives.
- There is huge untapped potential in the near term through changes across transport, industry, buildings, and food that will take away the supply-side uncertainties and make it easier for people to lead low-carbon lifestyles and, at the same time, improve well-being.
Conclusion
The latest IPCC report puts people and their well-being at the centre of climate change mitigation. The messages are from a global perspective but have relevance to the national context of every country.
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Crisis and sustainability in the face of climate change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IPCC
Mains level: Paper 3- Vulnerability to climate change and ways for adaptation
Context
The footprint of the Covid-19 pandemic across the sectors of the economy has instilled a new reckoning for resilience and sustainability on the economic, social and environmental (ESG) front.
IPCC reports suggest adaption for resilience
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) published its latest report on climate impacts, vulnerability and adaptation last month.
- The report suggests that adaptation to climate impacts in the near to medium term can help communities and ecosystems become resilient against the threats from current and future levels of warming.
- Ecosystem-based adaptation, for instance, is recommended for taking care of communities and social well-being, while restoring forests, lands and marine ecosystems.
- The report details the variability in projected climate impacts and the vulnerabilities that can be expected across regions the world over due to differences in the range of warming, geographical location, demographics and the unique biophysical, social and cultural contexts.
- Cost-effective adaptation: It depends on a host of enablers on which global partnerships need to deliver.
- Enablers include international cooperation, inclusive technology, financial flows, knowledge sharing and capacity building, with institutions and innovations to support policy development and on-ground implementation.
Gaps in the literature, acknowledge the uncertainties in climate science
- The IPCC has been consistently drawing attention to the lack of adequate science from and on developing countries.
- These countries have in turn been asking for the inclusion of what is broadly termed as “grey literature” or non-peer-reviewed literature in the IPCC process.
- Good science encompasses the formal and the informal, theory and empiricism, the traditional along with the modern.
- It relies on evolution through acknowledging the gaps and unknowns, the negatives and positives of past knowledge.
- The understanding of adaptation finance, adaptation costing, and mapping of climate impacts and adaptation needs of communities in geographically remote locations, for instance, could improve with suitable sourcing of information.
Way forward
- Sustainable development, inclusive of climate resilience, calls for an ensemble approach — one that places contextually appropriate emphasis on tackling climate change impacts and development needs in a world with growing challenges.
- The pathway to be adopted is one of an integrated risk assessment approach, where solutions are interventions that impact the immediate, near and medium-term outcomes for developing economies.
- Striking the right balance is at any time a choice driven as much by enablers (capabilities, lifestyles and values, financial flows, technical know-how) as by constraints (warming levels, poverty, inequality, lack of health and education).
Conclusion
The pandemic highlighted the need for balance in nature-people relationships, even as it tested the ability of the developing world.
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The phenomenon of Coral Bleaching
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coral Bleaching
Mains level: Coral Reefs and their significance
The management authority of the world’s largest coral reef system, Australia’s Great Barrier Reef, confirmed on March 25 that the reef is experiencing a mass coral bleaching event.
What are Coral Reefs?
- Corals are marine invertebrates or animals not possessing a spine.
- Each coral is called a polyp and thousands of such polyps live together to form a colony, which grows when polyps multiply to make copies of themselves.
- Australia’s Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest reef system stretching across 2,300 km.
- It hosts 400 different types of coral, gives shelter to 1,500 species of fish and 4,000 types of mollusc.
- Corals are of two types — hard coral and soft coral:
- Hard corals, also called hermatypic or ‘reef building’ corals extract calcium carbonate (also found in limestone) from the seawater to build hard, white coral exoskeletons.
- Soft coral polyps, however, borrow their appearance from plants, attach themselves to such skeletons and older skeletons built by their ancestors. Soft corals also add their own skeletons to the hard structure over the years and these growing multiplying structures gradually form coral reefs. They are the largest living structures on the planet.
How do the feed themselves?
- Corals share a symbiotic relationship with single-celled algae called zooxanthellae.
- The algae provides the coral with food and nutrients, which they make through photosynthesis, using the sun’s light.
- In turn, the corals give the algae a home and key nutrients.
- The zooxanthellae also give corals their bright colour.
What is Coral Bleaching?
- Bleaching happens when corals experience stress in their environment due to changes in temperature, pollution or high levels of ocean acidity.
- Under stressed conditions, the zooxanthellae or food-producing algae living inside coral polyps start producing reactive oxygen species, which are not beneficial to the corals.
- So, the corals expel the colour-giving zooxanthellae from their polyps, which exposes their pale white exoskeleton, giving the corals a bleached appearance.
- This also ends the symbiotic relationship that helps the corals to survive and grow.
- Severe bleaching and prolonged heat stress in the external environment can lead to coral death.
Impact of climate change
- Over the last couple of decades, climate change and increased global warming owing to rising carbon emissions and other greenhouse gases have made seas warmer than usual.
- Under all positive outlooks and projections in terms of cutting greenhouse gases, sea temperatures are predicted to increase by 1.5°C to 2°C by the time the century nears its end.
- The first mass bleaching event had occurred in 1998 when the El Niño weather pattern caused sea surfaces in the pacific ocean to heat up; this event caused 8% of the world’s coral to die.
- The second event took place in 2002.
- In the past decade, however, mass bleaching occurrences have become more closely spaced in time, with the longest and most damaging bleaching event taking place from 2014 to 2017.
Significance of Corals
- Coral reefs support over 25% of marine biodiversity, including fish, turtles and lobsters; even as they only take up 1% of the seafloor.
- The marine life supported by reefs further fuels global fishing industries. Even giant clams and whales depend on the reefs to live.
- Besides, coral reef systems generate $2.7 trillion in annual economic value through goods and service trade and tourism.
- In Australia, the Barrier Reef, in pre-COVID times, generated $4.6 billion annually through tourism and employed over 60,000 people including divers and guides.
- Aside from adding economic value and being a support system for aquatic life, coral reefs also provide protection from storm waves.
- Dead reefs can revive over time if there are enough fish species that can graze off the weeds that settle on dead corals, but it takes almost a decade for the reef to start setting up again.
Current condition of the Great Barrier Reef
- The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released its report this month, which warned that the life of the Great Barrier is in grave danger.
- The report said that if temperatures continue to rise, bleaching events may occur more often and a large proportion of the remaining reef cover in Australia could be lost.
- Just a couple of weeks after this warning, the Barrier Reef Authority confirmed a mass bleaching phenomenon affecting all pockets of the reef system.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Consider the following statements:
- Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
- More than one third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines.
- Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
Post your answers here.
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What is a Heatwave?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heatwaves
Mains level: Not Much
The Konkan region, including Mumbai, has been experiencing sweltering heat in recent days, with the maximum temperatures touching the 40 degrees mark.
What is a Heatwave and when is it declared?
- Heatwaves occur over India between March and June.
- IMD declares a heatwave event when the maximum (day) temperature for a location in the plains crosses 40 degrees Celsius.
- Over the hills, the threshold temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.
Following criteria are used to declare heatwave:
To declare heatwave, the below criteria should be met at least in 2 stations in a Meteorological subdivision for at least two consecutive days and it will be declared on the second day.
a) Based on Departure from Normal
- Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C
- Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C
b) Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)
- Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C
- Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥47°C
How long can a heatwave spell last?
- A heatwave spell generally lasts for a minimum of four days. On some occasions, it can extend up to seven or ten days.
- The longest recorded heatwave spell, in recent years, was between 18 – 31 May 2015.
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Mumbai Climate Action Plan
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: MCAP
Mains level: Climate vulnerability preparedness of coastal cities
The Mumbai Climate Action Plan (MCAP) has laid down a 30-year road map for the city to tackle the challenges of climate change by adopting inclusive and robust mitigation and adaptation strategies.
What is MCAP ?
- The MCAP has set short-, medium- and long-term climate goals aimed towards zero emission of greenhouse gas or a net-zero target for 2050.
- It focuses on priority across six strategic areas:
- Sustainable waste management
- Urban greening and biodiversity
- Urban flooding and water resource management,
- Energy and buildings
- Air quality and
- Sustainable mobility
Features of the plan
- The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) prepared the plan with technical support from the World Resources Institute (WRI), India and the C40 Cities network.
- It concentrates on the city, its ecological, cultural and economical landscapes.
- The plan throws light on the current climate of the city called Baseline Assessment—climate and air pollution risks, greenhouse gas inventory.
- The plan then assesses future trajectories in the business-as-usual scenarios and assesses future emission reduction scenarios to make Mumbai net-zero by 2050.
Why does Mumbai need a climate action plan?
- As per a study conducted by WRI India on Mumbai’s vulnerability assessment, the city will face two major challenges—temperature rise, and extreme rain events which lead to flooding.
- The city is already witnessing a warming trend.
- The analysis has revealed a warming trend over 47 years (1973-2020) with an increase of 0.25°C per decade for the city.
What is the current greenhouse gas emission?
- In 2019, which is taken as a base year, Mumbai’s GHG emissions were 23.42 million tonnes of carbon dioxide emission, which is 1.8 tonnes CO2e per person.
- Out of which, 16.9 million tonnes or 72 per cent is from the energy sector, followed by 4.56 million tonnes of CO2 e or 20 per cent from the transportation sector.
- The city’s waste sector contributes to a total of eight per cent of the total emissions.
- Most of the city’s emissions come from energy use in residential buildings followed by commercial buildings and transport.
- Electricity consumption contributes significantly to total emissions (64.3%), due to the city’s predominantly coal-based grid.
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Need for political will to tackle climate change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IPCC
Mains level: Paper 3- IPCC sixth assessment report
Context
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report released on Monday its sixth assessment report.
Bleak assessment of our future
- In its sixth assessment report, titled ‘Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability’, the IPCC discusses the increasing extreme heat, rising oceans, melting glaciers, falling agricultural productivity, resultant food shortages and increase in diseases like dengue and zika.
- Failed climate leadership: Antonio Guterres, the United Nations Secretary General, quoted in The New York Times, describes the IPCC report as being “an atlas of human suffering and a damning indictment of failed climate leadership.”
- The IPCC warns that should our planet get warmer than 1.5 degrees Celsius from pre-industrial times (we are at 1.1 degrees at present), then there will be irreversible impact on “ecosystems with low resilience” such as polar, mountain and coastal ecosystems “impacted by glacier melt, and higher sea level rise”.
- This will cause devastation to “infrastructure in low-lying coastal settlements, associated livelihoods and even erosion of cultural and spiritual values.”
- The increased heat will lead to an increase in diseases like diabetes, circulatory and respiratory conditions, as well as mental health challenges.
Impact on India
- Climate “maladaptation”: The IPCC also highlights that climate “maladaptation” will especially affect “marginalised and vulnerable groups adversely, indigenous people, ethnic minorities, low-income households and informal settlements” and those in rural areas.
- Therefore, India, with a majority of its people falling in these categories, will be especially devastated.
- The IPCC highlights India as a vulnerable hotspot, with several regions and cities facing climate change phenomena like flooding, sea-level rise and heatwaves.
- For instance, Mumbai is at high risk of sea-level rise and flooding, and Ahmedabad faces the danger of heat waves — these phenomena are already underway in both cities.
- Vector-borne and water-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue will be on the rise in sub-tropical regions, like parts of Punjab, Assam and Rajasthan.
- When the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increases, the grains we consume, including wheat and rice, will have diminished nutritional quality.
- Over the past 30 years, major crop yields have decreased by 4-10 per cent globally due to climate change.
- Consequently, India, which continues to be predominantly agrarian, is likely to be especially hurt.
- Urban India is at greater risk than other areas with a projected population of 877 million by 2050 nearly double of 480 million in 2020.
- The concentration of population in these cities will make them extremely vulnerable to climate change.
Conclusion
Fighting climate change requires fiscal expenditure and policy changes fuelled by political will, which will reap results in a decade or so. Yet, our political class has no cohesive and urgent policy roadmap to combat rising emissions and our diminishing life spans.
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IPCC releases part of the Sixth Assessment Report
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IPCC, UNFCC
Mains level: IPCC assessment reports and their significance
What is the issue:
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) released the second part of its sixth assessment report. The first part was released in 2021.
What is IPCC?
- The IPCC, an intergovernmental body was established in 1988 by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
- It was later endorsed by the UN General Assembly. Membership is open to all members of the WMO and UN.
- The IPCC produces reports that contribute to the work of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the main international treaty on climate change.
- The objective of the UNFCCC is to “stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic (human-induced) interference with the climate system.”
What are the Assessment Reports?
- Every few years, the IPCC produces assessment reports that are the most comprehensive scientific evaluations of the state of earth’s climate.
- Instead, it asks scientists from around the world to go through all the relevant scientific literature related to climate change and draw up the logical conclusions.
- So far, five assessment reports have been produced, the first one being released in 1990.
- The IPCC’s Fifth Assessment Report was a critical scientific input into the UNFCCC’s Paris Agreement in 2015.
Highlights of the recent report
- Rapidly advancing climate change: From the melting of the Greenland ice sheet to the destruction of coral reefs, climate related impacts are hitting the world at the high end much more quickly than previously assessed by the IPCC.
- Limitations of technology: The use of some technologies designed to limit warming or reduce CO2 could make matters worse rather than better.
- Impact of urbanization: While large cities are hotspots for climate impacts, they also offer a real opportunity to avoid the worst impacts of warming.
- Limited opportunity for mitigation: The report has warned the opportunity for action will only last for the rest of this decade.
Some projections of the first part of 6th Report
- Regional focus: It is expected that this report would likely state what the scenarios for sea-level rise in the Bay of Bengal region is, not just what the average sea-level rise across the world is likely to be.
- Rise of extreme events: There is expected to be bigger focus on extreme weather events, like the ones we have seen in the last few weeks.
- Vulnerabilities of urban areas: Densely populated mega-cities are supposed to be among the most vulnerable to impacts of climate change. The report is expected to present specific scenarios the climate change impacts on cities and large urban populations, and also implications for key infrastructure.
- Synergy of climate action is needed: IPCC is expected to present a more integrated understanding of the situation, cross-link evidence and discuss trade-offs between different options or pathways, and also likely to cover social implications of climate change action by countries.
Here is what the previous assessment reports had said:
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What are CRZ norms?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CRZ
Mains level: Sea level rise and threats to coastal cities
The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) inspected a bungalow owned by a Union Minister for alleged violation of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) norms.
What is the news?
- The Union Minister’s bungalow named has been illicitly constructed within 50 metres of the sea in violation of the CRZ rules.
- The crackdown assumes significance in the escalating verbal spats between the two political rivals (which were allies for years).
What are CRZ norms?
- In India, the CRZ Rules govern human and industrial activity close to the coastline, in order to protect the fragile ecosystems near the sea.
- They restrict certain kinds of activities — like large constructions, setting up of new industries, storage or disposal of hazardous material, mining, reclamation and bunding — within a certain distance from the coastline.
- After the passing of the Environment Protection Act in 1986, CRZ Rules were first framed in 1991.
- After these were found to be restrictive, the Centre notified new Rules in 2011, which also included exemptions for the construction of the Navi Mumbai airport and for projects of the Department of Atomic Energy.
- While the CRZ Rules are made by the Union environment ministry, implementation is to be ensured by state governments through their Coastal Zone Management Authorities.
Where do they apply?
- In all Rules, the regulation zone has been defined as the area up to 500 m from the high-tide line.
- The restrictions depend on criteria such as the population of the area, the ecological sensitivity, the distance from the shore, and whether the area had been designated as a natural park or wildlife zone.
- The latest Rules have a no-development zone of 20 m for all islands close to the mainland coast, and for all backwater islands in the mainland.
New Rules under CRZ regulations
- The government notified new CRZ Rules with the stated objectives of promoting sustainable development and conserving coastal environments.
- For the so-called CRZ-III (Rural) areas, two separate categories have been stipulated.
- In the densely populated rural areas (CRZ-IIIA) with a population density of 2,161 per sq km as per the 2011 Census, the no-development zone is now 50 m from the high-tide level, as against the 200 m stipulated earlier.
- In the CRZ-IIIB category (rural areas with population density below 2,161 per sq km) continue to have a no-development zone extending up to 200 m from the high-tide line.
- The new Rules have a no-development zone of 20 m for all islands close to the mainland coast, and for all backwater islands in the mainland.
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Places in news: Erra Matti Dibbalu
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Erra Matti Dibbalu
Mains level: NA
Citizens join hands to preserve the geological marvel of Erra Matti Dibbalu in Visakhapatnam.
What is Erra Matti Dibbalu?
- Located between Visakhapatnam and Bheemunipatnam, the Erra Matti Dibbalu are rare red sand dunes that are a reminder of the million years of geological processes.
- Its towering red sand dunes with patches of greenery is like a meandering maze.
- The width of the dunes, which runs for five kilometres along the coast, varies from 200 metres to two kilometres.
- It is listed among the 34 notified National Geological Heritage Monument Sites of India by the Geological Survey of India.
(Don’t they resemble to Ravines of Chambal?)
Its formation
- Studies indicate that the area was tectonically active between 2.5 million years and 11,000 years ago.
- The sediments are mainly derived from the Khondalite rocks from the hinterland of the Eastern Ghats.
- Geologically these red sand dune sediments particularly hold significance.
- They are the result of the combined effect of numerous factors including global climatic changes, sea-level variations, monsoonal variability and as a result serves as valuable paleo-environment indicators.
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What is Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI)?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CVI
Mains level: Climate vulnerability of coastlines
Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) has carried out coastal vulnerability assessment for entire Indian coast at states level.
Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI)
- Under the CVI, INCOIS has brought out an Atlas comprising 156 maps on 1:1,00,000 scales to prepare a CVI.
- These maps determine the coastal risks due to future sea-level rise based on the physical and geological parameters for the Indian coast.
- The CVI uses the relative risk that physical changes will occur as sea-level rises are quantified based on parameters like:
- Tidal range
- Wave height
- Coastal slope
- Coastal elevation
- Shoreline change rate
- Geomorphology
- Historical rate of relative sea-level change
Other components: MHVM
- A coastal Multi-Hazard Vulnerability Mapping (MHVM) was also carried out using above mentioned parameters.
- These parameters were synthesized to derive the composite hazard zones that can be inundated along the coastal low-lying areas due to extreme flooding events.
- This MHVM mapping was carried for the entire mainland of India on a 1:25000 scale.
- These maps depict the coastal low-lying areas exposed to the coastal inundation.
Significance of CVI
- India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km i.e. 6100 km of mainland coastline plus coastline of 1197 Indian islands touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).
- Coastal vulnerability assessments can be useful information for coastal disaster management and building resilient coastal communities.
What is Coastal Security?
- Coastal Security is understood as a subset of maritime security. It
involves the security of the coastal water zone against any threat or challenge that originates from the sea. Coastal water zone refers to the water area seawards of the Indian coast up to the limit of India’s contiguous zone, or the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL) whichever is less. - Coastal security has a wide connotation encompassing maritime border management, island security, maintenance of peace, stability and good order in coastal areas and enforcement of laws therein, security of ports, coastal installations, and other structures
including Vital Areas and Vital Points (VAs/VPs) and vessels and personnel operating in coastal areas. An effective
organization for coastal security also facilitates coastal defense.
Why is coastal security considered indispensable for India?
- National Security: The elaborate security arrangements on land forced the terrorists and illegal migrants to look towards the sea where security measures are comparatively lax, enabling them to ‘move, hide and strike’ with relative ease. Plugging this loophole is imperative to enable a holistic national security architecture.
- Economic development: Coastal region plays an important part in India’s economic development. Security of the region will have a direct bearing on the following areas:
a) Trade: India’s sea dependence on oil is about 93% which includes India’s offshore oil production and petroleum exports. Further, 95% of India’s trade by volume and 68% of trade by value comes via the Indian Ocean.
b) Fish production: India is the second-largest fish producer in the world with a total production of 13.7 million metric tonnes in 2018-19 of which 35% was from the maritime sector. In the same period, India had exported Rs 46,589.37 crore worth of marine products.
c) Strategic minerals: India hosts some of the largest and richest shoreline placers. The beach and dune sands in India contain heavy minerals (HMs) like ilmenite, rutile, garnet, zircon, monazite and sillimanite.
d) Geostrategic interests: The Indian Ocean Region (IOR) has become a pivotal zone of global strategic competition.
e) Dealing with climate-induced crises: Coastal zones are already under threat from environmental degradation. At the same time, the sinking of islands due to the rising sea levels in the Indian Ocean may result in the rise of climate refugees.
How India’s Coastal Security Architecture has evolved over the years?
- Customs Marine Organisation (CMO), 1974: Created on the recommendation of Nag Chaudhari Committee, it was mandated to conduct anti-smuggling operations. However, since the CMO was temporary in nature, not much attention was paid to strengthening this organisation. In 1982, it was merged with the ICG to avoid the duplication of efforts.
- Indian Coast Guard (ICG), 1977: With the enactment of the Indian Coast Guard Act, 1978, the organization formally
came into being as the fourth armed force of India. Its mandates include thwarting smuggling activities, safeguarding and protecting artificial islands, offshore terminals, installations, and other devices in the maritime zone, protecting and assisting fishermen in distress and preserving and protecting the marine environment, including
controlling marine pollution. - Coastal Security Scheme (CSS), 2005: Instituted originally in 2005 and implemented by the Department of Border
Management, Ministry of Home Affairs. The aim of the CSS was to strengthen infrastructure for patrolling and the surveillance of the coastal areas, particularly the shallow areas close to the coast. - Coastal Security Architecture Post ‘26/11’: Since then, the physical assets were built up and human resource capability was
also enhanced to strengthen the coastal security. These
efforts include:
Strengthening the Multilayered Surveillance System: Before 2008, the existing multilayered surveillance system under the CSS was functioning only along the Gujarat and Maharashtra coasts.
Indian Navy(IN): It was designated as the authority responsible for overall maritime security which includes coastal as well as offshore security. It was also made responsible for the coastal defense of the nation assisted by the ICG, the marine police, and
other central and state agencies.
ICG: The Director-General Coast Guard has been designated as the Commander Coastal Command, and is responsible for the overall coordination between central and state agencies in all matters relating to coastal security.
Border Security Force (BSF): The water wing of the BSF have been deployed along with eight floating border outposts (BOPs), for the security and surveillance of the creeks in Gujarat and the Sunderbans.
Central Industrial Security Force (CISF): It was entrusted with the responsibility of the physical security of India’s major ports. Vessel Traffic Management Systems (VTMS) are also being installed in all the major and a few non-major ports to monitor and regulate maritime traffic as well as to detect potentially dangerous ships.
Sagar Suraksha Dal: An informal layer of surveillance, comprising the fishermen community- created following the 1993 Mumbai serial bomb blasts – has also been formalized and activated in all coastal states. - National Maritime Domain Awareness (NMDA) Project: It includes an integrated intelligence grid to detect and tackle threats emanating from the sea in real-time. Post 26/11, it has been strengthened by establishing NC3I network and IMAC that generate a common operational picture of activities at sea
through an institutionalized mechanism. - Maritime Theatre Command (MTC): MTC structure is
proposed to integrate the assets of the Indian Navy, Army, IAF
and Coast Guard to achieve the goals detailed out in the Joint
Forces Doctrine (JFD), 2017. It will enable the security forces
to form a ‘Net-centric’ Warfare model so as to gain an
an advantage over the adversary using a flexible force structure
to match the varied geographic domains. - Inter-agency maritime exercises: Such exercises help
build inter-service synergy, interoperability, and
jointness. These include ‘Sagar Kavach’, ‘Sea Vigil’, TROPEX. - Increased cooperation with littoral countries: India
interacts more actively with littoral states of the Indian Ocean Region and employs maritime security engagement as a cornerstone of her regional foreign policy initiatives.
Gaps in existing architecture
- Lackadaisical approach of the State governments resulting in the slow pace of construction of coastal infrastructure.
- Multiplicity of agencies results in poor coordination.
- Disproportionate focus on terrorism results in less emphasis on non-traditional threats.
- Lack of professionalism and capacity constraints in marine police forces.
- Technological backwardnessPort security remains neglected in most of the minor ports.
Ways to fill gaps in the existing architecture
- Enacting the proposed Coastal Security Bill that will facilitate the creation of NMA.
- Strengthening the surveillance system
- Creation of Central Marine Police Force (CMPF)
- Promulgate the National commercial maritime security policy document for efficient, coordinated, and effective actions.
- Effective involvement of Coastal communities such as fishermen.
- Reinforcing Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) regulations
Recalibrate the defense expenditure to increase capacity and resources.
Back2Basics: INCOIS
- Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS) is an autonomous body under Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES).
- It has been issuing alerts on Potential Fishing Zone, Ocean State Forecast, Tsunami Early Warning, Storm Surge Early Warning, High Wave Alerts, etc.
- It works through a dedicated ocean modeling, observations, computation facilities and the marine data center.
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Towards low emissions growth
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COP26
Mains level: Paper 3- Transition to net zero-emission future
Context
While many developing countries made net-zero pledges at COP26 in Glasgow, they face enormous developmental challenges in their attempts to grow in a climate-constrained world.
Developmental challenges for India
- For India, the national context is shaped by high youth unemployment, millions more entering the workforce each year, and a country hungry for substantial investments in hard infrastructure to industrialise and urbanise.
- Growth with low emission footprint: India’s economic growth in the last three decades, led by growth in the services sector, has come at a significantly lower emissions footprint.
- But in the coming decades, India will have to move to an investment-led and manufacturing-intensive growth model to create job opportunities and create entirely new cities and infrastructure to accommodate and connect an increasingly urban population.
- All of this requires a lot of energy. Can India do all of this with a low emissions footprint?
What could India do to pursue an industrialization pathway that is climate-compatible?
- A coherent national transition strategy is important in a global context where industrialised countries are discussing the imposition of carbon border taxes while failing to provide developing countries the necessary carbon space to grow or the finance and technological assistance necessary to decarbonise.
- What India needs is an overarching green industrialisation strategy that combines laws, policy instruments, and new or reformed implementing institutions to steer its decentralised economic activities to become climate-friendly and resilient.
Issues with India’s domestic manufacturing of renewable technology components
- India’s industrial policy efforts to increase the domestic manufacturing of renewable energy technology components have been affected by policy incoherence, poor management of economic rents, and contradictory policy objectives.
- India managed to create just a third of jobs per megawatt that China has managed to in its efforts to promote solar PV and wind technologies.
- China has created more jobs in manufacturing solar and wind components for exports than domestic deployment.
- India could have retained some of those jobs if it were strategic in promoting these technologies.
Opportunities in decarbonising transport and industry sector
- Technologies needed to decarbonise the transport and industry sectors provide a significant opportunity for India.
- However, India’s R&D investments in these emerging green technologies are non-existent.
- PLI is a step in right direction: The production-linked incentives (PLIs) under ‘Aatmanirbhar Bharat’ are a step in the right direction for localising clean energy manufacturing activities.
- Focus on R&D: Aligning existing RD&D investments with the technologies needed for green industrialisation is crucial for realising quantum jumps in economic activities.
- Encourage private entrepreneurship: India also needs to nurture private entrepreneurship and experimentation in clean energy technologies.
- Besides China, Korea’s green growth strategy provide examples of how India could gain economic and employment rents from green industrialisation without implementing restrictive policies.
Way forward
- India should set its pace based on its ability to capitalise on the opportunities to create wealth through green industrialisation.
- India should follow a path where it can negotiate carbon space to grow, buying time for the hard-to-abate sectors; push against counterproductive WTO trade litigations on decarbonisation technologies; all while making R&D investments in those technologies to ensure that it can gain economic value in the transition.
Consider the question “What are the challenges India faces as it strives to reach the goal of net-zero emission by 2070. Suggest the strategy India should follow to maximise the developmental gains.”
Conclusion
The government should neither succumb to international pressure to decarbonise soon nor should it postpone its investment in decarbonisation technologies and lose its long-term competitiveness in a global low-carbon economy.
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Nusantara City: New Capital of Indonesia
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nusantara
Mains level: NA
Indonesia passed a bill replacing its capital Jakarta with East Kalimantan, situated to the east of Borneo island. The new capital city of the country will be called Nusantara.
About Nusantara
- The New State Capital Law Bill has been drafted by a special committee set up by Widodo’s government and makes Nusantara, also called IKN, the capital of the Republic of Indonesia.
- The transfer of the status of Jakarta as Indonesia’s capital to Nusantara, where 256,142 hectares of land has been set aside for the project, will take place in the “first semester” of 2024.
- East Kalimantan, where the new capital will be, as per the bill is said to have a world-city vision.
- It will be designed and managed with the objective of becoming a sustainable city in the world.
Why is Indonesia changing its capital city?
- The new location is very strategic – it’s in the centre of Indonesia and close to urban areas.
- The burden Jakarta is holding right now is too heavy as the centre of governance, business, finance, trade and services.
- Jakarta is also infamous for being the worlds’ first sinking capital city due to rising sea levels.
- The city’s pollution levels are so bad that it has been ranking as one of the most polluted cities in the world for years.
- Another important reason to shift the capital from Java island to Borneo island has been the growing inequality – financial and otherwise.
Where is East Kalimantan?
- East Kalimantan is 2,300 kilometres from Jakarta on the eastern side of Borneo island, shared by Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei.
- The new capital will be located in the North Penajam Paser and Kutai Kartanegara regions.
- East Kalimantan is an area with immense water resources and habitable terrain.
- East Kalimantan is rich in flora and fauna.
Why Nusantara?
- Nusantara is an old Javanese term that means ‘archipelago’.
- Nusantara has historical, sociological, and philosophical aspects attached to the name.
- The name would represent Indonesia as a whole and would show the potential of the nation.
What are the other countries that have changed capitals?
- Indonesia is not the first country to change its capital city.
- There has been a long list of countries that have changed their capitals for various reasons. Brazil changed its capital city from Rio De Janerio to Brasilia, a more centrally-located city, in 1960.
- In 1991, Nigeria hanged the country’s capital from Lagos to Abuja.
- Kazakhstan moved its capital city from Almaty, which is still its commercial centre, to Nur-Sultan in 1997.
- Myanmar changed its capital from Rangoon to Naypyidaw in 2005.
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What is Irrecoverable Carbon?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Irrecoverable Carbon
Mains level: Global carbon sinks
Researchers have identified and mapped 139 gigatonnes (Gt) of “irrecoverable carbon” in some of the world’s major forests and peatlands — including the Amazon and the Congo — to avoid catastrophic climate change.
What is Irrecoverable Carbon?
- The concept of ‘irrecoverable carbon’ was introduced in 2020.
- All kinds of ecosystems — lush rainforest, muddy peatland, shady mangroves — contain eons of stored carbon, captured by photosynthesis.
- Per square kilometer, the forests are among the most effective carbon stores in the world; but they’re also some of the most difficult to restore.
- If destroyed, these ecosystems could take decades or centuries to regenerate.
- In other words, the 139 gigatons of carbon contained in these areas are effectively irrecoverable if released due to anthropogenic activities.
- Once released in air, it can be recovered but would take centuries to fully recover or naturally reintegrate.
What is the new research?
- In the new study, researchers have identified and mapped carbon reserves that are “manageable, are vulnerable to disturbance” and cannot be recovered by 2050.
- They held study of peatlands of the Congo Basin and Northern Europe; and in North America, the mangrove swamps of the Everglades and old-growth forests of the Pacific Northwest.
- 2050 has been set as the deadline for taking global carbon emissions to net zero in order for Earth to avoid warming at 1.5-2 degrees celsius above the pre-industrial levels.
- To mitigate such a warming scenario, it is imperative to conserve the ecosystems with 139 Gt carbon.
Key findings
- Amazon is the biggest carbon sink on earth, holding 31.5 Gt irrecoverable carbon.
- Brazil has the second-largest irrecoverable carbon reserves, after Russia that holds 23 per cent of the total irrecoverable carbon outlay in the world.
- The second-largest reserve of carbon, at 132 Gt, comprise the islands of Southeast Asia, with their equatorial rainforests.
- The Congo basin is the third-largest hotspot of irrecoverable carbon with over 8 Gt of carbon reserves, according to the study.
- Australia, which has become a hotspot for wildfires, is home to 2.5 per cent of the world’s carbon reserve along its coastal mangroves and forests in the southeast and southwest.
Why conserve these forests?
- These regions are already being ravaged by wildfires and exploited for resources by mining and oil industries.
- Since 2010, agriculture, logging and wildfire have caused emissions of at least 4 Gt of irrecoverable carbon.
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Places in news: Majuli River Island
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Majuli Island
Mains level: Not Much
Soil erosion, coupled with changing climatic conditions, has been writing a cruel destiny for the inhabitants of Majuli in Assam, the largest river island in the world.
About Majuli Island
- Majuli is a riverine island in the Brahmaputra River, Assam and in 2016 it became the first island to be made a district in India.
- Majuli has shrunk as the river surrounding it has grown.
- It had an area of 880 square kilometers (340 sq mi) at the beginning of the 20th century but having lost significantly to erosion it covers 553 square kilometers as at 2014.
- It is the abode of the Assamese neo-Vaishnavite culture.
Its formation
- The island is formed by the Brahmaputra River in the south and the Kherkutia Xuti, an anabranch of the Brahmaputra, joined by the Subansiri River in the north.
- It was formed due to course changes by the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries, mainly the Lohit.
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Challenges in India’s net-zero emission target
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Challenges in meeting COP26 commitments made by India
Context
Even though New Delhi has invested in renewable energy and announced a net-zero target, there is a gap between the announcements and the ground reality, as is evident from the promotion of coal.
India’s commitments
- AT the COP 26 in Glasgow, Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced that India has set a target of net-zero carbon emissions by 2070.
- India also updated its Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) that have to be met by 2030.
- Its new pledge includes increasing the country’s installed renewable capacity to 500 GW, meeting 50 per cent of its energy requirements from non-fossil fuel sources.
India’s achievements on past commitments
- At the COP 21 in Paris, India, made similar ambitious announcements and aimed to reduce the economy-wide emissions intensity by 33-35 per cent from 2005 levels by 2030.
- In August, the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy announced that the country has installed 100 GW of renewable energy capacity.
- The majority of this 100 GW, about 78 per cent, is due to large-scale wind and solar power projects.
- While this is a milestone, India is on track to accomplishing only about two-thirds of its planned renewable target of 175 GW installation by 2022.
- To achieve its new goals, India will need to do more in different directions.
- For instance, it has a target of achieving 40 GW of green energy from the rooftop solar sector by 2022, but it has not been able to achieve even 20 per cent of that so far.
- In the transport sector, India has targeted a 30 per cent share of electric vehicles (EV) in new sales for 2030.
India’s climate actions against the Paris Agreement targets
- The Climate Action Tracker, an independent scientific analysis that tracks government climate action against the Paris Agreement targets, deems India’s performance as “highly insufficient” simply because coal represents about 70 per cent of the country’s energy supply.
- India also needs to cut down subsidies to the fossil fuel industry drastically — not the case currently.
- While in the past seven years, the country has invested Rs 5.2 trillion in renewable energy, the investment in fossil fuel industry, though down by (only) 4 per cent from 2015-19, was Rs 245 trillion.
- Coal production is estimated to increase to one billion tonnes by 2024 from 716 million tonnes in 2020-21.
- According to the Central Electricity Authority, coal capacity is projected to increase from 202GW in 2021 to 266GW by 2029-30.
- The Government of India is not actively discouraging such investments.
- On the contrary, coal subsidies are still 35 per cent higher than the subsidies for renewables and coal-fired power generation receives indirect financial support from the government through income tax exemptions and land acquisition at a preferential rate.
Conclusion
It is also true that India’s energy transition would be in its own interest because, otherwise, economic growth will not be sustainable and human security will be at stake if dozens of millions of climate refugees are created due to the devastating consequences of climate change.
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Does India have a right to burn fossil fuels?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Chalking out a greener path to development
Context
There has been quite a lot of debate on India’s dependence on coal against the backdrop of the Conference of the Parties (COP26) meeting. The crux of the theoretical argument is that India needs to develop, and development requires energy.
Carbon budget framework
- India has neither historically emitted nor currently emits carbon anywhere close to what the global North has, or does, in per capita terms.
- If anything, the argument goes, it should ask for a higher and fairer share in the global carbon budget.
- There is no doubt that this carbon budget framework is an excellent tool to understand global injustice but to move from there to our ‘right to burn’ is a big leap.
- However, the question is do the countries in the global South necessarily need to increase their share in the global carbon budget?
Why should developing countries aim for development without increasing carbon emission
1) Reducing the cost of renewable energy
- Normally the argument in favour of coal is on account of its cost, reliability and domestic availability.
- Recent data show that the levelised cost of electricity from renewable energy sources like solar (photovoltaic), hydro and onshore wind has been declining sharply over the last decade and is already less than fossil fuel-based electricity generation.
- On reliability, frontier renewable energy technologies have managed to address the question of variability of such sources to a large extent and, with technological progress, it seems to be changing for the better.
- As for the easy domestic availability of coal, it is a myth.
- India is among the largest importers of coal in the world, whereas it has no dearth of solar energy.
2) Following different development model
- During the debates of post-colonial development in the Third World, there were two significant issues under discussion — control over technology and choice of techniques to address the issue of surplus labour.
- India didn’t quite resolve the two issues in its attempts of import-substituting industrialisation which worsened during the post-reform period.
- But it can address both today.
- The abundance of renewable natural resources in the tropical climate can give India a head start in this competitive world of technology.
- South-South collaborations can help India avoid the usual patterns of trade between the North and the South, where the former controls technology and the latter merely provides inputs.
- And the high-employment trajectory that the green path entails vis-à-vis the fossil fuel sector may help address the issue of surplus labour, even if partially.
- Such a path could additionally provide decentralised access to clean energy to the poor and the marginalised, including in remote regions of India.
3) Limitation of addressing global injustice in terms of a carbon budget
- The framework of addressing global injustice in terms of a carbon budget is quite limiting in its scope in more ways than one.
- Such an injustice is not at the level of the nation-states alone; there is such injustice between the rich and the poor within nations and between humans and non-human species.
- A progressive position on justice would take these injustices into account instead of narrowly focusing on the framework of nation-states.
- Moreover, it’s a double whammy of injustice for the global South when it comes to climate change.
- Not only is it not primarily responsible, but the global South, especially its poor, will unduly bear the effect of climate change because of its tropical climate and high population density along the coastal lines.
- So, arguing for more coal is like shooting oneself in the foot.
Way forward
- One of the ways in which this can be done is by making the global North pay for the energy transition in the South.
- Chalking out an independent, greener path to development may create conditions for such negotiations and give the South the moral high ground to force the North to come to the table, like South Africa did at Glasgow.
Conclusion
Even if one is pessimistic about this path of righting the wrongs of the past, at the very least, it is better than the status quo.
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The long road to Net Zero
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Net-Zero
Mains level: Roadmap for net-zero targets
India has joined a high-profile group of countries pledging for net-zero target by 2070.
What does Net-Zero mean?
- Net-zero, which is also referred to as carbon-neutrality, does not mean that a country would bring down its emissions to zero.
- That would be gross-zero, which means reaching a state where there are no emissions at all, a scenario hard to comprehend.
- Therefore, net-zero is a state in which a country’s emissions are compensated by absorption and removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
What’s the difference between gross zero and net-zero?
- Gross zero would mean stopping all emissions, which isn’t realistically attainable across all sectors of our lives and industry.
- Even with best efforts to reduce them, there will still be some emissions.
- Net-zero looks at emissions overall, allowing for the removal of any unavoidable emissions, such as those from aviation or manufacturing.
- Removing greenhouse gases could be via nature, as trees take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, or through new technology or changing industrial processes.
What is carbon negativity?
- It is even possible for a country to have negative emissions if the absorption and removal exceed the actual emissions.
- *Bhutan has negative emissions because it absorbs more than it emits.
What is the outlook for India’s emissions?
- Analysis of India’s growth path points to rising GDP per capita, with a rise in carbon emissions in the short term, primarily from energy.
- There is pressure from absolute increase in population and consumption, but population growth is slowing.
India’s major emission sources
- In terms of sectoral GHG emissions, data from 2016 show that electricity and heat account for the highest share (1.11 billion tonnes).
- It is followed by agriculture (704.16 million tonnes), manufacturing and construction (533.8 million tonnes), transport (265.3 million tonnes), industry (130.61 million tonnes).
- Land-use change and forestry (126.43 million tonnes) is also a major source.
- Other fuel use (119.04 million tonnes), buildings (109.2 million tonnes), waste (80.98 million tonnes), fugitive emissions (54.95 million tonnes) accounts for major urban sources.
- Aviation and shipping (20.4 million tonnes) accounts for the least source of emission.
Immediate interventions that can be made
- Legal mechanism: India needs to create a legal mandate for climate impact assessment of all activities.
- Investment: This can facilitate investment by dedicated green funds.
- Wholistic participation: Public sector institutions promoted by the government, co-operatives and even market mechanisms will participate.
- Renewable energy: The 500 GW renewables target needs a major boost, such as channeling more national and international climate funding into decentralized solar power.
- Hydrogen economy: Another emerging sector is green hydrogen production because of its potential as a clean fuel. India has a National Hydrogen Mission now in place.
- Waste Management: India’s urban solid waste management will need to modernise to curb methane emissions from unscientific landfills.
- Stored carbon mitigation: Preventing the release of stored carbon in the environment, such as trees and soil, has to be a net zero priority.
Role of developed countries
- India’s argument is that it has historically been one of the lowest emitters of GHGs.
- The impetus has to come from the developed economies that had the benefit of carbon-intensive development since the Industrial Revolution.
Way forward
- These plans need a political consensus and support from State governments.
- Net-zero will involve industrial renewal using green innovation, green economy support and supply chains yielding new jobs.
- It also needs low carbon technologies, zero-emission vehicles, and renewed cities promoting walking and cycling.
- The industry will need to make highly energy-efficient goods that last longer, and consumers should be given a legal right to repair goods they buy.
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The right time for India to have its own climate law
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: COP26
Mains level: Paper 3- India needs climate laws
Context
The United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26, from October 31 to November 12, 2021), at Glasgow, Scotland is important as it will call for practical implementation of the 2015 Paris Accord, setting the rules for the Accord.
Indian proposals
- Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced, on November 1 at Glasgow, a ‘Panchamrit solution’ which aims at reducing fossil fuel dependence and carbon intensity.
- This also includes ramping up India’s renewable energy share to 50% by 2030.
- Union Minister of Environment, Forest and Climate Change Bhupender Yadav has reasserted the call for the promised $100 billion a year as support (from the developed world to the developing world).
- But as we consider new energy pathways, we must also consider the question of climate hazard, nature-based solutions and national accountability.
- This is the right time for India to mull setting up a climate law while staying true to its goals of climate justice, carbon space and environmental protection.
Why India needs climate law
- There are a few reasons for this.
- Existing laws not adequate: Our existing laws are not adequate to deal with climate change.
- We have for example the Environment (Protection) Act (EPA), 1986, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 and Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
- Yet, climate is not exactly water or air.
- The Environment (Protection) Act is grossly inadequate to deal with violations on climate. Clause 24 of the Act, “Effect of Other Laws”, states that if an offence is committed under the EPA or any other law, the person will be punished under the other law (for example, Code of Criminal Procedure).
- This makes the EPA subordinate to every other law.
- There is a need to integrate climate action: Integration includes adaptation and mitigation — and monitoring progress.
- Comprehensive climate action is not just technological such as changing energy sources or carbon intensity, but also nature-based such as emphasising restoration of ecosystems.
- India’s situation is unique: Climate action cannot come by furthering sharpening divides or exacerbating poverty, and this includes our stated renewable energy goals.
- The 500 Gigawatt by 2030 goal for renewable can put critically endangered grassland and desert birds such as the Great Indian Bustard at risk, as they die on collision with wires in the desert.
Suggestions on climate law
- A climate law could consider two aspects.
- Commission on climate change: Creating an institution that monitors action plans for climate change.
- A ‘Commission on Climate Change’ could be set up, with the power and the authority to issue directions, and oversee implementation of plans and programmes on climate.
- The Commission could have quasi-judicial powers with powers of a civil court to ensure that its directions are followed in letter and spirit.
- System of liability and accountability: We need a system of liability and accountability at short-, medium- and long-term levels as we face hazards.
- This also means having a legally enforceable National Climate Change Plan that goes beyond just policy guidelines.
- A Climate Commission could ideally prevent gross negligence in fragile areas and fix accountability if it arises.
Conclusion
We have an urgent moral imperative to tackle climate change and reduce its worst impacts. But we also should Indianise the process by bringing in a just and effective law — with guts, a spine, a heart, and, most importantly, teeth.
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[pib] BASIC Countries
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: BASIC Countries, Copenhagen Accord
Mains level: Not Much
The Union Environment Minister has delivered the statement on behalf of the BASIC group of countries at the UN Climate Change Conference underway at Glasgow.
Who are the BASIC Countries?
- The BASIC countries (also Basic countries or BASIC) are a bloc of four large newly industrialized countries – Brazil, South Africa, India and China.
- It was formed by an agreement on 28 November 2009.
- The four committed to act jointly at the Copenhagen climate summit, including a possible united walk-out if their common minimum position was not met by the developed nations.
- This emerging geopolitical alliance, initiated and led by China, then brokered the final Copenhagen Accord with the United States.
What is the Copenhagen Accord?
- The Copenhagen Accord is a document signed at COP 15 to the UNFCCC on 18 December 2009.
- The Accord states that global warming should be limited to below 2.0 °C (3.6 °F).
- It does not specify what the baseline is for these temperature targets (e.g., relative to pre-industrial or 1990 temperatures).
- In January 2010, the Accord was described merely as a political agreement and not legally binding, as is argued by the US and Europe.
- It is not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol, whose round ended in 2012.
- According to the UNFCCC, these targets are relative to pre-industrial temperatures.
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What is Climate Vulnerability Index?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Vulnerability Index
Mains level: Mapping India's climate change vulnerability
Environmental think tank Council on Energy, Environment and Water has carried a first-of-its-kind district-level climate vulnerability assessment, or Climate Vulnerability Index (CVI).
Climate Vulnerability Index
- The Index takes into account certain indicators when assessing the preparedness of a state or district.
- It considers:
- Exposure (that is whether the district is prone to extreme weather events)
- Sensitivity (the likelihood of an impact on the district by the weather event)
- Adaptive capacity (what the response or coping mechanism of the district is)
Significance of CVI
- CVI helps map critical vulnerabilities and plan strategies to enhance resilience and adapt by climate-proofing communities, economies and infrastructure.
- Instead of looking at climate extremes in isolation, the study looks at the combined risk of hydro-met disasters, which is floods, cyclones and droughts, and their impact.
- The study does not take into consideration other natural disasters such as earthquakes.
Why does India need a climate vulnerability index?
- According to Germanwatch’s 2020 findings, India is the seventh-most vulnerable country with respect to climate extremes.
- Extreme weather events have been increasing in the country such as supercyclone Amphan in the Bay of Bengal, which is now the strongest cyclone to be recorded in the country.
- Recent events such as the landslides and floods in Uttarakhand and Kerala, have also increased in the past decade.
- Further, the IPCC states that every degree rise in temperature will lead to a three per cent increase in precipitation, causing increased intensification of cyclones and floods.
Key findings of the CVI
According to CVI, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and Bihar are most vulnerable to extreme climate events such as floods, droughts and cyclones in India.
- 183 hotspot districts are highly vulnerable to more than one extreme climate events
- 60% of Indian districts have medium to low adaptive capacity in handing extreme weather events – these districts don’t have robust plans in place to mitigate impact
- North-eastern states are more vulnerable to floods
- South and central are most vulnerable to extreme droughts
- 59 and 41 per cent of the total districts in the eastern and western states, respectively, are highly vulnerable to extreme cyclones.
Best performing states
- Kerala and West Bengal have performed well comparatively, despite both being coastal states and dealing with the threat of cyclones and floods annually.
- The reason why these states have performed better is that they have stepped up their climate action plans as well as preparedness to handle an extreme weather event.
Key recommendations
- Develop a high-resolution Climate Risk Atlas (CRA) to map critical vulnerabilities
- Establish a centralised climate-risk commission to coordinate the environmental de-risking mission.
- Undertake climate-sensitivity-led landscape restoration focused on rehabilitating, restoring, and reintegrating natural ecosystems as part of the developmental process.
- Integrate climate risk profiling with infrastructure planning to increase adaptive capacity.
- Provide for climate risk-interlinked adaptation financing by creating innovative CVI-based financing instruments that integrate climate risks for an effective risk transfer mechanism.
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Sundarbans among 5 sites with highest ‘Blue Carbon’ globally
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Blue carbon, Sunderbans
Mains level: Carbon sequestration
India’s Sundarbans National Park is among five sites that have the highest blue carbon stocks globally, according to a new assessment.
Highlights of the study
- ‘World Heritage forests’ are now releasing more carbon than they are absorbing, primarily due to human activity and climate change, according to the assessment.
- UNESCO lists 50 sites across the globe for their unique marine values. These represent just one per cent of the global ocean area.
- But they comprise at least 15 per cent of global blue carbon assests.
Try this question from CSP 2021:
Q. What is blue carbon?
(a) Carbon captured by oceans and coastal ecosystems
(b) Carbon sequestered in forest biomass and agricultural soils
(c) Carbon contained in petroleum and natural gas
(d) Carbon present in atmosphere
Post your answers here.
Carbon capacity of Sundarbans
- The Sundarbans National Park has stores of 60 million tonnes of carbon (Mt C).
- The other four sites besides the Sundarbans National Park in India are:
- Bangladeshi portion of the Sundarbans (110 Mt C)
- Great Barrier Reef in Australia (502 Mt C)
- Everglades National Park in the US (400 Mt C) and
- Banc d’Arguin National Park in Mauritania (110 Mt C)
About Sundarbans
- Sundarbans is the largest delta and mangrove forest in the world.
- The Indian Sunderbans, which covers 4,200 sq km, comprises of the Sunderban Tiger Reserve of 2,585 sq km is home to about 96 Royal Bengal Tigers (2020) is also a world heritage site and a Ramsar Site.
- The Indian Sunderbans is bound on the west by river Muriganga and on the east by rivers Harinbhahga and Raimangal.
- Other major rivers flowing through this eco-system are Saptamukhi, Thakuran, Matla and Goasaba.
Worrying scenario
- The researchers found that 10 of 257 forests emitted more carbon than they captured between 2001 and 2020.
- The reasons for included clearance of land for agriculture, the increasing scale and severity of wildfires due to drought as well as extreme weather phenomena.
- The 10 sites are:
- Tropical Rainforest Heritage of Sumatra (Indonesia)
- Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve (Honduras)
- Yosemite National Park (US)
- Waterton Glacier International Peace Park (Canada, US)
- Barberton Makhonjwa Mountains (South Africa)
- Kinabalu Park (Malaysia)
- Uvs Nuur Basin (Russian Federation, Mongolia)
- Grand Canyon National Park (US)
- Greater Blue Mountains Area (Australia)
- Morne Trois Pitons National Park (Dominica)
(Try mapping these sites)
Back2Basics: Types of Carbon
- Brown Carbon: It is brown smoke released by the combustion of organic matter.
- Black Carbon: It is also a greenhouse gas and causes more pollution than Brown Carbon. The particles leftover from incomplete combustion of fossil fuels (soot and dust). It has a greater effect on radiation transmission.
- Green Carbon: Carbon incorporated into plant biomass and the soils below. Green carbon is carbon removed by photosynthesis and stored in the plants and soil of natural ecosystems.
- Blue Carbon: Blue Carbon refers to coastal, aquatic and marine carbon sinks held by the indicative vegetation, marine organism and sediments.
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Arctic ice is disappearing: How clouds interact with sea ice change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Polynya
Mains level: Glaciers retreat at the Poles
Temperatures in the Arctic, for example, have been rising much faster than the rest of the planet. Experts, for the longest time, have attributed the crisis to how clouds interact with sea ice, essentially frozen seawater.
Role of Polynya
- Decades of research have pointed that the losses in Arctic Sea ice cover allow for the formation of more clouds near the ocean’s surface.
- New research by NASA has now shown that more heat and moisture is released through a large hole in sea ice called a polynya, which fuels the formation of more clouds.
- This traps heat in the atmosphere and hinders the refreezing of new sea ice.
What is Polynya?
- A polynya is an area of open water surrounded by sea ice.
- It is now used as a geographical term for an area of unfrozen seawater within otherwise contiguous pack ice or fast ice.
- It refers to a natural ice hole and was adopted in the 19th century by polar explorers to describe navigable portions of the sea.
- There are two main types of polynyas:
- Coastal polynyas, which can be found year-round near the Antarctic and Arctic coasts and are mainly created by strong winds pushing the ice away from the coast, and
- Mid-sea or open-ocean polynyas, which may be found more sporadically in the middle of an ice pack in certain locations, especially around Antarctica.
What is the new research about?
- The research stated that low clouds over the polynya emitted more energy or heat than clouds in adjacent areas covered by sea ice.
- The polynya did refreeze, but only after the increased cloud cover and heat under the clouds persisted for about a week.
- The extra clouds and increased cloud radiative effect to the surface remained for some time after the polynya froze.
- The sea ice acts like a cap or a barrier between the relatively warm ocean surface and the cold and dry atmosphere above, so more heat and moisture from the ocean into the atmosphere.
- This warming slows down the growth of the sea ice.
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Thawing Permafrost
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Permafrost
Mains level: Thawing of Permafrost
The latest IPCC report has warned that increasing global warming will result in reductions in Arctic permafrost and the thawing of the ground is expected to release greenhouse gases like methane and carbon dioxide.
What is Permafrost?
- ‘Permafrost’ or permanently frozen ground is land that has been frozen at or below 0 degrees Celsius for two or more consecutive years.
- A staggering 17 per cent of Earth’s entire exposed land surface is comprised of permafrost.
- Composed of rock, sediments, dead plant and animal matter, soil, and varying degrees of ice, permafrost is mainly found near the poles, covering parts of Greenland, Alaska, Northern Canada, Siberia and Scandinavia.
- The Arctic region is a vast ocean, covered by thick ice on the surface (called sea ice), surrounded by land masses that are also covered with snow and ice.
Permafrost thawing
- When permafrost thaws, water from the melted ice makes its way to the caves along with ground sediments, and deposits on the rocks.
- In other words, when permafrost thaws, the rocks grow and when permafrost is stable and frozen, they do not grow.
Why thawing?
- The link between the Siberian permafrost and Arctic sea ice can be explained by two factors:
- One is heat transport from the open Arctic Ocean into Siberia, making the Siberian climate warmer.
- The second is moisture transport from open seawater into Siberia, leading to thicker snow cover that insulates the ground from cold winter air, contributing to its warming.
- This is drastically different from the situation just a couple of decades ago when the sea ice acted as a protective layer, maintaining cold temperatures in the region and shielding the permafrost from the moisture from the ocean.
- If sea ice (in the summer) is gone, permafrost start thawing.
Impact on Climate Change
- Due to relentlessly rising temperatures in the region, since the late-twentieth century, the Arctic sea ice and surrounding land ice are melting at accelerating rates.
- When permafrost thaws due to rising temperatures, the microbes in the soil decompose the dead organic matter (plants and animals) to produce methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), both potent greenhouse gases.
- CH4 is at least 80 times more powerful than CO2 on a decadal timescale and around 25 times more powerful on a century timescale.
- The greenhouse gases produced from thawing permafrost will further increase temperatures which will, in turn, lead to more permafrost thawing, forming an unstoppable and irreversible self-reinforcing feedback loop.
- Experts believe this process may have already begun. Giant craters and ponds of water (called ‘thermokarst lakes’) formed due to thawing have been recorded in the Arctic region. Some are so big that they can be seen from space.
Why a matter of concern?
- An estimated 1,700 billion tonnes — twice the amount currently present in the atmosphere — of carbon is locked in all of the world’s permafrost.
- Even if half of that were to be released to the atmosphere, it would be game over for the climate.
- Scientific estimates suggest that the Arctic Ocean could be largely sea ice-free in the summer months by as early as 2030, based on observational trends, or as late as 2050, based on climate model projections.
Potential to cause another pandemic
Ans. Permafrost has many secrets.
- When the permafrost was formed thousands of years ago, there weren’t many humans who lived in that region which was necessarily very cold.
- Researchers recently found mammoths in the permafrost in Russia.
- And some of these mammoth carcasses when they begin to degrade again may reveal bacteria that were frozen thousands of years ago.
- So there will be surprises. But whether they will be lethal surprises is just not possible to say.
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Places in news: Qeqertaq Avannarleq Island
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Qeqertaq Avannarleq
Mains level: Impact of climate change
A group of researchers who went out to collect samples off the coast of Greenland in July found themselves on a tiny, uninhabited and previously unknown island.
Qeqertaq Avannarleq
- Measuring 60×30 metres and with a peak of three metres above sea level, it has now become the new northernmost piece of land on Earth.
- Before this, Oodaaq was marked as the Earth’s northernmost terrain.
- The new island is made up of seabed mud and moraine, i.e. soil, rock and other material left behind by moving glaciers, and has no vegetation.
- The group has suggested the discovery be named ‘Qeqertaq Avannarleq’, which is Greenlandic for “the northernmost island”.
How this island came to existence?
Ans. Undoubtedly, climate change in Greenland
- Global warming has had a severe effect on the ice sheet of Greenland.
- The new island, which was exposed by shifting pack ice, is, however, not a direct consequence of climate change.
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India must commit to net zero emissions
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Net zero emission issue
Mains level: Paper 3- Net zero emission commitment
Context
The United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP26) in November in Glasgow is shaping up to be the most important climate meeting since the Paris Agreement in 2015.
What are net-zero emissions?
Carbon neutrality refers to achieving net-zero carbon dioxide emissions. This can be done by balancing emissions of carbon dioxide with its removal or by eliminating emissions from society.
Increase in pace and scale of climate action
- Over 50% of the global economy is already committed to net zero emissions by 2050.
- Over 100 countries have already committed to net zero emissions by 2050, with more expected at COP26.
- The pace and scale of climate action are only set to increase, with the recent IPCC report unequivocal on the need for urgent and stronger responses.
- It is not only governments that are increasing climate action. The business world is too, not just to protect themselves against the risks of climate change but also to take advantage of the massive opportunities arising as the global economy shifts to net-zero emissions.
Why India should commit to a net-zero target
- National interest due to vulnerability: India itself has a national interest in ambitious global and national climate action.
- It is among the most vulnerable countries to climate change and, therefore, should be among the more active against the threats.
- Influence as a rising power: Second, as a rising power, India naturally seeks stronger influence globally.
- Being an outlier on the global challenge facing our generation does not support this aim.
- Drag on international diplomacy: India’s reluctance to commit to net-zero will become a significant drag on India’s international diplomacy.
- This applies not just to key relationships like with the U.S., but also with much of the Group of 77 (G77) states, who are increasingly concerned to see climate action, and in multilateral groupings such as the United Nations and ASEAN-APEC.
- Interconnected with the economy: There is no longer a trade-off between reducing emissions and economic growth.
- For example, the U.K. has reduced emissions by over 40% and grown its economy by over 70% since 1990.
- Solar energy costs have fallen 90% in recent years, providing the cheapest electricity in India ever seen.
- Also, given the negative impacts, addressing climate change in India’s economic development is now central to success, not an added luxury to consider.
- The transition of the global economy to net zero emissions is the biggest commercial opportunity in history.
- In just the energy sector alone, an estimated $1.6 to $3.8 trillion of investment is required every year until 2050.
India’s climate actions
- India is set to significantly exceed its Paris Agreement commitment of reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33-35% below 2005 levels by 2030.
- Emphasis on renewable: India is impressing the world with its leading roll-out of renewable energy and target for 450GW by 2030, linked to its leadership on the International Solar Alliance and recent national hydrogen strategy.
- Corporates: Indian corporates are also stepping up, with the Tata Group winning awards on sustainability, Mahindra committing to net-zero by 2040, and Reliance by 2035.
- Notwithstanding reasonable arguments about historical responsibility, per capita emissions, and equity, India’s national interests in climate action are now engaged in ways that go significantly beyond waiting for donor support to drive ambition.
The way forward: International cooperation
- The world needs to work together for success in the form of stronger political engagement, policy support in areas of mutual challenge such as energy policy, carbon markets, and economic recovery.
- Practical support and cooperation in areas like renewable energy and integrating it with the national grid, zero-emissions transport, decarbonising hard to abate sectors like steel, cement, and chemicals, and decarbonising agriculture offer significant scope to raise ambition.
- As does working with India on innovative green financing for decarbonizing investment.
Conclusion
India’s tryst with destiny rests in its own remarkable hands, as it always has been. In a land where the earth is called mother, and Mahatma Gandhi, major religions, and the Constitution enshrine environmental care, commitment to net zero emissions by 2050 should almost be foretold.
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Mumbai Climate Action Plan (MCAP)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mumbai Climate Action Plan
Mains level: Sea level rise and threats to coastal cities
The Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) is drafting a Mumbai Climate Action Plan (MCAP) in a bid to tackle climate challenges.
What is the Mumbai Climate Action Plan?
- Amid warnings of climate change leading to extreme weather events in the city, the civic body has started preparing the Mumbai Climate Action Plan (MCAP).
- It will look at climate resilience with mitigation and adaptation strategies by focusing on six areas —
- Sustainable waste management
- Urban greening and Biodiversity
- Urban flooding and Water Resource Management
- Building Energy Efficiency
- Air Quality and
- Sustainable Mobility
- The plan is expected to be ready by November ahead of the United Nations Climate Change (COP26) conference at Glasgow, Scotland.
Why does Mumbai need a climate action plan?
Mumbai’s climate action plan will help set a vision and implement strategies to fight these climate challenges with mitigation and adaptation steps.
- Flash floods: As per a study conducted by the World Resource Institute (WRI) India, the city will face two major climate challenges — the rise in temperature, and extreme rain events which will lead to flooding.
- Temperature rise: The city has seen a constant rise in temperature after 2007, and a substantial increase in intense rainfall and storm events in the last five years.
- Sea level rise: A recent report from the IPCC has warned that at least 12 Indian coastal cities including Mumbai will face a sea rise of 0.1 metres to 0.3 metres in the next three decades due to climate change.
What is the greenhouse gas emission of the city?
- The data show that Mumbai’s greenhouse gas emission was 34.3 million tonnes in 2019, and of which 24.23 million tonnes or 71 per cent came from the energy sector which is mainly based on coal.
- At least 24 per cent or 82,21,902 tonnes is from transport, and the remaining 5 per cent or 18,53,741 tonnes from solid waste management.
- The maximum contribution from the energy sector was mainly due to domestic and commercial usage of electricity.
- As per the data, 95 percent of Mumbai’s electricity is coal-based and needs to be shifted to renewable energy to bring down emissions.
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India &Arctic ocean
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Arctic Council
Mains level: Geopolitics of the Arctic
It is tempting to view the current geopolitics of the Arctic through the lenses of the ‘great power competition’ and inevitable conflict of interests.
Current geopolitical scenario in the Arctic: US-Russia Spat
- It is mainly viewed as the growing tensions between North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) allies and Russia.
- By the end of the Cold War, the geopolitical tensions and security concerns in the Arctic were almost forgotten.
- The perceived ‘harmony’ was broken in 2007, when the Russian explorers planted their flag on the seabed 4,200m (13,779ft) below the North Pole to articulate Moscow’s claims in the Arctic.
- This move was certainly viewed as provocative by other Arctic State.
- The regional tension increased after the Russia-Ukraine conflict in 2014.
- Consequently, relations between the U.S. and Russia reached their lowest point again.
Note: Five Arctic littoral states — Canada, Denmark (Greenland), Norway, Russia and the USA (Alaska) — and three other Arctic nations — Finland, Sweden and Iceland — form the Arctic Council (estd. 1996).
Try mapping them.
Caution: India became an Observer in the Arctic Council for the first time in 2013. And, India isn’t a full-time observer.
China’s vested interests in Arctic
- China, for example, with its self-proclaimed status of a ‘near Arctic state’, has been actively engaged in various projects across the region.
- The importance of the Arctic region for China mostly stems from its energy security issues and the need to diversify shipping lanes.
Why China focuses on Arctic?
- Transport routes from China to Europe through the Arctic are not only much shorter but also free from the challenges associated with the Malacca Strait and South China Sea.
- In the latter case, China will continue facing a backlash from many Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) members, supported by US forces and Quad.
Impact of Climate change on Arctic
- The Arctic is warming nearly twice as fast as the rest of the planet with consecutive record-breaking warm years since 2014.
- The Arctic is likely to begin experiencing ice-free summers within the next decade, with summers likely to be completely free of sea ice by mid-century.
Conclusion
- Given the significance of the region, the Arctic will continue to draw increased attention.
- Hence, countries should refrain from mutual provocations, excessive militarisation, and quid pro quo tactics.
- All Arctic actors should have a long-term vision and strategic goals as compared to immediate short-term gains.
- Instead of creating a potential battleground that is reminiscent of the Cold War, the parties concerned should utilise their expertise and create the required synergy to achieve shared goals.
- Climate change and its dramatic consequences must be a catalyst for Arctic cooperation.
Back2Basics: Arctic Council
- It is an advisory body that promotes cooperation among member nations and indigenous groups as per the Ottawa Declaration of 1996.
- Its focus is on sustainable development and environmental protection of the Arctic.
- The Arctic Council consists of the eight Arctic States: Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark (including Greenland and the Faroe Islands), Finland, Iceland, Norway, Russia, Sweden and the United States.
- In 2013, six Observers joined the Arctic Council, including China, Japan, India, Italy, South Korea, and Singapore, bringing their total number to 13.
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Melting of the Greenland’s Snow Cover
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Greenland
Mains level: Not Much
Recently the summit of Greenland received rain and not snow. This has sparked fear as scientists are pointing to it as evidence that Greenland is warming rapidly.
About Greenland
- Greenland is the world’s largest island located between the Arctic and Atlantic oceans, east of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
- It is an autonomous territory within the Kingdom of Denmark.
- Though physiographically a part of the continent of North America, Greenland has been politically and culturally associated with Europe (specifically Norway and Denmark, the colonial powers).
- The majority of its residents are Inuit, whose ancestors migrated from Alaska through Northern Canada, gradually settling across the island by the 13th century.
- It has three-quarters of its surface covered with a permanent ice sheet, which is increasingly coming under threat because of climate change.
Rain at Greenland: The rarest phenomenon
- At the highest point on Greenland’s ice sheet, the US maintains a Summit Station, a research facility that observes changes occurring over the island as well as in Arctic weather.
- Researchers observed rain at the normally frigid summit, with the precipitation extending up to Greenland’s southeast coast.
- The rain, coupled with warm conditions, caused a major melting event at the summit.
- This led to rapid ice melting running off into the ocean in volumes, thus accelerating global sea-level rise.
A cause of worry
- Greenland, which is two-thirds the size of India, already witnessed one of its most severe melting events.
- It has lost 8.5 billion tons of surface mass in one day– the third such extreme event in the past decade.
- The UN’s “code red” climate report released last week concluded that the burning of fossil fuels led to Greenland melting in the last 20 years.
- The rapid melting is also threatening polar bears, which now have to make their way hundreds of kilometers towards Greenland’s interior from the coasts, where they usually find enough food.
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The message from the IPCC report
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: IPCC
Mains level: Paper 3- What IPCC report seeks to convery
Context
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently released the Working Group I contribution to the Sixth Assessment Report (AR6). It is the first of four that the Panel will issue over the next one and a half years.
What does the report say?
- Global surface temperature is now higher by 1.07oC since the pre-industrial era.
- The impact of climate change on the atmosphere, oceans and land is unmistakably of human origin and this impact is picking up pace.
- Carbon dioxide is the dominant source of warming.
- Aerosols contribute to reducing the impact of warming by other greenhouse gases, by almost a third.
- Methane reduction, while needed overall, is particularly significant only as part of the endgame as the drastic reduction of aerosols actually leads to an increase in warming.
- The report expectedly projects an increase in climate extremes due to global warming, with heatwaves, extreme rainfall events and occurrence of extreme sea levels all expected to intensify and be more frequent.
- A major finding of the report is that air pollution reduction and steep climate change mitigation are not complementary goals but require independent efforts over the short and medium-term
- With the inclusion of the Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology’s Earth System Model among the climate models used in AR6, India too has joined the climate modelling fraternity.
About the net-zero emission targets
- The report’s clear message is that reaching net zero was not the determining factor for the world to limit itself to a 1.5oC , or 2oC, or indeed any specific temperature increase.
- The report is clear that it is the cumulative emissions in reaching net zero that determine the temperature rise.
- India’s Ministry for Environment, Forest and Climate Change was quick to note this point about net zero in a statement, adding that “historical cumulative emissions are the cause of the climate crisis that the world faces today”
- The limitations of the remaining carbon budget for 1.5oC are so stringent — a mere 500 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide for an even chance of keeping to the limit — that they cannot be met by promises of net-zero 30 years from now.
- Equally, the disconcerting finding is that the world is set to cross the 1.5oC limit within 10-15 years.
Implications for India
- India has contributed less than 5% of global cumulative emissions to date, with per capita annual emissions a third of the global average.
- India is also the only nation among the G20 with commitments under the Paris Agreement that are even 2oC warming-compatible.
- India needs its development space urgently to cope with the future, one where global temperature increase may be closer to 2oC.
- Even if India completely stops its emission which is 3 billion tonnes in carbon dioxide equivalent terms, for the next 30 years, with others’ emissions remaining the same, will buy the world less than two years of additional time for meeting the Paris Agreement temperature goals.
Way forward
- Equity: Focusing on definite cumulative emission targets keeping equity and historical responsibility in view,
- Immediate reduction by developed countries: Immediate emission reductions by the developed countries with phase-out dates for all fossil fuels.
- Investment: Massive investment in new technologies and their deployment,
- Climate finance: a serious push to the mobilisation of adequate climate finance is the need of the hour.
Conclusion
This is the message that the IPCC report has sent to this year’s climate summit and the world. The message is a dire warning, all the stakeholders should heed the warning.
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Net-zero emission targets do little to retard carbon grab
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Climate change and climate politics
Context
Earlier this week the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reported on climate science, warning against the folly of a business-as-usual development model.
What does science say about future pathways
- Globally, average surface temperatures have already risen by 1.09°C between 1850-1900 and 2010-2019.
- What happens next depends on our development and technological choices.
- High fossil fuel use path: As per the the IPCC document, if we followed high fossil fuel development (doubling emissions by 2050), temperatures would rise by 4.4°C (range of 3.3-5.7°C) by 2100.
- Sustainable pathways: If a more sustainable pathway were pursued average global temperature rise would be 1.4°C (range of 1.0-1.8°C).
- Regardless, it is likely that the average rise in temperatures will breach the 1.5°C barrier within the next two decades.
- If emissions are not mitigated rapidly, we are staring at rising climate risks and catastrophic impacts.
- Human influence is very likely the main reason behind glacial retreat since the 1990s.
- Since observations began, glaciers have lost the maximum mass during 2010-19.
- Sea level rise: Even with warming restricted to 1.5°C, we are still on course for more than 2 metres of sea-level rise beyond this century.
India’s vulnerability to climate change
- If warming exceeds 4°C, India could see about 40% increase in precipitation annually, leading to extreme rainfall events.
- Three-quarters of India’s districts are now hotspots of extreme weather events.
- Since 1990, more than 300 such events have resulted in damages exceeding INR 5.6 lakh crore.
Changes needed to stabilise temperature rise
- The IPCC says that in order to stabilise rise in temperatures, two things have to happen:
- 1) Anthropogenic emissions must become net-zero.
- 2) In the interim cumulative emissions cannot exceed a global carbon budget.
- Carbon Budget: To stay within the 1.5°C limit, starting in 2020 the remaining global carbon budget is 300-500 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide (GtCO2) (with a likelihood of 50%-83%).
Unjust climate politics and net-zero emission targets
- Of late, several large emitters have promised net-zero emission targets.
- CEEW analysts calculate that despite their self-laudatory targets, China would consume 87% of the global carbon space (if it reached net-zero in 2060) and the US would eat up 26% (if it reached net-zero in 2050).
- Mere announcements of net-zero targets do little to retard the “carbon grab” of the largest emitters.
- Rich countries, as a whole, emitted ~25 gigatonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent (GtCO2eq) more than their estimated emission allowance during 2008-20, thanks to non-participation in pre-2020 climate agreements and misuse of accounting loopholes.
- Climate justice demands that developed countries now take steps to free up carbon space for others.
Way forward for India
- India must adopt a more climate-friendly development pathway for its own sake.
- Its per capita incomes, energy consumption and carbon footprint are well below the global average but it must deliver high rates of economic growth within a shrinking carbon budget.
- Shift discourse to economy: The discourse must shift from energy to the economy.
- There are very few sunrise sectors that are not low-carbon.
- India must tap new technology frontiers (green hydrogen), new business models (distributed and digitalised services, for distributed energy, EV charging, cold chains), new construction materials (low-carbon cement, recycled plastic), new opportunities in the circular economy of minerals, municipal waste and agricultural residue, and new practices for sustainable agriculture and food systems.
- Policy and regulatory support: Many of above technologies and business models are proven but need policy and regulatory support.
Conclusion
The climate crisis is a strategic threat to our development prospects. It deserves sober, continuing analysis, deliberation and action. The headlines look bad; reality will get worse.
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Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)
Mains level: Assessing Climate Change impact
According to the IPCC’s Report (AR6), the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC), is losing its stability.
What is AMOC?
- The AMOC is a large system of ocean currents.
- It is the Atlantic branch of the ocean conveyor belt or Thermohaline circulation (THC), and distributes heat and nutrients throughout the world’s ocean basins.
- AMOC carries warm surface waters from the tropics towards the Northern Hemisphere, where it cools and sinks.
- It then returns to the tropics and then to the South Atlantic as a bottom current. From there it is distributed to all ocean basins via the Antarctic circumpolar current.
- Gulf Stream, a part of the AMOC, is a warm current responsible for mild climate at the Eastern coast of North America as well as Europe.
What happens if AMOC collapses?
- Colder Europe: Without a proper AMOC and Gulf Stream, Europe will be very cold.
- Rainfall decline: Modelling studies have shown that an AMOC shutdown would cool the northern hemisphere and decrease rainfall over Europe.
- El-Nino trigger: It can also have an effect on the El Nino.
- Cooling of Atlantic: AMOC collapse could bring about large, markedly different climate responses: a prominent cooling over the northern North Atlantic and neighboring areas.
- Weaker thermohaline: Freshwater from melting Greenland ice sheets and the Arctic region can make circulation weaker as it is not as dense as salt water and doesn’t sink to the bottom.
Has the AMOC weakened before?
- AMOC and THC strength has always been fluctuating, mainly if you look at the late Pleistocene time period (last 1 million years).
- The extreme glacial stages have seen weaker circulation and slowdown in AMOC, while the glacial terminations have shown a stronger AMOC and circulation.
- AMOC has been relatively stable until the late 19th century.
- With the end of the little ice age in about 1850, the ocean currents began to decline, with a second, more drastic decline following since the mid-20th century.
Why is the AMOC slowing down?
- Climate models have long predicted that global warming can cause a weakening of the major ocean systems of the world.
- Last month researchers noted that a part of the Arctic’s ice called “Last Ice Area” has also melted.
- The freshwater from the melting ice reduces the salinity and density of the water. Now, the water is unable to sink as it used to and weakens the AMOC flow.
Influence of Indian Ocean
- Another study suggested that the Indian Ocean may also be helping the slowing down of AMOC.
- As the Indian Ocean warms faster and faster, it generates additional precipitation.
- With so much precipitation in the Indian Ocean, there will be less precipitation in the Atlantic Ocean, leading to higher salinity in the waters of the tropical portion of the Atlantic.
- This saltier water in the Atlantic, as it comes north via AMOC, will get cold much quicker than usual and sink faster.
- This acts as a jump start for AMOC, intensifying the circulation.
Now try this:
Q.With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct? (CSP 2020)
- OMT is measured up to a depth of 26ºC isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March.
- OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
Post your answers here:
Back2Basics: Ocean Currents
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Net-Zero Concept in Climate Change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Net Zero
Mains level: Global rush for carbon neutrality
Independent charitable organization Oxfam has said that ‘net zero’ carbon targets that many countries have announced maybe a “dangerous distraction” from the priority of cutting carbon emissions.
What does Net-Zero mean?
- Net-zero, which is also referred to as carbon-neutrality, does not mean that a country would bring down its emissions to zero.
- That would be gross-zero, which means reaching a state where there are no emissions at all, a scenario hard to comprehend.
- Therefore, net-zero is a state in which a country’s emissions are compensated by absorption and removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
Achieving net-zero targets
- One way by which carbon can be absorbed is by creating carbon sinks.
- Until recently, the Amazon rainforests in South America, which are the largest tropical forests in the world, were carbon sinks.
- But eastern parts of these forests have started emitting CO2 instead of absorbing carbon emissions as a result of significant deforestation.
What’s the difference between gross zero and net zero?
- Given the impact that carbon emissions have on our planet, you might wonder why we aren’t aiming for zero, or gross zero, rather than net-zero.
- Gross zero would mean stopping all emissions, which isn’t realistically attainable across all sectors of our lives and industry. Even with best efforts to reduce them, there will still be some emissions.
- Net-zero looks at emissions overall, allowing for the removal of any unavoidable emissions, such as those from aviation or manufacturing.
- Removing greenhouse gases could be via nature, as trees take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, or through new technology or changing industrial processes.
What is carbon negativity?
- It is even possible for a country to have negative emissions if the absorption and removal exceed the actual emissions.
- Bhutan has negative emissions because it absorbs more than it emits.
Which countries have recently announced net-zero targets?
- In 2019, the New Zealand government passed the Zero Carbon Act, which committed the country to zero carbon emissions by 2050 or sooner.
- In the same year, the UK’s parliament passed legislation requiring the government to reduce the UK’s net emissions of greenhouse gases by 100 per cent relative to 1990 levels by the year 2050.
- More recently, US announced that the country will cut its greenhouse gas emissions by at least 50 per cent below 2005 levels by 2030.
- The European Union too, has a similar plan, called “Fit for 55”, the European Commission has asked all of its 27 member countries to cut emissions by 55 per cent below 1990 levels by 2030.
- Last year, China also announced that it would become net-zero by the year 2060 and that it would not allow its emissions to peak beyond what they are in 2030.
What does the Oxfam report say?
- “Land-hungry ‘net zero’ schemes could force an 80 per cent rise in global food prices and more hunger while allowing rich nations and corporates to continue “dirty business-as-usual”.
- The report says that if the challenge of change is tackled only by way of planting more trees, then about 1.6 billion hectares of new forests would be required to remove the world’s excess carbon by 2050.
- Currently, countries’ plans to cut emissions will only lead to a one percent reduction by the year 2030.
- Oxfam estimates that it could rise by 80 percent by the year 2050.
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Places in news: Great Barrier Reef
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Great Barrier Reef
Mains level: Coral Reefs and their significance
Chinese official has said that political tensions between Beijing and Australia were not behind a UNESCO recommendation to place the Great Barrier Reef on its endangered list.
Great Barrier Reef
- The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands.
- It is stretched for over 2,300 kilometres over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres.
- The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia.
- It was world heritage listed in 1981 by UNESCO as the most extensive and spectacular coral reef ecosystem on the planet.
Importance of Corals
Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth.
- They support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, including about 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of other species.
- This biodiversity is considered key to finding new medicines for the 21st century.
- Medical use: Many drugs are now being developed from coral reef animals and plants as possible cures for cancer, arthritis, human bacterial infections, viruses, and other diseases.
- Fisheries: Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well as jobs and businesses through tourism and recreation.
- Local economies receive billions of dollars from visitors to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems.
- Coral reef structures also buffer shorelines against 97 per cent of the energy from waves, storms, and floods, helping to prevent loss of life, property damage, and erosion.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Consider the following statements:
- Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
- More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and the Philippines.
- Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
Back2Basisc: Coral Reef
- Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—that are related to anemones and jellyfish.
- Polyps are shallow-water organisms that have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton. The polyps extract calcium salts from seawater to form these hard skeletons.
- The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky seafloor.
- The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky mass collectively called corals.
- When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton on which new polyps grow.
- The cycle is repeated for millions of years leading to the accumulation of layers of corals shallow rock created by these depositions is called a reef.
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Why the Amazon forests are no longer acting as a carbon sink
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Amazon forests
Mains level: Climate Change
The Amazon forests in South America, which are the largest tropical forests in the world, have started emitting carbon dioxide (CO2) instead of absorbing carbon emissions.
Note the countries bordered by the Amazon forests.
Amazon forests
- The Amazon rainforest is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America.
- This basin encompasses 7,000,000 sq km of which 5,500,000 sq km are covered by the rainforest.
- The majority of the forest is contained within Brazil, with 60% of the rainforest, followed by Peru with 13%, Colombia with 10%, and with minor amounts in Bolivia, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela.
- It represents over half of the planet’s remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most biodiverse tract of tropical rainforest in the world.
Why in news?
- A significant amount of deforestation in eastern and southeastern Brazil has turned the forest into a source of CO2 that has the ability to warm the planet.
- Not only the Amazon rainforests, some forests in Southeast Asia have also turned into carbon sources in the last few years as a result of the formation of plantations and fires.
What have the researchers found?
- Over the years as fossil-fuel emissions across the world have increased, the Amazon forests have absorbed CO2 from the atmosphere, helping to moderate the global climate.
- But researchers are not saying that because of significant levels of deforestation (over the course of 40 years) there has been a long-term decrease in rainfall and increase in temperatures during the dry season.
- Because of these reasons the eastern Amazon forests are no longer carbon sinks, whereas the more intact and wetter forests in the central and western parts are neither carbon sinks nor are they emitters.
- Another reason for the eastern region not being able to absorb as much CO2 as it did previously is the conversion of forests into agricultural land.
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Arctic’s ‘Last Ice Area’
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Last Ice Area
Mains level: Climate Change
A part of the Arctic’s ice called the “Last Ice Area”, located north of Greenland, has melted before expected. Scientists had believed this area was strong enough to withstand global warming.
What is the Last Ice Area?
- In an article published in 2015, National Geographic noted that climate projections forecast the total disappearance of summer ice in the Arctic by the year 2040.
- However, the only place that would be able to withstand a warming climate would be this area of ice called the “Last Ice Area”.
- But while this piece of ice above northern Canada and Greenland was expected to last the longest time, it is now showing signs of melting.
- WWF claims that WWF-Canada was the first to call this area the‘ Last Ice Area’.
Why is the area important?
- The area is important because it was thought to be able to help ice-dependent species as ice in the surrounding areas melted away.
- The area is used by polar bears to hunt for seals who use ice to build dens for their offspring.
- Walruses too, use the surface of the ice for food search.
When did the area start changing?
- The first sign of change in LIA was observed in 2018.
- Further, in August last year, sea ice showed its “vulnerability” to the long-term effects of climate change.
- The ice in LIA has been thinning gradually over the years much like other parts of the Arctic Ocean.
What are the reasons that explain the change?
- About 80 per cent of thinning can be attributed to weather-related factors such as winds that break up and move the ice around.
- The remaining 20 per cent can be attributed to the longer-term thinning of the ice due to global warming.
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What is the ‘Heat Dome’ causing record temperatures in USA?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Heat Dome
Mains level: Rising events of heatwave
A US city has recorded the highest temperatures as high as 46-degree Celsius part due to the historic heatwave that lasted as a result of a phenomenon referred to as a “heat dome”.
What is a Heat Dome?
- To understand what causes a heat dome, one should liken the Pacific Ocean to a large swimming pool in which the heater is turned on.
- Once the heater is on, the portions of the pool close to the heating jets will warm up faster and therefore, the temperature in that area will be higher.
- In the same way, the western Pacific ocean’s temperatures have increased in the past few decades and are relatively more than the temperature in the eastern Pacific.
- This strong change in ocean temperature from the west to the east is what a team of scientists believe is the reason for the heat dome.
- This occurs when the atmosphere traps heat at the surface, which encourages the formation of a heatwave.
- To compare, the reason that the planet Venus is the hottest in the Solar System is that its thick, dense cloud cover traps the heat at the surface, leading to temperatures as high as 471 degrees Celsius.
Is this heat wave a result of climate change?
- It cannot be said for sure if the heatwave is a direct result of global warming.
- Scientists are usually wary of linking climate change to any contemporary event mainly because of the difficulty in completely ruling out the possibility of the event having been caused by some other reason.
- Similarly, scientists who have been studying the climate tend to agree that the heat waves occurring today are more likely to be a result of climate change for which humans are responsible.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Consider the following statements:
- Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only.
- Only some cyclones develop an eye.
- The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 100C lesser than that of the surroundings.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
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[pib] Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga River Basin
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glacial Lake Atlas
Mains level: Not Much
The Ministry of Jal Shakti has released the Glacial Lake Atlas of Ganga Basin.
Glacial Lake Atlas
- The atlas is based on the inventoried glacial lakes in part of the Ganga River basin from its origin to the foothills of the Himalayas covering a catchment area of 2,47,109 sq. km.
- The study portion of the Ganga River basin covers part of India and the transboundary region.
- The Atlas is available on National Hydrology Project or NHP-Bhuvan Portal.
- It can be used by water resources professionals, researchers, disaster management authorities and other stakeholders for managing the glacial lakes as well as to mitigate the possible adverse impacts of GLOF and climate change.
Expected utility of the atlas is:
- The atlas provides a comprehensive and systematic glacial lake database for Ganga River basin with size > 0.25 ha
- In the context of climate change impact analysis, the atlas can be used as reference data for carrying out change analysis, both with respect to historical and future time periods
- The atlas also provides authentic database for regular or periodic monitoring changes in spatial extent (expansion/shrinkage), and formation of new lakes
- The atlas can also be used in conjunction with glacier information for their retreat and climate impact studies.
- The information on glacial lakes like their type, hydrological, topographical, and associated glaciers are useful in identifying the potential critical glacial lakes and consequent GLOF risk.
- Central and State Disaster Management Authorities can make use of the atlas for disaster mitigation planning and related program.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Consider the following Pairs :
Glacier: River
- Bandarpunch : Yamuna
- Bara Shigri : Chenab
- Milam : Mandakini
- Siachen : Nubra
- Zemu : Manas
Which of the following pairs given above are correctly matched? (CSP 2019)
(a) 1,2 and 4
(b) 1,3 and 4
(c) 2 and 5
(d) 3 and 5
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Places in news: Yellowstone National Park
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Yellowstone National Park
Mains level: NA
A new assessment of climate change in the Yellowstone National Park shows that it has lost a quarter of its annual snowfall.
Yellowstone National Park
- Yellowstone NP is an American national park located in the western United States, largely in the northwest corner of Wyoming and extending into Montana and Idaho.
- Yellowstone was the first national park in the US and is also widely held to be the first national park in the world.
- The park is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features, especially Old Faithful geyser, one of its most popular.
- While it represents many types of biomes, the subalpine forest is the most abundant. It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion.
- The area also represents the one point where the three major river basins of the western U.S. converge.
- The rivers of the Snake-Columbia basin, Green-Colorado basin, and Missouri River Basin all begin as snow on the Continental Divide as it weaves across Yellowstone’s peaks and plateaus.
Impact of climate change
- Since 1950, average temperatures in the Greater Yellowstone Area have risen 1.3°C and potentially, more importantly, the region has lost a quarter of its annual snowfall.
- The loss of snow there has repercussions for a vast range of ecosystems and wildlife, as well as cities and farms downstream that rely on rivers that start in these mountains.
- It is home to the southernmost range of grizzly bear populations in North America and some of the longest intact wildlife migrations, including the seasonal traverses of elk, pronghorn, mule deer and bison.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Consider the following pairs:
River Flows into
1. Mekong – Andaman Sea
- Thames – Irish Sea
- Volga – Caspian Sea
- Zambezi – Indian Ocean
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (CSP 2020)
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 3 and 4 only
(d) 1,2 and 4 only
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What the G7 message on net-zero emissions means for India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Net-zero emission targets and G-7
The article highlights G-7 countries’ emphasis on adoption of net-zero emission target and its implications for India.
Shifting responsibility to developing countries
- The Cornwall G7 summit sought to re-establish a common purpose among the richest democracies of the world.
- The G7 agreed “collectively” to net-zero GHG emissions by 2050 and called on “all countries, in particular, major emitting economies” to join as part of global efforts.
- And, ODA (official development assistance) has been made contingent on net-zero emissions by 2050 and deep cuts in emissions in the 2020s.
- G7 made an equal effort to shift the responsibility to the large developing countries.
- However, “common and differentiated responsibilities” is the agreed guiding principle for tackling climate change.
- Differentiation underscores the responsibility of the industrialised countries to lead.
India’s climate actions
- India has been a leading stakeholder in climate action and is among the few in the G20 in line to meet their commitments under the Paris Accord.
- It has also taken on a most ambitious target of 450 GW of renewable power by 2030.
- India has shown the world the way forward on solar power with producers now offering ultra-competitive tariffs.
India’s concerns
- Coal was particularly in the eye of the G7 which stressed “that international investments in unabated coal must stop now” .
- India, that continues to rely on coal, could face a crunch in assistance in thermal power.
- BASIC, comprising India, China, Brazil and South Africa, has so far led the efforts of large developing countries in climate negotiations.
- But with possible differences of opinion on net zero, BASIC’s clout in future global negotiations is questionable.
Way forward
- Finance and technology are the key areas where the industrialised West can and must lead.
- The collective developed countries’ commitment of $ 100 billion per year was made in Copenhagen in 2009 and is nowhere near being reached.
- A smallish sum of $2 billion was committed by G7 to accelerating the transition from coal.
- For India, with its huge developmental needs and global high-table aspirations that require carbon and policy spaces, the imperative is strong diplomatic partnerships with large developing economies that have an inherent interest in GREEN-Growth with Renewable Energy, Entrepreneurship and Nature.
Conclusion
India, which has huge developmental needs and global high-table aspirations that require carbon and policy spaces, must protect its interests.
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NatGeo recognizes ‘Southern Ocean’ as globe’s fifth ocean
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Southern Ocean
Mains level: NA
The National Geographic magazine has recognized the ‘Southern Ocean’ as the world’s fifth ocean June 8, 2021 hoping others will soon follow suit.
Answer this PYQ from CSP 2019 in the comment box:
Q.The most important fishing grounds of the world are found in the regions where:
(a) warm and cold atmospheric currents meet
(b) rivers drain out large amounts of freshwater into the sea
(c) warm and cold oceanic currents meet
(d) continental shelf is undulating
Southern Ocean
- The Southern Ocean, also known as the Antarctic Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of the World Ocean, generally taken to be south of 60° S latitude and encircling Antarctica.
- As such, it is regarded as the second-smallest of the five principal oceanic divisions: smaller than the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans but larger than the Arctic Ocean.
- Over the past 30 years, the Southern Ocean has been subject to rapid climate change, which has led to changes in the marine ecosystem.
What has NatGeo attempted?
- The magazine says the Southern Ocean is the only ocean ‘to touch three other oceans and to completely embrace a continent rather than being embraced by them’.
- Its northern limit is a latitude of 60 degrees south.
- It is also defined by its Antarctic Circumpolar Current that was formed 34 million years ago. The current flows from west to east around Antarctica.
- The Southern Ocean is home to large populations of whales, penguins, and seals.
Why such a move?
- Usually, the magazine has followed the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) on marine names, it said in an article notifying the change.
- The IHO too had recognized ‘Southern Ocean’ as a distinct body of water surrounding Antarctica in 1937 but had repealed the same in 1953.
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Glacier melting in Hindu Kush Himalayas
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hindu Kush Himalayas
Mains level: Melting of glaciers
Up to two billion people in southeast Asia can face food and water shortages even as the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) mountain ranges lose up to two-thirds of its ice by 2100, a United Nations-backed research flagged.
Hindu Kush Himalayas
- The HKH region, often referred to as the ‘Third Pole’, is spread over 3,500 square kilometers across eight countries including India, Nepal, and China.
- The range forms the western section of the Hindu Kush Himalayan Region (HKH) and is the westernmost extension of the Pamir Mountains, the Karakoram, and the Himalayas.
- It divides the valley of the Amu Darya (the ancient Oxus) to the north from the Indus River valley to the south.
- It contains the world’s third-largest storage of frozen water after the Antarctica and Arctic.
- Over 240 million people live in the region’s mountains; 1.7 billion live in the river basins downstream, while food grown in these basins reaches three billion people.
Continuous warming
- HKH region continues to warm through 21st century even if the world was able to limit global warming at the agreed 1.5 degrees Celsius.
- Another study published in 2019 on the ice thickness of glaciers had estimated that glaciers in the HKH may contain 27 percent less ice than previously suggested.
- The HKH region lies downwind from some of the most heavily polluted places on Earth. This threatens agriculture, climate as well as monsoon patterns.
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World’s largest iceberg breaks off from Antarctica
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: A-76 Iceberg
Mains level: Impact of climate changes on Cryosphere
A huge ice block has broken off from western Antarctica into the Weddell Sea, becoming the largest iceberg in the world and earning the name A-76.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.On the planet earth, most of the freshwater exists as ice caps and glaciers. Out of the remaining freshwater, the largest proportion:
(a) is found in the atmosphere as moisture and clouds
(b) is found in freshwater lakes and rivers
(c) exists as groundwater
(d) exists as soil moisture
A-76 Iceberg
- A-76 is the latest in a series of large ice blocks to dislodge in a region acutely vulnerable to climate change, although scientists said in this case it appeared to be part of a natural polar cycle.
- The iceberg, measuring around 170 km long and 25 km wide, with an area of 4,320 sq km is now floating in the Weddell Sea.
- Slightly larger than the Spanish island of Majorca, A-76 had been monitored by scientists since it began to separate from the Ronne Ice Shelf.
- It joins the previous world’s largest title holder A-23A — approximately 3,880 sq. km. in size — which has remained in the same area since 1986.
- A-76 was originally spotted by the British Antarctic Survey and the calving — the term used when an iceberg breaks off — was confirmed using images from the Copernicus satellite.
Note: An iceberg is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water.
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Places in news: Leang Sakapao Caves
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Leang Sakapao Caves
Mains level: Not Much
Researchers have reported that Pleistocene-era rock paintings dating back to 45,000-20,000 years ago in cave sites in southern Sulawesi, on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, are weathering at an alarming rate.
Have you ever found the mention of ‘Altamira Caves’ in your NCERTs?
Leang Sakapao Caves
- This cave art of Sulawesi is much older than the prehistoric cave art of Europe.
- The artwork in the area includes what is believed to be the world’s oldest hand stencil (almost 40,000 years ago), created by pressing the hand on a cave wall and spraying wet red-mulberry pigments over it.
- A nearby cave features the world’s oldest depiction of an animal, a warty pig painted on the wall 45,500 years ago.
Impact of climate change
- The artwork made with pigments was decaying due to a process known as haloclasty, which is triggered by the growth of salt crystals due to repeated changes in temperature and humidity.
- This is caused by alternating wet and dry weather in the region.
- Indonesia has also experienced several natural disasters in recent years, which have quickened the process of deterioration.
Note:
Mark all islands of the Indonesian Archipelago in your Atlas.
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Climate change causing a shift in Earth’s axis, finds new study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Polar shift
Mains level: Paper 3- How climate change causing a shift in the Earth's axis of rotation
About the study
- A study is published in Geophysical Research Letters of the American Geophysical Union (AGU).
- The study has added yet another impact of climate change on the earth – marked shifts in the axis along which the Earth rotates.
- It says that due to the significant melting of glaciers because of global temperature rise, our planet’s axis of rotation has been moving more than usual since the 1990s.
How the earth’s axis shifts
- The Earth’s axis of rotation is the line along which it spins around itself as it revolves around the Sun.
- The points on which the axis intersects the planet’s surface are the geographical north and south poles.
- The location of the poles is not fixed, however, as the axis moves due to changes in how the Earth’s mass is distributed around the planet.
- Thus, the poles move when the axis moves, and the movement is called “polar motion”.
- Generally, polar motion is caused by changes in the hydrosphere, atmosphere, oceans, or solid Earth.
- But now, climate change is adding to the degree with which the poles wander.
What the study says
- As per the study, the north pole has shifted in a new eastward direction since the 1990s, because of changes in the hydrosphere (meaning the way in which water is stored on Earth).
- From 1995 to 2020, the average speed of drift was 17 times faster than from 1981 to 1995.
- The faster ice melting under global warming was the most likely cause of the directional change of the polar drift in the 1990s, the study says.
- The other possible causes are terrestrial water storage change in non‐glacial regions due to climate change and unsustainable consumption of groundwater.
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Melting of Glaciers
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Factors contributing to the melting of glaciers
Mains level: Paper 3- Glaciers melting rapidly
Glaciers shrinking faster than before
- A new study by ETH Zurich and University of Toulouse researchers finds that the world’s glaciers are shrinking at a faster rate than before.
- If the trend continues this will put the densely-populated parts of Asia at risk of flood and water shortages.
- The study found the world’s ice fields lost 298 gigatons of ice per year from 2015 to 2019, a 30% increase in the rate of retreat compared with the previous five years.
- Glaciers in Alaska, the Alps and Iceland are among those disappearing at the fastest pace.
- The scientists used images from a special camera aboard NASA’s Terra satellite, which has circled the Earth every 100 minutes since its launch in 1999.
Impact
- The situation in the Himalayas is particularly worrying.
- Swathes of India and Bangladesh could face water stress during dry periods when major rivers like the Ganges and Indus are mainly fed by glacial runoff.
- Glaciers typically accumulate ice in the winter, but a warming climate means summer melting has outstripped those gains and caused a net loss of ice in mountain regions.
- The melting in turn contributes to global warming and indirectly accelerates sea level rise, raising the risk of flooding faced by coastal communities.
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Major oil and gas producers form Net Zero Producers’ Forum
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Net Zero Producers' Forum
Mains level: Paper 3- Net Zero Producers' Forum
About the Net Zero Producers’ forum
- Five of the world’s major oil and gas producers are working together to ‘develop pragmatic net-zero emission strategies’.
- Qatar, the US, Saudi Arabia, Canada and Norway, collectively responsible for 40% of global oil and gas production, will come together to form a cooperative forum that will develop pragmatic net zero-emission strategies.
- Energy producers are faced with unique responsibilities to furnish the world with energy but the climate crisis requires serious leadership and a strong alliance to deliver a path to net-zero.
Strategies and technologies
- The Net Zero Producers’ Forum will consider strategies and technologies which include methane abatement, circular carbon economy approach, development and deployment of clean energy and carbon capture and storage technologies, diversification from reliance on hydrocarbon revenues etc.
Source:
https://www.energy.gov/articles/joint-statement-establishing-net-zero-producers-forum-between-energy-ministries-canada
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Eastern India most vulnerable to climate change, says study
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Vulnerability Index
Mains level: Paper 3- Vulnerability to climate change
About the report
- Published this week, the report on ‘Climate vulnerability assessment for adaptation planning in India using a common framework’ was conducted in 2019-2020 across 29 States.
- It was part of a capacity building programme under the National Mission on Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem and National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change.
- The report was prepared by IISc, IIT-Mandi and IIT-Guwahati.
Major findings
- Along with Chhattisgarh in central India, Jharkhand, Mizoram, Odisha, Assam, Bihar, Arunachal Pradesh, and West Bengal are the eight most vulnerable States.
- These eight most vulnerable States require prioritisation of adaptation interventions.
- Jharkhand, with the highest vulnerability indices VI of 0.674, topped the list of States most vulnerable to climate change.
- The major drivers for the vulnerability of all the States included lack of forest area per 1,000 rural population, lack of crop insurance, marginal and small operational land holding, low density of health workers, low participation of women in the workforce, yield variability of food grains, and a high proportion of the population below the poverty line.
- Tamil Nadu and Kerala are among seven States that are the least vulnerable but there’s more to it meets the eye.
- However, the vulnerability indices (VIs) for these seven States range from the lowest of 0.419 for Maharashtra to 0.468 for Uttarakhand, which is on the higher side.
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Places in news: Thwaites Glacier
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thwaites Glacier
Mains level: Glacial melting and sea level rise
The melting of Antarctica’s Thwaites Glacier – also called the “Doomsday Glacier”– has long been a cause of concern because of its high potential of speeding up the global sea-level rise happening due to climate change.
Thwaites Glacier
- Called the Thwaites Glacier, it is 120 km wide at its broadest, fast-moving, and melting fast over the years.
- Because of its size (1.9 lakh square km), it contains enough water to raise the world sea level by more than half a meter.
- Studies have found the amount of ice flowing out of it has nearly doubled over the past 30 years.
- Thwaites’s melting already contributes 4% to global sea-level rise each year. It is estimated that it would collapse into the sea in 200-900 years.
- Thwaites is important for Antarctica as it slows the ice behind it from freely flowing into the ocean. Because of the risk it faces — and poses — Thwaites is often called the Doomsday Glacier.
What have previous studies said?
- A 2019 study by New York University had discovered a fast-growing cavity in the glacier. Then last year, researchers detected warm water at a vital point below the glacier.
- The study reported water at just two degrees above freezing point at Thwaites’s “grounding zone” or “grounding line”.
- The grounding line is the place below a glacier at which the ice transitions between resting fully on bedrock and floating on the ocean as an ice shelf.
- The location of the line is a pointer to the rate of retreat of a glacier.
- When glaciers melt and lose weight, they float off the land where they used to be situated. When this happens, the grounding line retreats.
- That exposes more of a glacier’s underside to seawater, increasing the melting rate resulting in the glacier speeding up, stretching out, and thinning, causing the grounding line to retreat ever further.
What has the new study revealed?
- The recent Gothenburg study used an uncrewed submarine to go under the Thwaites glacier front to make observations.
- The submersible called “Ran” measured among other things the strength, temperature, salinity and oxygen content of the ocean currents that go under the glacier.
- There is a deep connection to the east through which deepwater flows from Pine Island Bay, a connection that was previously thought to be blocked by an underwater ridge.
Why this is a cause of worry?
- The warm water is approaching the pinning points of the glacier from all sides, impacting these locations where the ice is connected to the seabed and where the ice sheet finds stability.
- This has the potential to make things worse for Thwaites, whose ice shelf is already retreating.
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Early bud-break genes and climate change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Genetics and climate change
Mains level: Impacts of climate change on plant dynamics
Changing climate has transformed the time spring unfolds in front of us.
Early bud-break
- Bud-break — which is when trees leaf out — has undergone a change.
- Several trees initiate bud-break too early or too late, which affects the harvest.
- Spring, for example, arrived earlier than usual in Kashmir this year due to higher temperatures in February and March.
- Gul-tour, a spring-flowering herb started blooming in mid-February in Kashmir. Its yellow flowers would usually blossom in March, heralding Spring.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Other than resistance to pests, what are the prospects for which genetically engineered plants have been created?
- To enable them to withstand drought
- To increase the nutritive value of the produce
- To enable them to grow and do photosynthesis in spaceships and space stations
- To increase their shelf life
Select the correct answer using the code given below
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Answer: (d)
What causes early bud-break?
- This is why understanding the genetics of bud-break helps scientists modify or select crop varieties that can be more resilient to the climate threat.
- The properties of transcription factors are genes that regulate other genes by binding to deoxyribonucleic acid and giving activation instructions.
- It helps scientists determine what other genes might be involved in a process such as a bud-break.
EBB genes
- Researchers of the study had earlier identified transcription factors for early bud-break 1 (EBB1) and short vegetative phase (SVL), which directly interact to control bud-break.
- EBB1 is a positive regulator of bud-break, whereas SVL is a negative regulator of bud-break.
- Now, the research team has identified and characterized the early bud-break 3 (EBB3) gene.
Identified mechanism of Bud-break
- EBB3 is a temperature-responsive, positive regulator of bud-break that provides a direct link to activation of the cell cycle during bud-break.
- EBB3 provides a direct link through the signalling pathway for how these cells divide.
- The analysis reveals how particular genes activate through the season or in response to specific environmental factors.
Significance of the study
- New approaches for accelerated tree adaptation to climate change helps ensure bud-break happens at the right time each spring.
- Using their understanding of the genetic pathways that control bud-break, scientists hope to genetically modify crops to adapt to warmer winters and unpredictable frosts.
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Climate and consciousness
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Need to galvanise climate action
Two recent events: floods in Uttarakhand and Texas cold snap serves as reminders of the devastation climate change could unleash. What we need is climate action. The article deals with this issue.
Fingerprints of global warming in Uttarakhand floods and Texas cold snap
- The melting of the Himalayan glaciers that prompted the floods and landslides in Uttarakhand have the fingerprints of global warming.
- The United States has already witnessed many deadly avalanches since the beginning of 2021.
- Furthermore, as glacier cover is replaced by water or land, the amount of light reflected decreases, aggravating warming.
- The extreme cold weather in Texas, like the double-digit negative temperatures seen in Germany earlier this year, is connected to Arctic-peninsula warming, at a rate almost twice the global average.
Global warming causing the movement of cold air
- Usually, there is a collection of winds around the Arctic keeping the cold locked far to the north.
- But global warming has caused gaps in these protective winds, allowing intensely cold air to move south — a phenomenon that is accelerating.
India needs to announce carbon neutrality target
- When the public connects cause and effect, responses are usually swift.
- Global warming is still seen as a danger that lies over the horizon.
- For India, the third-largest carbon emitter after China and the United States, a decisive switch is needed from highly polluting coal and petroleum to cleaner and renewable power sources.
- China has announced carbon neutrality by 2060, Japan and South Korea by 2050, but India is yet to announce a target.
- HSBC ranks India at the top among 67 nations in climate vulnerability (2018), Germanwatch ranks India fifth among 181 nations in terms of climate risks (2020).
- But public spending does not reflect these perils.
Including policies for climate mitigation in the Budget
- A vital step should be explicitly including policies for climate mitigation in the government budget.
- Growth targets should include timelines for switching to cleaner energy.
- The government needs to launch a major campaign to mobilise climate finance.
- India’s Central and State governments must increase allocations for risk reduction, such as better defences against floods, or agricultural innovations to withstand droughts.
Neglect of warnings and lack of policy response
- The Uttarakhand government and the Centre have been diluting, instead of strengthening, climate safeguards for hydroelectric and road projects.
- Studies had flagged ice loss across the Himalayas, and the dangers to densely populated catchments, but policy response has been lacking.
- Similarly, Kerala ignored a landmark study calling for regulation of mining, quarrying and dam construction in ecologically sensitive places, which contributed to the massive floods and landslides in 2018 and 2019.
Consider the question ” Frequent occurrences of the extreme weather events serve as the warning for more climate actions, yet there is a lack of policy actions. In light of this, suggest the measures India should take.”
Conclusion
Events like Uttarakhand and Texas should be treated as lessons to change people’s minds and for the public to demand urgent action.
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Lessons from Uttarakhand and Texas
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Road to decarbonisation
The article deals with the common threads running through the recent flash floods in Uttarakhand and the severe cold that snapped the power grid in Texas.
Time-bound net zero carbon target
- Most governments and corporates are in agreement over what needs to be done to reach the target of net-zero carbon emission target. Which include:
- Fossil fuels must be steadily but inexorably replaced by clean energy electricity should be increasingly generated from solar and wind.
- Transport should switch from internal combustion engines to electric vehicles.
- Energy demand should be conserved and more efficiently consumed.
- Technology and innovation must remain the centrepiece of all activities.
- Governments and corporates have also to agree on removing the legacy obstacles that lie on the pathway.
3 Legacy obstacles need to be removed
- Two events last month will explain better the reasons for this concern.
- A chunk of the Nanda Devi broke off and triggered flash floods downstream that then washed away or damaged several hydroelectric dams and led to the loss of hundreds of lives
- A severe cold snap crashed the electricity grid system in Texas, plunging a wide swathe of the state into darkness.
- These two events were unrelated, other than possibly by the link of climate change, but on examination of the reasons for the consequential material and human misery, they offer common insight.
1) Poorly designed planing system
- In both cases, the authorities were caught unprepared. This is despite the fact that there had been precedents.
- One reason for this lack of preparedness could be the presumption, based on historical data.
- The lesson is that whilst the past is a useful guidepost, it is an imperfect one especially in view of the spate of natural disasters across the world in recent times, and that planners should be cautious about linear extrapolations.
- Certainly, for the journey of decarbonisation, there is little of the distant past for them to hang onto.
2) Siloed and fragmented physical and regulatory oversight mechanisms
- The tragedy in Uttarakhand reflected the costs of institutional fragmentation and lack of coordination in decision making.
- The suggestions made in the aftermath of the Kedarnath flooding regarding land use and watershed management and the best means of securing an optimal balance between construction and the Himalayan ecology.
- But the suggestion had not been implemented in large part because energy is a concurrent subject and there is no one ministerial or regulatory body responsible for this domain.
- Further, these recommendations required the coming together of various non-energy ministries which, given the current vertically siloed structures of responsibility and accountability in our system, did not happen.
- The glacial burst may have been beyond anyone’s control; the consequential downstream damage was avoidable.
3) The lack of investment in energy infrastructure
- One reason why solar and wind did not pick up the power slack in Texas was because the grid was not resilient enough to absorb the surge in the flow of intermittent renewable electrons.
- India’s transmission system is not capable of managing the energy transition.
- This problem will clearly have to be addressed if decarbonisation is to proceed smoothly.
- But to do so, many issues will have to be resolved.
- Not least, how much will it cost to upgrade the infrastructure? How will it be financed?
- Who will take the lead on driving this change e?
- Questions that are easier to set out than answer.
Way forward
- To ensure that decarbonisation translates into effective action on the ground, policymakers will have to build structures that reflect the woven, multidimensional, interdependent and interconnected nature of the energy ecosystem.
- This means creating mechanisms that facilitate inter-ministerial and inter-state collaboration within the country and multilateral cooperation internationally.
Consider the question “There are legacy obstacles in the road to decarbonisation. What are these obstacles and suggest the pathway to remove these obstacles?”
Conclusion
In order to achieve the targets on carbon emission, India needs to draw on these lessons and build robust systems, regulatory mechanisms and facilitate investment in the creation of resilient energy infrastructure.
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Places in news: Lake Chad
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lake Chad
Mains level: Shrinking water bodies due to Global Warming
One of Africa’s largest freshwater bodies, Lake Chad, has shrunk by 90 per cent.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2018:
Q.Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?
- Aral Sea
- Black Sea
- Lake Baikal
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3
(c) 2 only
(d) 1 and 3
Lake Chad
- Lake Chad in the Sahel spans the countries of Nigeria, Niger, Chad and Cameroon and is home to 17.4 million people.
- It is blessed with rich aquatic and terrestrial biodiversity.
- The Chari River, fed by its tributary the Logone, provides over 90% of the lake’s water, with a small amount coming from the Yobe River in Nigeria/Niger.
- Despite high levels of evaporation, the lake is freshwater.
- The Lake Chad basin comprises biosphere reserves, World Heritage and Ramsar sites as well as wetlands of international conservation importance.
Why it is significant?
- For years, the lake has been supporting drinking water, irrigation, fishing, livestock and economic activity for over 30 million people in the region.
- It is vital for indigenous, pastoral and farming communities in one of the world’s poorest countries.
- However, climate change has fuelled a massive environmental and humanitarian crisis.
- The United Nations has termed the Lake Chad crisis as “one of the worst in the world”.
A looming peril
- The lake has shrunk 90 per cent over the last 60 years since the chronic droughts surged at the beginning of the 1970s.
- The surface area of the lake was 26,000 square kilometres in 1963; it has now reduced to less than 1,500 square kilometres.
- Its population is exploding and the region has been ripped apart from conflict at an unprecedented scale.
Behind all crises
- The ever-changing climate has dramatically worsened the situation, amplifying food and nutritional insecurity in the region.
- Temperature is rising one-and-a-half times faster than the global average. The seasonal and inter-rainfall patterns have been drastically changing each year.
- This has triggered food insecurity, ultimately pushing communities into the arms of terrorist groups.
- Boko Haram is one of the top insurgent groups with a strong foothold in the region.
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Carbon Watch: India’s first app to assess one’s carbon footprint
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon footprints, Ecological footprints
Mains level: Not Much
Chandigarh became the first state or UT in India to launch Carbon Watch, a mobile application to assess the carbon footprint of an individual.
Carbon Footprint
- A carbon footprint is the total greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions caused by an individual, event, organization, service, or product, expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent.
- It corresponds to the whole amount of greenhouse gases (GHG) produced to, directly and indirectly; support a person’s lifestyle and activities.
- Carbon footprints are usually measured in equivalent tons of CO2, during the period of a year, and they can be associated with an individual, an organization, a product or an event, among others.
- The GHGs whose sum results in a carbon footprint can come from the production and consumption of fossil fuels, food, manufactured goods, materials, roads or transportation.
Note: An ecological footprint, as explained earlier compares the total resources people consume with the land and water area that is needed to replace those resources. A carbon footprint also deals with resource usage but focuses strictly on the greenhouse gases released due to burning of fossil fuels.
How does the app Carbon Watch work?
- As a person downloads the application, they will need to fill details in four parts — Water, Energy, Waste Generation and Transport (Vehicular movement).
- In the category of Water, the person will be required to inform about the consumption of water.
- In the Energy category, the details regarding the electricity units consumed every month at the house, monthly bill etc and usage of solar energy will have to be furnished.
- In the Waste category, the individual will need to inform about the waste generated on their part and their family.
- In the transport section, the individual will have to inform about the mode of transport used by four-wheeler, two-wheeler or bicycle.
Try this PYQ:
As a result of their annual survey, the National Geographic Society and an international polling firm GlobeScan gave India top rank in Greendex 2009 score. What is this score?
(a) It is a measure of efforts made by different countries in adopting technologies for reducing the carbon footprint
(b) It is a measure of environmentally sustainable consumer behavior in different countries
(c) It is an assessment of programs/schemes undertaken by different countries for improving the conservation of natural resources
(d) It is an index showing the volume of carbon credits sold by different countries
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India Inc must follow global example, take affirmative action on climate change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Making businesses recognise their carbon footprint
The article explains the global trend in investors and lendors are demanding companies to recognise their impact on environment and act on it.
Accountability on climate change: global trend
- There is a wave of investors pushing large corporations from across sectors, to recognise their carbon footprint and take affirmative action.
- Aviva, the British insurance company announced it would divest stock and bond holdings in 30 of the biggest corporate emitters of carbon, if their boards failed to take affirmative action over climate change.
- MPs in the United Kingdom called on the Bank of England to ratchet up environment standards in its pandemic stabilising, corporate bond programme.
- Swedbank AB, Sweden’s biggest mortgage bank, has taken a decision not to provide fresh loans to new oil and gas projects.
Companies realising social and environmental impacts
- Several large and growing companies, especially in Europe, are realising their social and environmental impacts and making it a boardroom agenda even without investor guns on their heads.
- Schneider Electric, the energy management and automation company, has embedded environmental, social and governance (ESG) considerations into every facet of its activities.
- The company climbed from 29th to number 1 rank in the 2021 Global 100 ranking in the Corporate Knights index of the world’s most sustainable companies.
- Only one company from India, Tech Mahindra, has made it to the world’s 100 most sustainable list.
Indian scenario
- Indian institutional lenders and investors are simply not demanding enough on sustainability.
- A majority of Indian companies are only meeting compliance norms set out by various state or city authorities.
- Rarely do they go beyond rule-based compliances and implement environment, social and governance or ESG goals with purpose and passion like their European counterparts.
Way forward
- SEBI is putting the final touches on the Business Responsibility and Environment Reporting (BRSR) guidelines.
- The new ESG reporting norm will apply to the top 1,000 listed companies on Indian exchanges.
- Under BRSR reporting guidelines, companies will have to declare their R&D spends on improving environmental and social outcomes.
- They will have to disclose energy and water consumed to turnover ratios, and the percentage of recycled or reused input materials, among many other social and governance disclosures such as CSR, employee skilling and gender diversity.
- It’s time for lending institutions and investors to align with SEBI and use their muscle to drive a deeper change.
Consider the question “Indian institutional lenders and investors are not demanding enough on sustainability from the companies. Rarely do they go beyond rule-based compliances and implement environment, social and governance or ESG goals with purpose and passion like their European counterparts. In light of this, suggest the measures to nudge the businesseses to act on their environmental responsibilities.”
Conclusion
Stepping up green standards to meet Paris Climate Agreement goals cannot be the government’s responsibility alone. Businesses must be part of the movement, or the target of containing global warming to less than 1.5 degrees of pre-industrial levels, will remain elusive.
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Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in Uttarakhand
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: GLOF
Mains level: Climate change impact
A massive glacier burst at Chamoli in Uttarakhand yet again bringing back our focus to the dangers of climate change.
A wake-up call!
Uttarakhand is often at the heart of various Himalayan disasters such as flash floods, cloud bursts, avalanches and earthquakes.
The Chamoli incident signifies the dawn of ugly faces of climate disaster for which the mankind is clueless. At last, someone has to be blamed, isn’t it?
What is the news?
- Experts are uncertain about what caused the massive glacier burst at Chamoli in Uttarakhand.
- It is unclear whether there was an avalanche in the area recently or whether the lake breach was the result of construction, anthropological activities, climate change etc.
What is GLOF?
- A GLOF is a type of outburst flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial lake fails.
- An event similar to a GLOF, where a body of water contained by a glacier melts or overflows the glacier, is called a jökulhlaup.
- The dam can consist of glacier ice or a terminal moraine.
- Failure can happen due to various factors such as:
- Erosion, a buildup of water pressure
- Avalanche of rock or heavy snow
- Earthquake or volcanic eruptions under the ice or
- Displacement of water in a glacial lake when a large portion of an adjacent glacier collapses into it
Possible causes for Chamoli
Avalanche
- An avalanche is falling masses of snow and ice which gathers pace as it comes down the slope.
- But an avalanche is unlikely to result in the rise of water of that magnitude what Chamoli witnessed.
Cloudburst
- What happened in Uttarakhand in 2013 was a multi-day cloudburst.
- It is a sudden, very heavy rainfall accompanies by a thunderstorm. But it generally happens in monsoon.
- In fact, the season in which such a disaster was witnessed has surprised experts as there is no immediate trigger that can be pointed to as the reason why water level rose to that level washing away two hydro projects.
Why always Uttarakhand?
- Human activities profoundly affect the earth’s climate and mountains are a sensitive indicator of that effect.
- The mountain ecosystem is easily disrupted by variations in climate owing to their altitude, slope and orientation to the sun.
- As the earth heats up, mountains glaciers melt at unprecedented rates.
- Several scientists believe that the change occurring in the mountain ecosystems may provide an early glimpse of what could come to pass in a lowland environment.
Conclusion
- The current policy of the government of pursuing hydro-power projects indiscriminately cannot be ignored.
- The entire State of Uttarakhand is categorised as falling in Zone-IV and V of the earthquake risk map of India.
- The potential of the cumulative effect of multiple such projects has turned out to be more environmentally damaging than sustainable.
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Global Climate Risk Index 2021
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Climate Risk Index 2021
Mains level: Climate change vulnerability and the economics behind
India was ranked the seventh worst-hit country in 2019 in the Global Climate Risk Index 2021.
The report holds much significance for prelims as well as mains. Just for the sake of information, we must be aware of India’s performance.
Global Climate Risk Index
- The GCRI is released annually by the environmental think tank and sustainable development lobbyist Germanwatch.
- It analyses to what extent countries have been affected by the impacts of weather-related loss events (storms, floods, heat waves etc.).
- It pushes for the need to support developing countries in coping with the effects of climate change.
Highlights of the 2020 year
Global prospects
- Mozambique, Zimbabwe and The Bahamas were the worst-affected countries in 2019.
- While hurricane Dorian ravaged The Bahamas; Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Malawi were affected by the single extreme weather event of cyclone Idai.
- Japan and Afghanistan were the other countries that fared worse than India on the Index, while South Sudan, Niger and Bolivia fared better in comparison but still made it to the top 10 worst-affected countries.
The burden of development
- Eight of the 10 countries most affected between 2000 and 2019 were developing countries with low or lower middle income per capita.
- Vulnerable people in developing countries suffered most from extreme weather events like storms, floods and heatwaves, whereas the impact of climate change was visible around the globe.
- Poorer countries are hit hardest because they are more vulnerable to the damaging effects of a hazard and have the lower coping capacity.
Data about India
- According to the Index floods caused by heavy rain in 2019 took 1,800 lives across 14 states in India and displaced 1.8 million people.
- Overall, the intense monsoon season affected 11.8 million people, with the economic damage estimated to be $10 billion (Rs.72,900 crore at $1=INR 72.9).
- A total of eight tropical cyclones meant that 2019 was one of the most active Northern Indian Ocean cyclone seasons on record. Six of them intensified to become “very severe”.
- The worst was Cyclone Fani in May 2019 which affected a total of 28 million people, killing nearly 90 people in India and Bangladesh, and causing economic losses of $8.1 billion (Rs.59,066 crore).
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UN Adaptation Gap Report, 2020
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Adaptation Cost
Mains level: Progress of global climate action
The United Nations Adaptation Gap Report, 2020 was recently released by the UNEP.
Must read edition: Five years of Paris Agreement
UN Adaptation Gap Report
- UN Environment Programme (UNEP) has managed the production of UN Environment’s Adaptation Gap Report series since its first edition in 2014.
- The aim of the reports is to inform national and international efforts to advance climate change adaptation.
Behind the concept: Adaptation Cost
- Adaptation Cost includes costs of planning, preparing for, facilitating and implementing the climate change adaptation measures.
- It thus derives benefits as the avoided damage costs or the accrued benefits following the adoption and implementation of adaptation measures.
Highlights of the 2020 report
- The annual cost of adaptation to the effects of climate change for developing countries is estimated to at least quadruple by 2050, according to the United Nations Adaptation Gap Report, 2020.
- The current cost for developing countries is in the range of $70 billion (Rs 5.1 lakh crore) and may rise to $140-300 billion in 2030 and $280-500 billion in 2050.
Funding gaps
- The ever-increasing adaptation cost has also outpaced the growth in adaptation finance that refers to the flow of funds to developing countries to help them tide over the damages caused by climate change.
- This, in turn, has kept the adaptation finance gap from closing with the current efforts, although the fund flow has increased, the report said.
- Adaptation costs, in actual terms, are higher in developed countries but the burden of adaptation is greater for developing countries in relation to their gross domestic product.
- These countries, especially in Africa and Asia, which are least equipped to tackle climate change will also, be the most impacted by it, the report noted.
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Why insects are crucial for ecological balance?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Insects as bioindicators
Mains level: Not Much
This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the DownToEarth. It talks about the ecological importance of insects.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following:
- Birds
- Dust blowing
- Rain
- Wind blowing
Which of the above spread plant diseases?
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 3 and 4 only
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Various threats to insects
- Insects are increasingly susceptible to extinction due to increasing climate crisis.
- They form the basal part of the food pyramid and impact our agriculture ecosystems as well as human health.
- Their extinction can have a cascading effect on the upper levels of the food pyramid.
- Rampant and indiscriminate use of chemicals in commercial agricultural practices, mainly monocropping systems, has been taking a toll on insects in the vicinity of farmlands and plantations.
- While everyone is talking about sustainability in agriculture, the role of insects has largely been ignored.
A few common insects whose existence is taken for granted and their ecological relevance are:
(1) Butterflies
- They are important pollinators like bees.
- Species diversity and density of butterfly indicate a good diversity of plants in an area. Several types of butterflies have specific host plants.
- Climate change, forest degradation, habitat loss, unavailability of hosts and nectar plant species are among major reasons for a decline in butterfly population.
- This leads to loss of plants species that depend on the butterflies for pollination.
- Backyard gardening and growing host plants in public spaces are important strategies to conserve butterfly species.
(2) Dragonflies
- They are one of the most widely recognised insects, need clean aquatic systems and are hence a good indicator of the health of local aquatic systems.
- These, along with damselflies, are well-known biological predators with both larvae and adults acting as natural bio-control agents.
- They are highly sensitive to changes in their habitats and are declining due to increasing habitat loss, anthropogenic activities, pollutants, climate change and rapid urbanisation.
- For their conservation, use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides has to be prohibited or minimized in agriculture systems.
(3) Grasshoppers
- They feed on different plants and can cause serious damage to economic crops.
- However, in a biodiversity-rich region, they are an important component of the food chain, being an important food source for many birds.
- Grasshoppers and insects such as crickets are often consumed by people as they are rich in protein.
(4) Ants
- They are in the most abundance. Ants act as scavengers/decomposers by feeding on organic wastes and other dead animals.
- Ants also aerate the soil.
- Heavy use of chemicals in agriculture causes harm to ants.
(5) Wild honey bees
- They play a major role in the pollination of forest species affecting cross-pollination and maintenance of variability within species.
- Wild honey is also a food source for humans and many wild animals.
- When forest covers are lost, wild bees tend to migrate to newer areas where they may or may not adapt.
- With the possibility of commercial apiaries, wild bees need to be left alone and honey tapping from wild hives discouraged.
- This can help sustain the natural processed of pollination among forest species and maintain diversity in plants conventionally propagated through seeds.
(6) Rainbow leaf beetles
- They are found in forests, woodlands and mountain grasslands.
- They mostly depend on leaves and flowers of some specific plant family like Apocynaceae.
- These are listed as endangered species in International Union for Conservation of Nature from 1994.
- The species is also known to be poisonous to its predators for they feed on dogbane that contains poisonous cardenolides.
(7) Fireflies
- They are a good indicator of a healthy environment, especially a good aquatic system. They avoid regions with chemical toxicity.
- They are good pollinators and natural pest control agents in several ecosystems.
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Antarctic Ozone Hole — one of the largest, deepest — closes
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ozone Hole
Mains level: Climate change impact
The Antarctic ozone hole — one of the deepest, largest gap in the ozone layer in the last 40 years — has closed, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following statements:
Chlorofluorocarbons, known as ozone-depleting substances are used:
- In the production of plastic foams
- In the production of tubeless tyres
- In cleaning certain electronic components
- As pressurizing agents in aerosol cans
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 4 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Antarctic Ozone Hole
- The Antarctic “ozone hole” was discovered by British Antarctic Survey scientists Farman, Gardiner and Shanklin in 1985.
- It came as a shock to the scientific community because the observed decline in polar ozone was far larger than anyone had anticipated.
- It was caused by the chemical reactions on polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) in the cold Antarctic stratosphere caused a massive.
- Though localized and seasonal, an increase in the amount of chlorine present in active, ozone-destroying forms.
Role of PSCs
- The polar stratospheric clouds in Antarctica are only formed when there are very low temperatures, as low as −80 °C, and early spring conditions.
- In such conditions, the ice crystals of the cloud provide a suitable surface for the conversion of unreactive chlorine compounds into reactive chlorine compounds, which can deplete ozone easily.
An annual process
- An ozone hole is the thinning of the ozone layer boosted in size by colder temperatures.
- The formation of the ozone hole in the Antarctic has been an annual occurrence and has been recorded for the last 40 years.
- Human-made chemicals migrate into the stratosphere and accumulate inside the polar vortex. It begins to shrink in size as warmer temperatures dominate.
- As the temperatures high up in the stratosphere start to rise, ozone depletion slows, the polar vortex weakens and breaks down.
- By the end of December, ozone levels return to normal.
The hole closes after achieving peak
- The annually occurring ozone hole over the Antarctic had rapidly grown from mid-August and peaked at around 24 million square kilometres — one of the largest so far — in early October 2020.
- The expansion of the hole was driven by a strong, stable and cold polar vortex and very cold temperatures in the stratosphere.
- The same meteorological factors also contributed to the record 2020 Arctic ozone hole, which has also closed.
Note: A polar vortex is a wide expanse of swirling cold air, a low-pressure area, in Polar Regions. During winters, the polar vortex at the North Pole expands, sending cold air southward.
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Places in news: Sea of Galilee
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sea of Galilee
Mains level: Not Much
The Sea of Galilee, well-known in Jewish, Christian, and Islamic lore, has swelled up due to recent rains, according to reports in the Israeli media.
Do you know?
The Sea of Galilee Lake Tiberias, Kinneret or Kinnereth is a freshwater lake in Israel. It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth and the second-lowest lake in the world (after the Dead Sea, a saltwater lake).
Sea of Galilee
- The lake lies in northern Israel, between the occupied Golan Heights and the Galilee region. It is fed by underground springs but its major source is the Jordan River.
- The lake has risen to 209.905 meters below sea level due to heavy rainfall in the surrounding areas.
- The Jordan flows into the lake and then exits it before ending in the Dead Sea, the saltiest and the lowest point on the planet.
- Water is not extracted from the Sea of Galilee. But it is considered to be an important barometer of the water situation in Israel.
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A-68s: Largest floating Iceberg
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Icebergs
Mains level: Impact of climate changes on Cryosphere
A research mission is held to find out the impact of a giant floating iceberg A-68s on the wildlife and marine life on a sub-Antarctic island.
Q. How does the cryosphere affect global climate? (CSM 2017)
What are Icebergs?
- An iceberg is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open (salt) water.
- Small bits of disintegrating icebergs are called “growlers” or “bergy bits”.
- Much of an iceberg is below the surface which led to the expression “tip of the iceberg” to illustrate a small part of a larger unseen issue.
- Icebergs are considered a serious maritime hazard, especially for shipping industries.
A-68s
- The iceberg — named A-68s — is travelling at varying speeds depending on local conditions, but at its fastest was travelling about 20 kilometres a day.
- The huge iceberg — the size of the U.S. state of Delaware — has been floating north since it broke away from Antarctica’s Larsen C ice shelf in 2017.
- It is now about 75 kilometres from the island of South Georgia, and scientists are concerned over the risks it poses to the wildlife in the area if it grounds near the island.
- South Georgia is home to colonies of tens of thousands of penguins and 6 million fur seals, which could be threatened by the iceberg during their breeding season.
- The waters near the island are also one of the world’s largest marine protected areas and house more marine species than the Galapagos.
- Destruction by the iceberg will release this stored carbon back into the water and, potentially, the atmosphere, which would be a further negative impact.
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Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2020
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI)
Mains level: India's committment for climate action
India ranked high along with the European Union and the United Kingdom in the latest edition of the Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI) 2020 released by non-profit Germanwatch.
It’s a very rare feat that India has performed so better in any climate-related index. We can use this data to highlight India’s dedicated efforts for Paris Agreement.
Climate Change Performance Index (CCPI)
- The CCPI is an independent monitoring tool for tracking countries’ climate protection performance. It has been published annually since 2005.
- It evaluates 57 countries and the European Union, which together generate 90%+ of global greenhouse gas emissions.
- Using standardised criteria, the CCPI looks at four categories, with 14 indicators: Greenhouse Gas Emissions (40% of the overall score), Renewable Energy (20%), Energy Use (20%), and Climate Policy (20%).
- The CCPI’s unique climate policy section evaluates countries’ progress in implementing policies working towards achieving the Paris Agreement goals.
Global scenario
- No country was doing enough to meet the goals of the 2015 Paris Agreement, according to the index.
- Six G20 countries were ranked among very low performers. The United States, with a rank of 61, was the worst performer.
India’s performance
- India, for the second time in a row, continued to remain in the top 10. The country scored 63.98 points out of 100.
- It received high ratings on all CCPI indicators except ‘renewable energy’, where it was categorised as having a ‘medium’ performance.
- Last year, India had been ranked at the ninth position, with an overall score of 66.02.
- India needed to focus more on renewable energy, both, as a mitigation strategy and for its post-novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) green recovery, the report said.
Renewable energy
- No country was rated very high on indicators defining the ‘renewable energy’ category.
- India has been ranked at 27th out of 57 countries under the category this time. Last year, it was ranked at 26th.
- India’s performance has been rated as ‘medium’ for its current share of renewable energy. Its performance for the development of renewable energy supply during the last year was rated as ‘high’.
A positive sign for India
- India’s improved policy framework has been responsible for the country’s good performance in this global index. However, the report underlined the need for long-term planning.
- Unlike the other two ‘BASIC’ countries of China and South Africa, India is yet to announce its mitigation strategy.
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Species in news: Red Sea Turtles
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Red Sea Turtles
Mains level: Impact of climate changes
Turtle populations in the Red Sea could be turning overwhelmingly female because of a rise in sea temperatures caused due to anthropogenic climate change, a new study has showed.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following fauna of India:
- Gharial
- Leatherback turtle
- Swamp deer
Which of the above is/are endangered?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1, 2 and 3
(d) None
Red Sea Turtles
- There are seven extant species worldwide, five of which can be found in the Red Sea: the green turtle, the hawksbill turtle, the loggerhead turtle, the olive ridley turtle and the leatherback turtle.
- In order to maintain a 50:50 ratio of male and female in the population, a temperature of 29.2 degrees Celsius is pivotal.
- Above this, hatchlings would be predominantly female.
- The sand temperatures at four of the sites exceeded 29.2 degrees; leading the team to the conclusion that ‘feminization’ of the population could be already happening.
Their significance
- Marine turtles—as all top predators—have a prominent role in maintaining balanced and healthy ecosystems, in particular seagrass beds and coral reefs.
- They also help in transporting nutrients towards naturally nutrient-poor ecosystems (the nesting beaches), and providing food and transportation for other marine species (e.g., barnacles and commensal crabs).
- Marine turtles also play an important role in the economy of the tourism industry.
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Chinese dam projects on Brahmaputra and impact on downstream countries
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much
Mains level: Paper 3- Construction of dams Brahmaputra river by China
Scarcity of water in India and China
- As India and China continue to grow demographically as well as economically amid increased consumption among its citizenry, both nations face water constraints.
- China, which is home to close to 20 per cent of the world’s population, has only 7 per cent of its water resources.
- Severe pollution of its surface and groundwater caused by rapid industrialisation is a source of concern for Chinese planners.
- China’s southern regions are water-rich in comparison to the water-stressed northern part.
- The southern region is a major food producer and has significant industrial capacity as a consequence of more people living there.
- India is severely water-stressed as well.
- Similar to China, India has 17 per cent of the world’s population and 4 per cent of water.
- As in China, an equally ambitious north-south river-linking project has been proposed in India.
Impact on downstream states
- The construction of several dams along the Yarlung (Brahmaputra) river on the Chinese side has been a repeated cause for concern for Indian officials and the local people.
- China has an ambitious plan to link its south and north through canals, aqueducts and linking of major rivers to ensure water security.
- In pursuit of these goals, China, being an upper riparian state in Asia, has been blocking rivers like the Mekong and its tributaries, affecting Southeast Asian countries like Thailand, Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia.
- It has caused immense damage to the environment and altered river flows in the region.
- China sees these projects as a continuation of their historic tributary system as the smaller states have no means of effectively resisting or even significant leverage in negotiations.
Challenges for India
- There are now multiple operational dams in the Yarlung Tsangpo basin with more dams commissioned and under construction. These constructions present a unique challenge for Indian planners.
- 1) Dams will eventually lead to degradation of the entire basin:
- Silt carried by the river would get blocked by dams leading to a fall in the quality of soil and eventual reduction in agricultural productivity.
- 2) The Brahmaputra basin is one of the world’s most ecologically sensitive zones.
- It is identified as one of the world’s 34 biological hotspots.
- This region sees several species of flora and fauna that are endemic to only this part of the world.
- The river itself is home to the Gangetic river dolphin, which is listed as critically endangered.
- 3) The location of the dams in the Himalayas pose a risk.
- Seismologists consider the Himalayas as most vulnerable to earthquakes and seismic activity.
- The sheer size of the infrastructure projects undertaken by China, and increasingly by India, poses a significant threat to the populations living downstream.
- Close to a million people live in the Brahmaputra basin in India and tens of millions further downstream in Bangladesh.
- 4) Damming Brahmaputra would result in water security in an era of unprecedented shifting climate patterns.
- This security extends beyond water, as there is the potential to significantly change the flow rate during times of standoffs and high tensions.
Way forward
- Both sides must cease new constructions on the river and commit to potentially less destructive solutions.
- Building a decentralised network of check dams, rain-capturing lakes and using traditional means of water capture have shown effective results in restoring the ecological balance while supporting the populations of the regions in a sustainable manner.
Conclusion
There are alternate solutions to solving the water crisis. It is in the interest of all stakeholders to neutralise this ticking water bomb.
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India’s challenge in balancing the emissions and economy
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Paris Agreement
Mains level: Paper 3- Balancing development with climate action
India faces an uphill task of balancing its climate action with the economic growth. Bridging the energy deficit through renewable energy in cost-effective and increasing urban forestry could help in balancing the both.
Comparing India’s commitment
- China’s announcement recently to achieve carbon neutrality, that is, effectively generating net-zero emissions, before 2060 has now shifted focus on India’s commitments.
- In this context, let us compare India’s commitments with other countries, based on an independent scientific analysis carried out by the Climate Action Tracker. Major findings of it are:-
- 1) India is one of the only six countries (amongst the 33 that were assessed), and the only G-20 country, whose climate commitments at Paris are on a path compatible to limit warming well below 2°C.
- 2) It seems that India is well on its way to achieving its carbon intensity reduction and non-fossil-fuel electricity growth capacity commitments well before the 2030 target year.
- Even though China’s commitment is likely to lower warming projections by around 0.2 to 0.3 degrees C by 2100, China continues to remain in the “highly insufficient” category.
- India, despite being the fourth-largest emitter, has consistently kept its commitments in sync with its fair share and will achieve, if not over-achieve, these targets.
Difference in development and growth levels
- Development and growth in India are still at an early stage, and our first goal remains increasing the availability of adequate infrastructure for all Indians.
- A measure of this deficit is that we use only about 0.6 tonnes of oil-equivalent worth of energy per person per year while in China it is 2.36 tonnes per person per year, and is at least 4 tonnes per person per year in the OECD countries.
- It is, therefore, essential that we rapidly bridge the energy deficit.
Bridging the energy deficit through renewable and cost-effective manner
- Cost-effectiveness in renewable electricity has occurred rather rapidly, largely as a result of the global reduction in solar PV and battery prices.
- Solar electricity is already the cheapest electricity available in India when the sun is shining.
- It now seems that round-the-clock renewable electricity may be cost-competitive with coal electricity in the near future.
- This cost-effectiveness of zero-carbon options will emerge in other applications as well.
- It will involve dedicated action in some of the vital sectors which can generate and sustain employment while adding to the country’s economic growth.
- It will enable a shift away from emissions-intensive fossil fuels, reducing our dependence on fuel imports.
Urban forestry to compensate for environmental degradation
- Increasing urban forestry could help compensate for environmental degradation as a result of rapid urbanisation in several Indian cities.
- This is vital to restore the flow of crucial ecosystem services, including air quality, and increase the resilience of cities to extreme climatic events.
- As a result, enhancing biodiversity, minimising human-wildlife conflict and restoring India’s pristine forests by developing dedicated wildlife/biodiversity corridors is an essential next step.
Way ahead
- At the developmental crossroads that India stands, the next decade is vital for its own economic growth, its climate action, and its social and ecological well-being.
- With this in mind, India must focus on its domestic developmental prerogative and disengage them from the pressures that come along with international negotiations, focussing on actions that reduce the development deficits, which also provide strong climate benefits.
- India must initiate a narrative, discussion and dialogue which focuses on each country taking on commitments that move their carbon trajectory towards the Paris agreement goal of limiting global warming to well below 2°C.
Consider the question “Development and growth in India still at an early stage which makes the challenge of balancing the commitment to climate action with economic developement more difficult. In light of this, suggest the strategy that India should follow.”
Conclusion
India, being at the crossroads of development needs to balance the development goals with its commitment towards climate action.
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Places in news: Tristan da Cunha
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Map reading: Tristan Da Cunha
Mains level: Not Much
The isolated UK Overseas Territory of Tristan da Cunha, the world’s most remote human settlement, has been declared the largest fully protected marine reserves in the Atlantic Ocean at 687,000 square kilometres.
Note the location of Tristan da Cunha Islands in the Atlantic.
Tristan da Cunha
- Tristan da Cunha, which is inhabited by less than 300 humans is a small chain of islands over 6,000 miles from London in the South Atlantic and the water around the islands are considered to be the richest in the world.
- The mountainous archipelago is home to tens of millions of seabirds and several unique land birds that are comparable to the Galapagos island finches.
- The island group is also home to the World Heritage Site of Gough and Inaccessible Islands, which is one of the most important seabird islands in the world.
Significance of protection
- After joining the UK’s Blue Belt Programme, it will become the largest no-take zone in the Atlantic and the fourth largest on the planet.
- This will close over 90 per cent of their waters to harmful activities such as bottom-trawling fishing, sand extraction and deep-sea mining.
- The almost 700,000 square kilometres of the Marine Protection Zone (MPZ) is almost three times the size of the UK and will safeguard the future of sevengill sharks, Yellow-nosed albatrosses and rockhopper penguins.
- MPZs involve the management of certain natural areas for biodiversity conservation or species protection and are created by delineating zones with permitted and non-permitted areas within that zone.
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Glacial Lake Outburst in Ladakh
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glacial landforms
Mains level: Impact of climate changes on Cryosphere
In August 2014, a glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF) hit the village of Gya in Ladakh, destroying houses, fields and bridges. Researchers now have mapped the evolution of Gya glacial lake and note the cause of the flood.
What is glacial lake outburst flood?
- A GLOF is a type of outburst flood that occurs when the dam containing a glacial lake fails.
- An event similar to a GLOF, where a body of water contained by a glacier melts or overflows the glacier, is called a Jökulhlaup.
- The dam can consist of glacier ice or a terminal moraine.
- Failure can happen due to erosion, a buildup of water pressure, an avalanche of rock or heavy snow, an earthquake, volcanic eruptions under the ice, or glacier collapses into it.
How did it happen in Ladakh?
- It was not a spillover but rather a tunnelling of drainage process that caused GLOF in Gya lake.
- Imagine a bucket full of water. It can overflow when you drop a stone, or the water can drain if there is a hole under the bucket.
- Similarly, here the flooding did not happen due to the spillovers due to an avalanche or landslide, rather there was a thawing of the ice cores in the moraine.
Back2Basics: Glacial Landforms
Glacial landforms are landforms created by the action of glacier movements.
As the glaciers expand, due to their accumulating weight of snow and ice they crush and abrade and scour surfaces such as rocks and bedrock. The resulting erosional landforms include striations, cirques, glacial horns, arêtes, trim lines, U-shaped valleys, over-deepening and hanging valleys.
- Cirque: Starting location for mountain glaciers
- Cirque stairway: a sequence of cirques
- U-shaped, or trough, valley: U-shaped valleys are created by mountain glaciers. When filled with ocean water so as to create anthe glacial action erodes through, a spillway (or col) forms
- Valley step: an abrupt change in the longitudinal slope of a glacial valley
When the glaciers retreated leaving behind their freight of crushed rock and sand (glacial drift), they created characteristic depositional landforms. Examples include glacial moraines, eskers, and kames. Drumlins and ribbed moraines are also landforms left behind by retreating glaciers.
- Esker: Built-up bed of a subglacial stream
- Kame: Irregularly shaped mound
- Moraine: Feature can be terminal (at the end of a glacier), lateral (along the sides of a glacier), or medial (formed by the merger of lateral moraines from contributary glaciers)
- Outwash fan: Braided stream flowing from the front end of a glacier
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In news: Great Barrier Reef
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Great Barrier Reef
Mains level: Impact of climate changes on coral reefs
Australian scientists have found a detached coral reef on the Great Barrier Reef that exceeds the height of the Empire State Building and the Eiffel Tower.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Consider the following statements:
- Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.
- More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and the Philippines.
- Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1 and 3 only
About Great Barrier Reef
- The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands.
- It is stretched for over 2,300 kilometres over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres.
- The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia.
- It was world heritage listed in 1981 by UNESCO as the most extensive and spectacular coral reef ecosystem on the planet.
Why it is significant?
- This is first such discovery in over 100 years.
- The “blade-like” reef is nearly 500 metres tall and 1.5 kilometres wide.
- It lies 40 metres below the ocean surface and about six kilometres from the edge of the Great Barrier Reef.
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What is Atlantification?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Atlantification
Mains level: Impact of climate changes
Scientists have uncovered “hotspots” where some parts of the Barents Sea are starting to more closely resemble the Atlantic. They call this phenomenon “Atlantification”.
Try this MCQ:
Q.The Atlantification phenomenon sometimes seen in news is most closely related to which of the following seas/water bodies?
a) Norwegian Sea
b) Kara Sea
c) Barents Sea
d) Baffin Bay
What is Atlantification?
- Streams of warmer water from the Atlantic Ocean flow into the Arctic at the Barents Sea.
- This warmer, saltier Atlantic water is usually fairly deep under the more buoyant Arctic water at the surface.
- Lately, however, the Atlantic water has been creeping up. That heat in the Atlantic water is helping to keep ice from forming and melting existing sea ice from below.
- This process is called “Atlantification”.
- The ice is now getting hit both from the top by a warming atmosphere and at the bottom by a warming ocean.
Reasons for it
- In the background of all of this is global climate change.
- The Arctic sea ice extent and thickness have been dropping for decades as global temperatures rise.
- As the Arctic loses ice and the ocean absorbs more solar radiation, global warming is amplified.
- That affects ocean circulation, weather patterns and Arctic ecosystems spanning the food chain, from phytoplankton all the way to top predators.
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China’S Climate Commitment
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Net Zero
Mains level: Climate change commitments
Context- Speaking at the UN General Assembly, Chinese President Xi Jinping made two promises that came as a welcome surprise to climate change watchers.
What has China announced ?
- First, Xi said, China would become carbon net-zero by the year 2060.
- Net-zero is a state in which a country’s emissions are compensated by absorptions and removal of greenhouse gases from the atmosphere.
- Absorption can be increased by creating more carbon sinks such as forests, while removal involves application of technologies such as carbon capture and storage.
- Second, the Chinese President announced a small but important change in China’s already committed target for letting its emissions “peak”, from “by 2030” to “before 2030”.
- That means China would not allow its greenhouse gas emissions to grow beyond that point.
- Xi did not specify how soon “before 2030” means, but even this much is being seen as a very positive move from the world’s largest emitter.
How significant is China’s commitment?
- China is the world’s largest emitter of greenhouse gases. It accounts for almost 30% of global emissions, more than the combined emissions in the United States, the European Union and India, the three next biggest emitters.
- Getting China to commit itself to a net-zero target is a big breakthrough, especially since countries have been reluctant to pledge themselves to such long term commitments.
- So far, the European Union was the only big emitter to have committed itself to a net-zero emission status by 2050.
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Environmentalism at the core
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Sustainable Development
Mains level: Paper 3- Sustainable development
The article explains the importance of focusing on the green supply chain for ensuring sustainability along with the progress of the organisations.
Sustainability as an essential issue
- The U.N’s. Millennium Development Goals and the World Bank Group’s global practices have recognised sustainability as an essential issue of global importance.
- Economic, social and other forms of sustainability have evolved over the years, but it is environmental sustainability that has gained significant popularity.
Economy and sustainability
- Some firms have positioned environmental practices at the forefront due to legislation, and industry and government commitments.
- Several firms have prioritised environmental practices due to compelling regulatory norms, and a potential to manage costs, risks and optimise eco-friendly practices.
- However, organisations in the manufacturing sector focus on waste reduction and energy efficiency improvements excessively and fail to see the big picture of environmentalism.
Adopting green supply chains for long-lasting benefits
- Only through organisational learning can people be urged to work towards long-lasting benefits.
- In this context, green supply chain practices are useful.
- These include green procurement, green manufacturing, green distribution, and reverse logistics.
- With practices starting from acquisition of eco-friendly raw material to disposal/ reuse/ recycle of used products, employees, suppliers, distributors, retailers and customers will be able to integrate environmental concerns in the daily operations of a firm.
- Thus, green supply chain practices enable organisational learning in environmental sustainability.
- Research shows that the positive impacts of environmentalism can only be felt in the long term when they get embedded into organisational learning systems through green supply chain practices.
- The resultant learning system smoothens the knowledge flow in the organisation.
Focusing on linkages
- Linkages between green supply chain practices, corporate environmental performance, corporate economic performance is necessary for an organisation’s progress and environmental protection.
- When the different players of a manufacturing supply chain realise the inherent benefits associated with organisational learning dimensions, their drive towards environmentalism increases.
Conclusion
Policymakers should support this thinking by not merely imposing environmental practices as regulatory norms but by emphasising on the creation of green supply chain-based learning systems in manufacturing.
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India must reject the inequitable climate proposal
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Paris Agreement
Mains level: Paper 3- Paris Agreement and India's progress on climate action
The article takes stock of India’s climate action and the issue of phasing out the use of coal.
Context
- The UN Secretary-General called on India to give up coal immediately and reduce emissions by 45% by 2030.
State of India’s climate action
- India’s renewable energy programme is ambitious and its energy efficiency programme is delivering, especially in the domestic consumption sector.
- India is one of the few countries with at least 2° Celsius warming compliant climate action.
- India is also among one of smaller list of countries on track to fulfilling their Paris Agreement commitments.
- India’s annual emissions, at 0.5 tonnes per capita, are well below the global average of 1.3 tonnes.
- In terms of cumulative emissions, India’s contribution by 2017 was only 4% for a population of 1.3 billion.
How West is performing?
- While talking about their phasing out of coal, the global North has obscured the reality of its continued dependence on oil and natural gas, both equally fossil fuels, with no timeline for their phaseout.
- While it is amply clear that their commitments into the future set the world on a path for almost 3°C warming, they have diverted attention by fuzzy talk of “carbon neutrality” by 2050.
- Environmentalists in developed countries, unable to summon up the domestic political support have turned to pressure the developing countries.
- All of these are accompanied by increasing appeals to multilateral or First World financial and development institutions to force this agenda on to developing countries.
Implications of ending coal investment for India
- Currently, roughly 2 GW of coal-based generation is being decommissioned per year.
- But meeting the 2030 electricity consumption target of 1,580 to 1,660 units per person per year, will require anywhere between 650 GW to 750 GW of renewable energy.
- Unlike the developed nations, India cannot substitute coal substantially by oil and gas and despite some wind potential, a huge part of this growth needs to come from solar.
- However, renewables at best can meet residential consumption and some part of the demand from the service sector.
- Currently, manufacturing growth powered by fossil fuel-based energy is itself a necessity.
Conclusion
India must unanimously reject the UN Secretary General’s call and reiterate its long-standing commitment to an equitable response to the challenge of global warming.
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[pib] Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework (CSCAF 2.0)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CSCAF 2.0
Mains level: Not Much
The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs has launched the Climate Smart Cities Assessment Framework (CSCAF) 2.0.
About CSCAF 2.0
- A framework is a climate-sensitive approach to urban planning and development in India.
- It was developed after a review of existing frameworks and assessment approaches adopted throughout the world.
- It followed a series of an extensive consultative process with more than 26 organizations and 60 experts from different thematic areas.
- The Climate Centre for Cities under National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) is supporting MoHUA in implementation of CSCAF.
Various indicators of the framework
The framework has 28 indicators across five categories namely:
- Energy and Green Buildings
- Urban Planning, Green Cover & Biodiversity
- Mobility and Air Quality
- Water Management
- Waste Management
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Thinking of new recovery path
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Extended producer responsibility
Mains level: Paper 3- Coupling growth and environmental protection
Growth and environmental protection are not the polar opposites of each other. The article analyses the issue of balancing the two and using pandemic as an opportunity to evolve novel recovery path.
Pandemic: opportunity to new recovery path
- The pandemic presents an opportunity for us to think of a new recovery path, one that can decouple economic growth and environmental degradation.
- It becomes more important as India sees opportunities on the global call to diversify the supply chain and its internal call for Atmanirbhar Bharat.
- For that, we need to strengthen our production and manufacturing capabilities.
Issue of regulatory infrastructure
- Monitoring and implementing environmental regulations is the biggest challenge we face.
- Take the municipal solid waste rules.
- Two decades after the regulations came into effect, their status not in good shape.
- A comparatively recent regulation, centred around Extended Producer Responsibility, has also posed challenges in monitoring and implementation.
- In a recent ruling, the judiciary not only ruled against the industry but also blamed officials responsible for implementing the regulations.
Focus on implementation and monitoring
- In the long run, diluting regulatory norms will create more adverse impacts resulting in greater community upsurge.
- The focus has to be to improve the system’s capabilities to monitor and implement regulatory requirements.
- There needs to be greater transparency and accountability; there is no dearth of technology to facilitate this.
- The intention and capacity to take action, rectify and diffuse is critical.
- The right ecosystem between the industry, community and regulator is crucial.
- If the three stakeholders remain isolated and get activated only in a crisis, we will not make any progress towards solving the issue.
Way forward
- We need to couple growth and environmental protection.
- Environmental health will be the key enabler of socio-economic growth in the future.
- Industry needs to realise that it is a part of an ecosystem and not at the centre of it.
- Communities get impacted, either positively or negatively, they need to empower themselves through education, so that they are not driven by the agenda of individuals with vested interests.
- We have a challenge in implementing environmental regulations.
- The community does not trust that the industry is meeting its compliance requirements, so, the regulatory system’s role is to improve this trust quotient.
Conclusion
As we plan our recovery past the pandemic, we have a good chance to create a new normal. We need to align towards a common cause and goals. We should not miss this chance.
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In news: Galapagos Islands
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Galapagos Islands
Mains level: Not Much
Chinese ships are frequently entering Ecuador’s waters for commercial fishing near the Galapagos Islands.
Try this question from CSP 2018:
Q.Which one of the following can one comes across if one travels through the Strait of Malacca?
(a) Bali
(b) Brunei
(c) Java
(d) Singapore
The Galapagos Islands
- Renowned worldwide for its unique species, the islands host a wide array of aquatic wildlife, including marine iguanas, fur seals, and waved albatrosses.
- The giant tortoises found here – ‘Galápagos’ in old Spanish– give the islands its name.
- Ecuador made a part of the Galapagos a wildlife sanctuary in 1935, and the sanctuary became the Galapagos National Park in 1959.
- In 1978, the islands became UNESCO’s first World Heritage Site.
- It was here that the British naturalist Charles Darwin made key observations in 1835 that shaped his theory of evolution. Darwin described the islands as a “world in itself”.
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Mapping: Mont Blanc
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mont Blanc
Mains level: Alps and its orogeny
The melting Mont Blanc glacier in the French Alps yielded a clutch of newspapers with banner headlines from when Indira Gandhi became India’s first and so far only woman Prime Minister in 1966.
Try this MCQ
Q.The Mont Blanc in the Alps can be located near the conflux of which of the following two countries?
a)France and Spain
b)France and Italy
c)Spain and Italy
d)Greece and Slovenia
Mont Blanc
- Mont Blanc is the second-highest mountain in Europe after Mount Elbrus. It is the highest mountain in the Alps and Western Europe.
- It rises 4,808 m above sea level and is ranked 11th in the world in topographic prominence.
- The mountain stands in a range called the Graian Alps, between the regions of Aosta Valley, Italy, and Savoie and Haute-Savoie, France.
- It is the tallest peak in the Alps and the highest summit in Western Europe, hence its epithet the “Roof of Europe”.
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What is the Arctic Heatwave warming up Siberia?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Permafrost, Arctic Heatwave
Mains level: Impact of climate changes
The Arctic Circle has recorded temperatures reaching over 38 degrees Celsius in the Siberian town of Verkhoyansk, likely an all-time high. The temperatures seem to have been 18 degree Celsius higher than normal in June a/c to the BBC.
Try this question from CS Mains 2017:
Q.How does the Cryosphere affect global climate?
What is happening in the Arctic?
- Since the past month, the most above-average temperatures were recorded in Siberia, where they were about 10 degrees Celsius above normal.
- Siberia has been recording higher-than-average surface air temperatures since January.
Are Arctic heatwaves common?
- This is not the first time that rising temperatures in the Arctic have created alarm.
- The rising temperatures are attributed to large-scale wind patterns that blasted the Arctic with heat, the absence of sea ice, and human-induced climate change, among other reasons.
- There has been an increase of heatwave occurrences over the terrestrial Arctic. These frequent occurrences have already started to threaten local vegetation, ecology, human health and economy.
A cause of worry for all
- Warming in the Arctic is leading to the thawing of once permanently frozen permafrost below ground.
- This is alarming scientists because as permafrost thaws, carbon dioxide and methane previously locked up below ground is released.
- These greenhouse gases can cause further warming, and further thawing of the permafrost, in a vicious cycle known as positive feedback.
- The higher temperatures also cause land ice in the Arctic to melt at a faster rate, leading to greater run-off into the ocean where it contributes to sea-level rise.
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Revealing the secrets Arctic holds
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Icesat 2, Cryosat 2
Mains level: Paper 1- Arctic ice and how it influence climate change
This article is about Polarstern, is an icebreaker, which traversed the Arctic Ocean to study the aspects related to ice there. Here, we will look at some of these aspects. These aspects are-monitoring of the ice, difficulty in measuring the thickness, rate of melting of ice and relations with cloud formation.
Arctic: A recorder and driver of climate change
How is it a recorder of climate change?
- It is a recorder because of two co-related factors, these are-
- 1) The visible difference between ice and water.
- 2) The obvious relationship between global temperatures and the amount of ice around.
- Two factors together shows in an easily graspable way how things are changing.
- The extent of the Arctic sea ice in summer has declined by 30% in the past 30 years, and that loss is accelerating (see chart).
How is it a driver of climate change?
- The Arctic is also a driver of climate change, because the whiteness of ice means it reflects sunlight back into space, thus cooling Earth.
- Whereas the darkness of open water means it absorbs that light.
- The less of the reflection of sunlight and the more absorption of light will result in a faster rise in global temperatures.
Monitoring the Arctic’s ice
- At the moment this is monitored mainly by satellite.
- Measuring the extent of the Arctic’s ice from space is easy.
- Measuring its thickness is trickier.
- From orbit, this is done by a mixture of radar and laser beam.
- Icesat 2, an American craft, provides laser-altimeter data that record the height above sea level of the top of the snow that overlies the ice.
- Cryosat 2, a European one, uses radar to penetrate the snow and measure the height of the top of the ice itself.
- The thickness of the ice in a particular place can then be calculated by applying Archimedes’ principle of floating bodies to the mixture of ice and snow, and subtracting the thickness of the snow.
- But there is a view that the data collected by these two satellites may be inaccurate, leading to an overestimation of the ice’s thickness.
Let’s understand why the data about thickness could be inaccurate
- When all is working perfectly, the return signal for Cryosat 2 comes exactly from the boundary between the ice and any overlying snow.
- But, that this is not always what happens.
- Variables such as layering within the snow, along with its temperature and salinity, might affect the returning radar signal by changing the snow’s structure and density.
- This could cause the signal to be reflected from inside the snow layer, rather than from the boundary where it meets the ice.
- If that were happening, it would create the illusion that the ice beneath the snow is thicker than is actually the case.
How topography of Arctic ice matters
- Though sea ice is solid, it is not rigid.
- It forms but a thin skin on the ocean—varying in depth from around 30cm in summer to a couple of metres in winter—so is readily moved by wind and current.
- As the ice moves it stretches and cracks in some places.
- Large cracks formed in this way are called leads, because they are wide enough to “lead” a ship.
- In other places, by contrast, movement makes the ice thicker.
- As individual panes of ice butt up against each other, they create ridges that can be metres high.
- But even from the ship’s deck one can watch leads opening and ridges forming around the vessel.
- Observations suggest that winter the ice has been particularly mobile—and has thus become particularly rough, with a surprising number of ridges.
So, how these ridges affect the rate at which ice melts?
- These ridges may affect the rate at which the ice melts—but to complicate matters, this could happen in two opposing ways.
- Ridges make ice thicker, and thicker ice melts more slowly.
- On the other hand, a ridge projects down into the sea as well as up into the air (Archimedes, again), so it may stir up water from below the surface.
- Deep water is warmer than the surface layer, so this stirring would serve to increase melt rates.
- Moreover, to add to the confusion, ridges are prone to having pieces of ice fall off them into the sea, to form small blocks known as brash.
- This brash, having more surface area per unit volume than unbroken ice, melts faster.
How cloud formation is affected by cracks in Arctic ice
- On most parts of Earth clouds form as droplets of water condense around “seeds” of dust or organic molecules.
- In the Arctic, there is little dust.
- Biological activity, too, is in short supply compared with elsewhere—and is, moreover, conducted mainly below the barrier of the sea ice.
- It might, therefore, be expected that there would be few seeds present for clouds to form around.
- And yet, clouds are present.
- Cloud seeds there tended to be compounds containing sulphur, nitrogen, chlorine, bromine or iodine.
- Presence of these molecules suggests their link with cracks in the ice sheets.
- This means that more cracks in the ice sheet could lead to more clouds in the Arctic.
- What overall effect that might have on the climate is unclear.
- Summer clouds would reflect sunlight back into space, cooling the planet.
- Those formed in winter, when the sun is below the horizon, would serve as insulation, warming it.
- Two opposite outcomes are possible—or perhaps the net effect will be that they cancel each other out.
Conclusion
Properly disentangling the interactions between Arctic ice, atmosphere and ocean life will require data collected across a full year—for the contrast between winter and summer at the poles is greater than anywhere else on the planet.
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“Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region” Report
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Representative Concentration Pathway
Mains level: Climate change assessment for India
The Union Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) has released the “Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region” Report.
This newscard discusses a very important concept: the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP). Note its definition. It can be directly asked as a statement based on prelims MCQ.
Highlights of the report
- Average surface air temperatures over India could rise by up to 4.4 degrees Celsius by the end of the century as compared to the period between 1976 and 2005, according to the MoES report.
- The rise in temperatures will be even more pronounced in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region where the average could reach 5.2°C.
- The region is already highly vulnerable to climate-related variability in temperatures, rainfall and snowfall.
- By 2100, the frequency of warm days and warm nights might also increase by 55 per cent and 70 per cent respectively, as compared to the period 1976-2005 under the RCP 8.5 scenario.
- The incidences of heat waves over the country could also increase by three to four times. Their duration of occurrence might also increase which was already witnessed by the country in 2019.
A 100-year record
- Between 1900 and 2018, the average temperatures of India rose by 0.7°C.
- This rise in temperatures has been largely attributed to global warming due to GHG emissions and land use and land cover changes.
- But it has also been slightly reduced by the rising aerosol emissions in the atmosphere that have an overall cooling characteristic.
- The report predicts that monsoon rainfall could change by an average of 14 per cent by 2100 that could go as high as 22.5 per cent.
- The report does not mention if this change will be an increase or a decrease but still represents variability.
- It further says that the overall rainfall during the monsoon season has decreased by six per cent between 1950 and 2015.
Data on dry spells
- The assessment also says that in the past few decades, there has been an increased frequency of dry spells during the monsoon season that has increased by 27 per cent between 1981-2011, as compared to 1951-1980.
- The intensity of wet spells has also increased over the country, with central India receiving 75 per cent more extreme rainfall events between 1950 and 2015. This means that it either rains too little or too much.
- One of the primary examples of this was the monsoon seasons of 2018 and 2019 where dry spells were broken by extremely heavy rainfall spells, creating a flood and drought cycle in many regions in India.
What is Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP)?
- A Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) is a greenhouse gas concentration (not emissions) trajectory adopted by the IPCC.
- It is defined as a radiative force in watt per square metre due to the rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the atmosphere.
- Four pathways were used for climate modelling and research for the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) in 2014.
- The pathways describe different climate futures, all of which are considered possible depending on the volume of greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted in the years to come.
- The RCPs – originally RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6, and RCP8.5 – are labelled after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 (2.6, 4.5, 6, and 8.5 W/m2, respectively).
- Since AR5 the original pathways are being considered together with Shared Socioeconomic Pathways: as are new RCPs such as RCP1.9, RCP3.4 and RCP7.
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When did CO2 become our planet’s arch enemy?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: CO2 assessment
Mains level: Not Much
Carbon dioxide was always essential for our planet. This newscard discusses when did it become too much.
Try this question from CSP 2017:
Q. In the context of mitigating the impending global warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide, which of the following can be the potential sites for carbon sequestration?
- Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
- Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
- Subterranean deep saline formations
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
GHGs in atmosphere
- The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of different gases. The temperature of the atmosphere depends on a balance between the incoming energy from the sun and the energy that bounces back into space.
- Greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide play an important role in the atmosphere.
- They absorb some of the sun’s heat and release it back in all directions, including back to the atmosphere.
- Through this process, CO2 and other GHGs keep the atmosphere warmer than it would be without them.
- However, fossil fuel-run industries and other human activities add GHGs to the atmosphere. This, in turn, increases atmospheric temperature, causing global warming.
Assessing the carbon level
- In 1958, American scientist Charles David Keeling calculated the amount of CO2 in our atmosphere.
- When he started his measurements in 1958, the CO2 levels were around 315 parts per million (PPM).
- When he died in 2005, the project was taken over by his son Ralph Keeling. By 2014, CO2 levels had increased to about 400 PPM.
- With his systematic study of atmospheric CO2, Keeling became the first person to alert the world about the increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.
Reasons for rising CO2 levels
- Scientists first argued that the increasing release of methane and CO2 was due to agriculture and livestock.
- But, with the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, the use of fossil fuels and CO2 levels rose simultaneously.
- Nations that underwent the Industrial Revolution used huge amounts of fossil fuels and became centres of high CO2 emissions, while nations with an agrarian economy emitted less GHGs.
- Over the years, as CO2 levels increased, it sparked off debates and arguments between the GHG-emitting rich industrial nations and the victims of global warming — the poorer nations.
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Crisis of today should not blind us to the crisis of tomorrow
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Cyclone Nisarga and Amphan
Mains level: Paper 1- Climate change
Covid-19 pandemic has overwhelmed the governments across the world. And the destruction caused by it would impact not only our present but the future as well. So, what this means to our climate future? First and foremost, it will leave the governments with less fund to invest for the greener outcomes. What would be the other impacts? And how can we avoid turning blind eye to the crises waiting for us in the near future? Read the article to know…
Cyclones amid pandemic-what do it signal?
- The very language used to describe the effects of climate change is now being deployed, correctly, to shape our understanding of a covid-ravaged near future: poverty, the failure of markets, uncertainty, and an overwhelmed government.
- In less than a month, we have been given a glimpse of how the climate crisis can yank at the seams of a state already undone.
- We saw Cyclone Amphan transform from a tropical storm to one of the largest cyclones South Asia has ever seen in a matter of hours, aided by warmer than usual waters in the Bay of Bengal.
- We also saw Cyclone Nisarga barrel down on Maharashtra, the second pre-monsoon cyclone to hit the west coast in 127 years.
- Governments would have been hard-pressed to deal with such extremes even in the best of times.
So, how COVID-19 would impact response to climate change?
- There are two strands of opinion.
- The optimistic one sees this as a moment to remake our states and societies in a measured response.
- This includes directing economic packages to areas that increase our resilience to natural disasters and technologies that reduce our emissions.
- This could be an opportunity to reinforce sustainable behaviour — fewer morning commutes and less air travel, for example.
- The other strand is more dire, arguing that this will amount to a lost decade or two as our attention is focused on keeping the teetering ship of economy afloat.
- In this reading, present concerns will trump preparations for an uncertain future.
- Between these two strands there is consensus that we are at a critical juncture.
- What we do now will determine the flow of events decades into the future.
What our climate future holds?
We will have to face the following 3 problems in the future owing to the Covid-19 pandemic today.
1. Scarcity of funds
- It has been two months since India’s lockdown, and we know enough to have a rational conversation about our climate future.
- Perhaps the most important news relates to public and private debt.
- The government has raised its borrowing limit, states will need to borrow more to tide over shortfalls and the private sector has seen returns from investments dry out.
- All three are already heavily indebted, meaning the cost of capital for future borrowing will only grow.
- That leaves limited fiscal room to finance the building blocks of resilience: everything from grain to health, employment schemes, irrigation, efficient water systems and river management infrastructure.
- It could mean that efforts to reduce our energy emissions are left without patient pools of long-term capital.
2. Underdeveloped knowledge infrastructure
- The knowledge infrastructure needed to react to climate change might be left similarly underdeveloped.
- Climate change distinguishes itself from other policy fields in the wide range of analytical tasks it demands, from predicting weather trends to understanding how specific seed varieties react to droughts.
- Thinking about climate change requires a lot of people exploring varied questions simultaneously.
- That involves funding an ecosystem of thinkers from diverse disciplines.
- Only the state can provide for multi-year studies, institutional support and the like.
- These are inherently long-term investments and only really start paying off over decades.
- It means that hamstrung investment in coming years will leave a knowledge vacuum in the future.
3. Impact on the psychology of the government
- The Indian government, reacting to a million crises erupting across the economy, will be hard-pressed to plan for a hazy but sinister future.
- Promises of a greener, less turbulent future will falter against the turbulence of today.
- This instinct will be shared by governments across the world.
- This might well numb the effects of the global climate negotiation architecture.
Way forward
- Crafting a response that carefully balances present and future will take a great deal of collective effort.
- Foremost, it will require policy ideas that deliberately marry employment and industrial priorities with green outcomes.
- Ideas such as pushing to manufacture solar equipment or electric vehicles in India should, at some point, coalesce into something that looks like a climate plan for the country.
- This task will fall to universities, NGOs, think tanks and individuals working together in disciplined debate.
Consider the question “Do you agree with the view that the corona crisis would adversely impact our efforts towards mitigating the impact of climate change? Giver reasons in support of your argument.”
Conclusion
We should be careful not to drag ourselves through one crisis only to emerge into another longer, less predictable, and unstoppable one. So, balancing the present problems and their solutions with an eye on a certain and stable future is the need of the hour.
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Will leaders act on the climate crisis as they did Covid-19?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Dioxide concentration in atmosphere
Mains level: Paper 3- Climate change
In the context of climate change, the rising concentration of carbon dioxide and rising global temperature are inextricably linked with each other. This article elaborates on two interlinked and rising curves-CO2 and temperature. The article is concluded on the positive note that leaders would act on climate change with same urgency as Covid.
The upward journey of two curves
- Two interrelated curves began their upward trend two centuries ago with the advent of the industrial age.
- The first curve was the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide or, more generally, all greenhouse gases, GHGs.
- And the second was the average global temperature curve.
CO2 concentration at 407 ppm: But did we get here?
- Actually, the CO2 curve began its upward march about 18,000 years ago when it was a little under 200 parts per million (ppm).
- And earth was much colder back then.
- By the time it reached 270 ppm about 11,500 years ago, the warmer conditions accompanying this curve made it possible for the emergence of agriculture.
- Over the past million years, CO2 levels never exceeded 280-300 ppm.
- They always went back to 200 ppm before rising again in a cyclical fashion.
- They remained steady at close to 280 ppm for 10,000 years until, beginning in the mid-19th century.
- They began to rise again as humans burnt coal and oil to fuel the industrial revolution, and burnt forests to expand agriculture and settlements.
- From a mere 0.2 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions in 1850, annual emissions increased to 36 billion tonnes by 2018.
- If all this CO2 had accumulated in the atmosphere, we can say that human life would have been altered beyond recognition.
- Nature has been rather kind to us so far — about one-half of all CO2 emissions have been sanitised from the atmosphere, equally by growing vegetation on land and by absorption in the oceans.
- Thus, the levels of CO2 in the atmosphere reached 407 ppm in 2018, a level last experienced by earth some three million years ago.
Global temperature up by 1 degree Celcius
- From 1850 onwards, for over a century, the global temperature showed a slight warming trend.
- But there was nothing suggestive of anything serious.
- From 1975 onwards, the temperature graph has shown a distinct, upward trend.
- By 2015, the globe had heated by a full degree Celsius relative to a hundred years previously.
- Climate modellers unequivocally project that under the current trends of emissions the globe will heat up by 4˚C by the end of the century.
- he 2003 European heat wave killed over 70,000 people.
- The years 2015-19 have globally been the warmest years on record.
- Leave aside the Amazon fire of 2019, the bush fires of 2019-20 in Australia were unprecedented in their scale and devastation.
- March 2020 has been the second warmest March on record.
But climate change is not just about temperature rise
- Climate change involves not just a change in temperature but every other component of weather, including rainfall, humidity and wind speed.
- Indirect effects follow, such as a rise in sea levels from melting glaciers.
- Globally there have been several extreme weather events such as hurricanes, heat waves or droughts.
- While no single event can be directly attributed to climate change, the collective trends are consistent with climate change predictions.
Warning for India
- The Climate Impact Lab at the University of Chicago put out a warning for India last year.
- It says that if global CO2 emissions continue to gallop at the present rate, average summer temperatures would rise by 4˚C in most States.
- Extremely hot days (days above 35˚C), which were only five days in 2010, would increase to 15 days by 2050 and to 42 days by 2100 on average across all districts.
- A more moderate emissions scenario, as a result of countries largely fulfilling their commitments under the Paris Agreement, would keep average global temperature rise below 2˚C compared to pre-industrial levels.
Let’s look into the financial dimension of tackling climate change
- The most common excuse is that the world cannot afford to curb GHG emissions for fear of wrecking the economy.
- An article in Nature in 2019 highlighted the financial dimensions of tackling the looming climate crisis.
- Apparently, the wealthy nations are spending over $500 billion each year internally on projects aimed at reducing emissions.
- The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, however, estimates that a sustained annual investment of $2.4 trillion in more efficient energy systems is needed until 2035 in order to keep warming below the more ambitious 1.5˚C relative to pre-industrial levels.
- To put this in perspective, that is about 2.5% of the global GDP.
What happened to the $100 billion per year aid to poor countries?
- Some of the wrangling over money relates to the amounts that the wealthy nations, agreed to pay other countries to cope with climate change.
- Underlying idea was that these countries have caused most of the GHGs resulting in global warming,
- At the UN Climate Conference in 2009, the richest nations had pledged to provide $100 billion in aid each year by 2020 to the poorer countries for climate change mitigation and adaptation.
- In 2017, for which data are available, only $71 billion had been provided.
- And most of the money was spent on mitigation and less than 20% towards climate adaptation.
- Such numbers had been challenged prior to the 2015 Paris Summit by many countries, including India.
- It was challenged because much of the so-called aid provided did not come out of dedicated climate funds but, rather, development funds or simply loans which had to be repaid.
- It thus seems unlikely that the rich countries will deliver $100 billion in tangible climate finance during 2020.
Time to act
- COVID-19 has unwittingly given humanity a brief respite from the climate change curve.
- Commentators are already talking about a paradigm shift in the structure and functioning of societies once the pandemic subsides.
- This is also a make-or-break moment for the climate trajectory which has to be flattened within a few years if we are to avoid dangerous climate change.
- Nature’s kindness is not expected to last beyond a 2˚C rise in temperature as the carbon sequestered into vegetation will be thrown back into the atmosphere.
- Also remember that earth has already warmed by 1˚C and we really have only another 1˚C as a safety margin or 0.5˚C if we are concerned about island nations.
Consider the mains question asked by the UPSC in 2017-‘Climate change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?
Conclusion
There is no substitute to reducing GHG emissions. Technologists, economists and social scientists must plan for a sustainable planet based on the principles of equity and climate justice within and across nations. It is the responsibility of leaders to alter their mindset and act on the looming climate crisis with the same alacrity they have shown on COVID-19.
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Environment Performance Index 2020
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EPI
Mains level: India's EPI and various loopholes in its climate action policy
India has secured 168 ranks in the 12th edition of the biennial Environment Performance Index (EPI Index 2020).
CSP 2019 has been a year with two questions based on rankings and indices viz. the EoDB index and Global Competitiveness Index. Note all such indices and their publishing agencies here at [Prelims Spotlight] Important reports and indexes
About EPI
- The EPI measures the environmental performance of 180 countries.
- It is biennially released by the Yale University.
- It considers 32 indicators of environmental performance, giving a snapshot of the 10-year trends in environmental performance at the national and global levels.
The performance on climate change was assessed based on the following indicators —
- Adjusted emission growth rates;
- Composed of growth rates of four greenhouse gases and one pollutant;
- Growth rate in carbon dioxide emissions from land cover;
- Greenhouse gas intensity growth rate; and
- Greenhouse gas emissions per capita.
Performance of the South Asian Region
- The 11 countries lagging behind India were — Burundi, Haiti, Chad, Solomon Islands, Madagascar, Guinea, Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, Afghanistan, Myanmar and Liberia.
- All South Asian countries, except Afghanistan, were ahead of India in the ranking.
India’s performance
- A ten-year comparison progress report in the index showed that India slipped on climate-related parameters.
- India scored below the regional average score on all five key parameters on environmental health, including air quality, sanitation and drinking water, heavy metals and waste management.
- It has also scored below the regional average on parameters related to biodiversity and ecosystem services too.
- Among South Asian countries, India was at the second position (rank 106) after Pakistan on ‘climate change’. Pakistan’s score (50.6) was the highest under the category.
Remarks for India
- The report indicated that black carbon, carbon dioxide emissions and greenhouse emissions per capita increased in 10 years.
- India needs to re-double national sustainability efforts on all fronts, according to the index.
- It needs to focus on a wide spectrum of sustainability issues, with a high-priority to critical issues such as air and water quality, biodiversity and climate change.
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Expansion of the Amery Ice Shelf
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ice Shelves, Amery Ice Shelf
Mains level: Impact of climate changes
There would be a 24% increase in the expansion of the Amery Ice Shelf (AIS) boundaries in Antarctica by 2021 and another 24 per cent by 2026 from its 2016 positions, the National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research (NCPOR) in Goa has predicted.
Practice question for mains:
Q. Discuss the interrelation between Cryosphere and Climate change in context to the melting ice shelves in the Antarctic region.
Amery Ice Shelf (AIS)
- The Amery Ice Shelf is a broad ice shelf in Antarctica at the head of Prydz Bay between the Lars Christensen Coast and Ingrid Christensen Coast.
- It is part of Mac. Robertson Land.
- The name “Cape Amery” was applied to a coastal angle mapped on February 11, 1931.
- The AIS is one of the largest glacier drainage basins in the world, located on the east coast of Antarctica, at about 70ºS Latitude, 70ºE Longitude.
- The AIS dynamics and mass balance help in understanding the changes in the global climate scenario.
Significance of the study
- NCPOR observations revealed a critical cooling of the sea surface temperature, resulting in an advancement of the ice shelf by 88 per cent in the past 15 years.
- These changes would contribute in a major way to climate variability.
- The study clearly demonstrated the future dynamism of ocean heat fluctuation and Antarctic Amery ice shelf mass shifting-extent.
Back2Basics: Ice Shelves
- The floating sheets of ice called ‘ice shelves’ play a multi-faceted role in maintaining the stability of a glacier. Ice shelves connect a glacier to the landmass.
- The ice sheet mass balance, sea stratification, and bottom water formation are important parameters for the balancing of a glacier. Latent and sensible heat processes do play important roles here.
- The insulation of ice shelves from atmospheric forcing is dependent on a temperature gradient that the ocean cavity beneath the ice shelves provides.
- It is the pressure exerted by the ice shelves upon the ocean cavity that determines this temperature gradient.
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[pib] Seasonal rapid advancement of Surging Glaciers in Karakoram Range
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Glaciers mentioned in the newscard
Mains level: Glacial surges and their impacts
Indian researchers have found a seasonal advancement in 220 surge-type glaciers in the Karakoram Range of Ladakh.
Points to note:
1) Open you map and revise the glaciers of Himalayan region.
2) Glacial landforms as Geographic phenomenon.
What are Glacial Surges?
Click here to see the animated view
- Glacial surges are short-lived events where a glacier can advance substantially, moving at velocities up to 100 times faster than normal.
- Until recently, most glaciologists believed that a glacier’s physical characteristics, such as its thickness and shape, and the properties of the terrain it sits on determining whether it can surge.
- Now, it is proved to believe an external factor also plays a major role: water from precipitation and melting.
- Pooling on the surface, it can infiltrate the glacier through crevasses and reach its base, warming, lubricating, and, ultimately, releasing the ice.
Why surging in the Karakoram is a concern?
- The behaviour of these glaciers, which represent 40% of the total glaciated area of the Karakoram, goes against the normal trend.
- Surging of glaciers is potentially catastrophic as it can lead to the destruction of villages, roads and bridges.
- It can also advance across a river valley and form the ice-dammed lake.
- These lakes can form catastrophic outburst floods.
- Therefore, monitoring of glacier surges, ice-dammed lake formation, and drainage is of paramount importance.
Which are these glaciers?
- The scientists focused on the Shispare and Muchuhar glaciers, former tributaries of the once larger Hasanabad Glacier situated in Hunza Valley, Gilgit-Baltistan.
Significance of the study
- The Surge-type glaciers oscillate between brief (months to years) rapid flow and lengthy (tens to hundreds of years) slow flow or stagnation, which are called the ‘active’ (or ‘surge’) and ‘quiescent’ phases, respectively.
- This unsteady glacier flow makes it difficult to accurately assess individual glacier mass balances using in-situ observations.
- The study will help to understand the diversity of glacial behaviour and help make accurate assessments of individual glacier mass balances for disaster planning and management.
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How the ozone layer hole over Arctic closed?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Ozone, Polar Vortex
Mains level: Ozone hole healing
Recently the EU’s Copernicus Atmosphere Monitoring Service (CAMS) announced that a hole in the Arctic ozone layer, believed to be the biggest reported, has closed.
What healed the hole in the Ozone?
- The ozone hole’s closing was because of a phenomenon called the polar vortex, and not because of reduced pollution levels due to Covid-19 lockdowns around the world.
- The hole in the North Pole’s ozone layer, which was first detected in February, had since reached a maximum extension of around 1 million sq km.
Ozone hole
- The ‘ozone hole’ is not really a hole — it refers to a region in the stratosphere where the concentration of ozone becomes extremely low in certain months.
- Ozone, made up of three oxygen atoms, occurs naturally in small amounts.
- Roughly 10 km to 40 km up in the atmosphere (the layer called the stratosphere), the ozone layer is sunscreen, shielding Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.
- Manufactured chemicals deplete the ozone layer. Each spring over Antarctica (it now springs there), atmospheric ozone is destroyed by chemical processes.
- This creates the ozone hole, which occurs because of special meteorological and chemical conditions that exist in that region.
The importance of the ozone layer
- Ozone (chemically O3, a molecule of three oxygen atoms) is found mainly in the upper atmosphere, an area called the stratosphere, between 10 and 50 km from the earth’s surface.
- Though it is talked of as a layer, ozone is present in the atmosphere in rather low concentrations.
- Even at places where this layer is thickest, there are not more than a few molecules of ozone for every million air molecules.
- They perform a very important function. By absorbing the harmful ultraviolet radiations from the sun, the ozone molecules eliminate a big threat to life forms on earth.
- UV rays can cause skin cancer and other diseases and deformities in plants and animals.
Why this year’s hole was massive?
- This year, the ozone depletion over the Arctic was much larger.
- Scientists believe that unusual atmospheric conditions, including freezing temperatures in the stratosphere, were responsible.
- Cold temperatures (below -80°C), sunlight, wind fields and substances such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were responsible for the degradation of the Arctic ozone layer.
- Although Arctic temperatures do not usually fall as low as in Antarctica, this year, powerful winds flowing around the North Pole trapped cold air within what is known as the polar vortex.
- By the end of the polar winter, the first sunlight over the North Pole initiated this unusually strong ozone depletion—causing the hole to form.
How long it will take for complete recovery?
- As per the Scientific Assessment of Ozone Depletion data of 2018, the ozone layer in parts of the stratosphere has recovered at a rate of 1-3 per cent per decade since 2000.
- At these projected rates, the Northern Hemisphere and mid-latitude ozone is predicted to recover by around 2030, followed by the Southern Hemisphere around 2050, and polar regions by 2060.
Also read: Polar Vortex
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Third mass bleaching of Great Barrier Reef
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coral bleaching
Mains level: Coral reefs and their significance
A survey has found record sea temperatures had caused the third mass bleaching of the 2,300-kilometre Great Barrier Reef system in just five years.
What is Coral Bleaching?
- When corals face stress by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, or nutrients, they expel the symbiotic algae zooxanthellae living in their tissues, causing them to turn completely white.
- This phenomenon is called coral bleaching.
- The pale white colour is of the translucent tissues of calcium carbonate which are visible due to the loss of pigment-producing zooxanthellae.
About Great Barrier Reef
- The Great Barrier Reef is the world’s largest coral reef system composed of over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands.
- It is stretched for over 2,300 kilometres over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres.
- The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia.
Importance of Corals
Coral reefs are some of the most diverse and valuable ecosystems on Earth.
- They support more species per unit area than any other marine environment, including about 4,000 species of fish, 800 species of hard corals and hundreds of other species.
- This biodiversity is considered key to finding new medicines for the 21st century. Many drugs are now being developed from coral reef animals and plants as possible cures for cancer, arthritis, human bacterial infections, viruses, and other diseases.
- Healthy coral reefs support commercial and subsistence fisheries as well as jobs and businesses through tourism and recreation.
- Local economies receive billions of dollars from visitors to reefs through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, restaurants, and other businesses based near reef ecosystems.
- Coral reef structures also buffer shorelines against 97 percent of the energy from waves, storms, and floods, helping to prevent loss of life, property damage, and erosion.
- When reefs are damaged or destroyed, the absence of this natural barrier can increase the damage to coastal communities from normal wave action and violent storms.
Back2Basics
Coral Reefs
- Coral reefs are built by and made up of thousands of tiny animals—coral “polyps”—that are related to anemones and jellyfish.
- Polyps are shallow water organisms which have a soft body covered by a calcareous skeleton. The polyps extract calcium salts from sea water to form these hard skeletons.
- The polyps live in colonies fastened to the rocky sea floor.
- The tubular skeletons grow upwards and outwards as a cemented calcareous rocky mass, collectively called corals.
- When the coral polyps die, they shed their skeleton on which new polyps grow.
- The cycle is repeated for over millions of years leading to accumulation of layers of corals shallow rock created by these depositions is called reef.
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Earth Hour
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Earth Hour
Mains level: Climate activism
The Earth Hour, observed annually on the last Saturday of March, was recently celebrated.
Earth Hour
- Earth Hour is a worldwide movement organized by the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF).
- It is held annually encouraging individuals, communities, and businesses to turn off non-essential electric lights, for one hour, from 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. on a specific day towards the end of March as a symbol of commitment to the planet.
- It was started as a lights-off event in Sydney, Australia, in 2007.
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New environment impact norm cuts time for public hearing
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: EIA in India
Mains level: Read the attached story
A set of key updates to India’s Environment Impact Assessment (EIA) Act has been proposed to reduce the time given to people to air objections.
Features proposed by the amendment
- The draft EIA notification proposes to be an update to the EIA of 2006, which specifies a “minimum of 30 days” for people to respond.
- The current version of the update, which will likely become law in 60 days, gives a “minimum of 20 days” of notice period.
- The public hearing process is considered a key component of the EIA. An organisation has to submit a detailed plan, as part of the EIA process that details the nature, need, potential impact and remedial measures, if their proposed infrastructure project threatens to significantly impact a region.
- It also requires that the public-hearing process be wrapped up in 40 days, as opposed to the existing norm of 45 days.
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in India
- EIA is a management tool to minimize adverse impacts of developmental projects on the environment and to achieve sustainable development through timely, adequate, corrective and protective mitigation measures.
- The MoEFCC uses EIA Notification 2006 as a major tool for minimizing the adverse impact of rapid industrialization on the environment and for reversing those trends which may lead to climate change in long run.
- EIA has now been made mandatory under the Environmental (Protection Act, 1986 for 29 categories of developmental activities involving investments of Rs. 50 crores and above.
EIA stages
- Screening: This stage decides which projects a full or partial assessment need study.
- Scoping: This stage decides which impacts are necessary to be assessed. This is done based on legal requirements, international conventions, expert knowledge and public engagement. This stage also finds out alternate solutions that avoid or at least reduce the adverse impacts of the project.
- Assessment & evaluation of impacts and development of alternatives: This stage predicts and identifies the environmental impacts of the proposed project and also elaborates on the alternatives.
- EIA Report: In this reporting stage, an environmental management plan (EMP) and also a non-technical summary of the project’s impact is prepared for the general public. This report is also called the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
- Decision making: The decision on whether the project is to be given approval or not and if it is to be given, under what conditions.
- Monitoring, compliance, enforcement and environmental auditing: This stage monitors whether the predicted impacts and the mitigation efforts happen as per the EMP.
Scope of Environmental Clearance (EC)
- Environmental clearance is required in respect of all new projects or activities listed in the Schedule to the 2006 notification and their expansion and modernization, including any change in product –mix.
- Since EIA 2006 the various developmental projects have been re-categorised into category ‘A’ and category ‘B’ depending on their threshold capacity and likely pollution potential.
- They require prior EC respectively from MOEFCC or the concerned State Environmental Impact Assessment Authorities (SEIAAs).
- Where state level authorities have not been constituted, the clearance would be provided by the MOEFCC.
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Climate change and geopolitics converge to yield locust swarms
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much.
Mains level: Paper 3- Protecting Indian agriculture against the locust attacks.
Context
Abnormal rainfall in the Arabian desert and an effect of the Yemen war have revived a menace that could hit Indian crops
Butterfly effect- a fitting metaphor for locust attack
- What is the butterfly effect? The butterfly effect occurs when a trivial cause, such as a butterfly fluttering its wings somewhere in an Amazon rainforest, triggers a series of events that end up having a massive impact elsewhere.
- Edward Lorenz, the American meteorologist who coined the phrase in the early 1960s, came up with it while building a mathematical model to predict weather patterns.
- Fitting metaphor: It is a fitting metaphor to explain a “plague” that is currently destroying vegetation and livelihoods in East Africa, the Arabian peninsula, Iran, Pakistan and India.
The impact of the locust attack in the world
- Impact in Africa: Several countries in Africa and Asia have been dealing with “the curse of good rains”: Massive swarms—called “plagues”—of the desert locust.
- Swarms as large as 2,400 sq. km, comprising 200 billion insects, have already damaged over 70,000 hectares of crops in Kenya and around 30,000 hectares in Ethiopia.
- Last month, Pakistan declared a national emergency over locusts.
- Impact in India: In India, several districts in Gujarat and Rajasthan have been affected.
- Rajasthan has announced a compensation of ₹13,500 per hectare to affected farmers.
- While locust swarms continue to plague African countries, for now, the outbreak has tapered down in India with swarms headed back towards Sindh and Balochistan.
- Possibility of return of the locusts: The expectation is that the locusts will be back in June, by which time their numbers would have grown fivefold.
What are the locusts and how they form swarms?
- Solitary creature: The brown-coloured desert locust usually lives as a solitary creature in the desert and bushlands.
- Transformation and swarm formation: When several of them gather in close proximity, they undergo a dramatic physical transformation, change colour to black and bright yellow, become gregarious, and start moving around in swarms.
- Contribution of moisture and temperature: Locusts lay their eggs a few inches under the soil in the presence of moisture, which hatch faster under higher temperatures.
- Similarly, the flightless nymphs mature faster under warmer conditions and, within weeks, turn into adults that can form swarms of hundreds of millions of insects that can fly over 100km per day.
- The scale of destruction: Each locust can eat its own body weight—around 2-3 grams—every day.
- Which means that a swarm can consume hundreds of tonnes of vegetation that it encounters every day.
Change in the behaviour pattern
- Limited to recession areas: Normally, desert locusts are limited to a recession area enveloping the African Sahel to the west and Rajasthan to the east.
- After international preventive control measures started in the 1940s, the intensity and spread of these swarms reduced, resulting only in regional plagues.
What contributed to this year’s infestation?
- Two factors contributed to this year’s infestation:
- Abnormal weather conditions.
- Region’s geopolitics.
- Abnormal weather conditions: In 2018, two cyclones a few months apart delivered rain to the Rub al Khali, the remote desert called the “Empty Quarter” of the Arabian peninsula.
- The resulting ephemeral lakes created new breeding grounds for the desert locust in a poorly monitored region.
- Region’s geopolitics: Insecticide spraying operations were not conducted because of the war in Yemen.
- The breeding continued before the swarms crossed the Gulf into Iran and the Red Sea to Ethiopia and Somalia in the Horn of Africa.
- Here, too, conflict and political unrest limited control operations, leading to further breeding.
- Another cyclone in 2019: In December 2019, another cyclonic storm hit the Horn of Africa, creating conditions for yet more breeding.
- Today, the situation is dire in Somalia, Ethiopia and Kenya, and is worsening in Uganda and Tanzania.
How affected countries are responding to the infestation?
- Pakistan declared national emergency: Across the Persian Gulf, the Pakistani provinces of Balochistan and Sindh were initially affected, and when Punjab was hit, the government declared a national emergency and approached China for assistance.
- How India is responding? Across the border, several districts in Gujarat and Rajasthan were affected and neighbouring states, including Uttar Pradesh, are now on alert.
- Cooperation between India and Pakistan: Despite political tensions, Indian and Pakistani locust control officials met almost once a month over the second half of 2019 to exchange information, if not coordinate control efforts.
- So far, India’s surveillance, preparedness and response have been competent and effective.
- The national Locust Warning Organization was set up in 1939 and is well connected to international institutions created to manage locust risks.
- It publishes weekly bulletins and even has a Twitter handle.
- Bulletins show when locusts were detected, the location, extent and tonnage of insecticide sprayed and the risk of future infestation.
- China’s preparedness: China is largely protected against locust plagues by geographical barriers, but is relatively vulnerable in the Xinjiang region.
- Past similar event: Faced with a similar situation a couple of decades ago, the Chinese government had deployed hundreds of thousands of ducks that would eat the locusts in response to the blowing of a whistle.
- Reports in the Chinese media indicate that Beijing plans to do the same this year.
The immediate concern in India
- Factors that could worsen the problem: Climate change, with higher temperatures and changes in the Indian Ocean Dipole, could worsen the locust problem for India in coming years.
- The problem could overwhelm the capacity to control: The immediate concern is that by June 2020, there will probably be extraordinarily large swarms in India and that these could overwhelm the country’s current capacity to control them.
- Preparedness measures by the government: The Union government is procuring additional spraying equipment and planning helicopter and drone-based control operations should the need arise.
- Containing the swarms at India’s border states is crucial, as India’s agricultural heartland lies just beyond.
Conclusion
The government should take stock of its preparedness to deal with the imminent locust attack in June take necessary actions to deal with the menace as it could threaten India’s food security and economy.
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Explained: Marine Heatwave (MHW)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Marine Heatwave
Mains level: Read the attached story
Scientists have observed unusually high sea surface temperatures (SSTs) in the Pacific Ocean around the western coast of the United States. This marine heatwave (MHW), covering an area of roughly 6.5 million square kilometres, can affect marine life and lead to droughts in the surrounding regions.
What are MHWs?
- We know that heatwaves occur in the atmosphere. We are all familiar with these extended periods of excessively hot weather.
- However, heatwaves can also occur in the ocean and these are known as marine heatwaves, or MHWs.
- These marine heatwaves, when ocean temperatures are extremely warm for an extended period of time can have significant impacts on marine ecosystems and industries.
When do they occur?
- Heatwaves can happen in summer and also in winter, where they are known as “winter warm-spells”.
- These winter events can have important impacts, such as in the southeast of Australia where the spiny sea urchin can only colonize further south when winter temperatures are above 12 °C.
What causes marine heatwaves?
- Marine heatwaves can be caused by a whole range of factors, and not all factors are important for each event.
- The most common drivers of marine heatwaves include ocean currents which can build up areas of warm water and air-sea heat flux, or warming through the ocean surface from the atmosphere.
- Winds can enhance or suppress the warming in a marine heatwave, and climate modes like El Niño can change the likelihood of events occurring in certain regions.
- MHWs can be caused due to large-scale drivers of the Earth’s climate like the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO).
Impacts of the MHWs
- Marine heatwaves affect ecosystem structure, by supporting certain species and suppressing others.
- For example, after the 2011 marine heatwave in Western Australia the fish communities had a much more “tropical” nature than previously and switched from kelp forests to seaweed turfs.
- Marine heatwaves can cause economic losses through impacts on fisheries and aquaculture.
- Temperature-sensitive species such as corals are especially vulnerable to MHWs. In 2016, marine heatwaves across northern Australia led to severe bleaching of the Great Barrier Reef.
How do we measure marine heatwaves?
- A marine heatwave occurs when seawater temperatures exceed a seasonally-varying threshold (usually the 90th percentile) for at least 5 consecutive days.
- Successive heatwaves with gaps of 2 days or less are considered part of the same event.
Why study MHWs?
- MHWs are increasing in frequency due to climate change. MHWs increased by 54 per cent in the last 30 years.
- Despite their potential impact on the health of marine ecosystems, MHWs remain one of the least studied consequences of global warming.
Way Forward
- Marine heatwaves clearly have the potential to devastate marine ecosystems and cause economic losses in fisheries, aquaculture, and ecotourism industries.
- However, their effects are often hidden from view under the waves until it is too late.
- By raising general awareness of these phenomena, and by improving our scientific understanding of their physical properties and ecological impacts, we can better predict future conditions and protect vulnerable marine habitats and resources.
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Red Snow in Antarctica
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Red snow , How it occurs
Mains level: Impact of climate change on Antarctica
Over the last few weeks, photographs of “red snow” off the coast of Antarctica’s northernmost peninsula, have gone viral. “Red snow” or “watermelon” is a phenomenon that has been known since ancient times. Now, it raises concerns about climate change.
Red snow in Antarctica: Why it happens
- Aristotle is believed to be one of the first to give a written account of red snow, over 2,000 years ago.
- What Aristotle described as worms and grub, the scientific world today calls algae.
- This alga species, Chlamydomonas Chlamydomonas nivalis, exists in the snow in the polar and glacial regions and carries a red pigment to keep itself warm.
Signs of faster melting
- In turn, the red snow causes the surrounding ice to melt faster. The more the algae packed together, the redder the snow.
- And the darker the tinge, the more the heat absorbed by the snow. Subsequently, the ice melts faster.
- While the melt is good for the microbes that need the liquid water to survive and thrive, it’s bad for glaciers that are already melting from a myriad of other causes, the study said.
- These algae change the snow’s albedo — which refers to the amount of light or radiation the snow surface is able to reflect back. Changes in albedo lead to more melting.
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[pib] Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services (INCOIS)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Various initiaitives mentioned in the newscard
Mains level: Not Much
The INCOIS Hyderabad has launched a trio of products for users in the marine realm.
About INCOIS
- The institute is an autonomous organisation under the Ministry of Earth Sciences.
- INCOIS prioritises requests for specific services from its diverse user community that ranges right from fishermen to offshore oil exploration industries.
Products launched:
Small Vessel Advisory and Forecast Services System (SVAS)
The SVAS is an innovative impact-based advisory and forecast service system for small vessels operating in Indian coastal waters.
- The SVA system warns users about potential zones where vessel overturning can take place, ten days in advance.
- The advisories are valid for small vessels of beam width up to 7 m.
- This limit covers the entire range of beam widths of the fishing vessels used in all the 9 coastal states and union territories of India.
- The warning system is based on the ‘Boat Safety Index’ (BSI) derived from wave model forecast outputs such as significant wave height, wave steepness, directional spread and the rapid development of wind at sea which is boat-specific.
Swell Surge Forecast System (SSFS)
SSFS is an innovative system designed for the prediction of Kallakkadal/Swell Surge that occurs along the Indian coast, particularly the west coast.
- Kallakadal/Swell surge are flash-flood events that take place without any noticeable advance change in local winds or any other apparent signature in the coastal environment.
- Hence the local population remains totally unaware of these flooding events until they actually occur. Such events are intermittent throughout the year.
- Kallakkadal is a colloquial term used by Kerala fishermen to refer to the freaky flooding episodes and in 2012 UNESCO formally accepted this term for scientific use.
- Kallakkadal are caused by meteorological conditions in the Southern Ocean, south of 30°S.
- These swells once generated, travel northward and reach the Indian coasts in 3-5 days time, creating havoc in the coastal areas.
- The system will now predict Kallakkadal and warnings will be given to concerned authorities at least 2-3 days in advance, which will help the local authorities for contingency plans and to reduce damage.
Algal Bloom Information Service (ABIS)
- The increasing frequency of algal blooms is a major concern due to its ill effects on the fishery, marine life and water quality.
- INCOIS has developed a service for “Detection and Monitoring of Bloom in the Indian Seas”.
- The target users are fishermen, marine fishery resource managers, researchers, ecologists and environmentalists.
- The service also complements INCOIS’ marine fishing advisories i.e. Potential Fishing Zone advisories.
- INCOIS-ABIS will provide near-real-time information on spatio-temporal occurrence and spread of phytoplankton blooms over the North Indian Ocean.
- In addition, four regions have been identified as bloom hotspots viz.
a) North Eastern Arabian Sea
b) coastal waters off Kerala
c) Gulf of Mannar and
d) coastal waters of Gopalpur
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Northern European Enclosure Dam (NEED)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: NEED
Mains level: Sea level rise and its impact
An extraordinary measure to protect 25 million people and important economic regions of 15 Northern European countries from rising seas has been proposed. It is called Northern European Enclosure Dam (NEED) enclosing all of the North Sea.
Northern European Enclosure Dam (NEED)
- The scientists have proposed the construction of two dams of a combined length of 637 km — the first between northern Scotland and western Norway.
- It would be 476 km and with an average depth of 121 m and maximum depth of 321 m; the second between France and southwestern England, of length 161 km, and average depth of 85 m and maximum depth of 102 m.
- A/c to scientists, separating the North and Baltic Seas from the Atlantic Ocean is considered to be the “most viable option” to protect Northern Europe against unstoppable sea level rise (SLR).
- They have also identified other regions in the world where such mega-enclosures could potentially be considered, including the Persian Gulf, the Mediterranean Sea, the Baltic Sea, the Irish Sea, and the Red Sea.
The rationale behind
- The concept of constructing NEED showcases the extent of protection efforts that are required if mitigation efforts fail to limit sea level rise.
- While NEED may appear to be “overwhelming” and “unrealistic”, it could be “potentially favourable” financially and in scale when compared with alternative solutions to fight SLR, the research argues.
- The researchers classify the solutions to SLR into three categories of taking no action, protection, and managed retreat — and submit that NEED is in the second category.
- While managed retreat, which includes options such as managed migrations, may be less expensive than protection (NEED), it involves intangible costs such as national and international political instability, psychological difficulties, and loss of culture and heritage for migrants.
- NEED, the paper says, will have the least direct impact on people’s daily lives, can be built at a “reasonable cost”, and has the largest potential to be implemented with the required urgency to be effective.
Viability of NEED
- The researchers have estimated the total costs associated with NEED at between €250 billion and €550 billion.
- They referred to the costs of building the 33.9-km Saemangeum Seawall in South Korea and the Maasvlakte 2 extension of the Rotterdam harbour in the Netherlands as examples,
- If construction is spread over a 20-year period, this will work out to an annual expense of around 0.07%-0.16% of the GDP of the 15 Northern European countries that will be involved.
- Also the construction will “heavily impact” marine and terrestrial ecosystems inside and outside the enclosure, will have social and cultural implications, and affect tourism and fisheries.
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Urban Heat Islands in India
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: UHU effect
Mains level: UHU effect
A recent study from IIT Kharagpur called “Anthropogenic forcing exacerbating the urban heat islands in India” noted that the relatively warmer temperature in urban areas, compared to suburbs, may contain potential health hazards due to heat waves apart from pollution.
About the study
- The research did study the difference between urban and surrounding rural land surface temperatures, across all seasons in 44 major cities from 2001 to 2017.
- It found evidence of mean daytime temperature of surface urban heat island (UHI Intensity) going up to 2 degrees C for most cities, as analysed from satellite temperature measurements in monsoon and post monsoon periods.
- Other researchers from elsewhere have also noticed similar rise in daytime temperatures in Delhi, Mumbai, Bengaluru, Hyderabad and Chennai.
What is an Urban Heat Island?
- An urban heat island (abbreviated as UHI) is where the temperature in a densely populated city is as much as 2 degrees higher than suburban or rural areas.
- This happens because of the materials used for pavements, roads and roofs, such as concrete, asphalt (tar) and bricks, which are opaque, do not transmit light, but have higher heat capacity and thermal conductivity than rural areas, which have more open space, trees and grass.
- Trees and plants are characterised by their ‘evapotranspiration’— a combination of words wherein evaporation involves the movement of water to the surrounding air, and transpiration refers to the movement of water within a plant and a subsequent lot of water through the stomata (pores found on the leaf surface) in its leaves.
- Grass, plants and trees in the suburbs and rural areas do this. The lack of such evapotranspiration in the city leads to the city experiencing higher temperature than its surroundings.
Latent impacts
- UHI s also decrease air quality in the cities, thanks to pollution generated by industrial and automobile exhaust, higher extent of particulate matter and greater amounts of dust than in rural areas.
- Due to this higher temperature in urban areas, the UHI increases the colonization of species that like warm temperatures, such as lizards and geckos.
- Insects such as ants are more abundant here than in rural areas; these are referred to as ectotherms.
- In addition, cities tend to experience heat waves which affect human and animal health, leading to heat cramps, sleep deprivation and increased mortality rates.
- UHIs also impact nearby water bodies, as warmer water (thanks to the pavements, rooftops and so on) is transferred from the city to drains in sewers, and released into nearby lakes and creeks, thus impairing their water quality.
Control of UHIs and mitigation
- Industrialization and economic development are vital to the country, but the control of UHIs and their fallouts are equally vital. Towards this, several methods are being, and can be, tried.
- One of them is to use greener rooftops, using light-coloured concrete (using limestone aggregates along with asphalt (or tar) making the road surface greyish or even pinkish (as some places in the US have done); these are 50% better than black, since they absorb less heat and reflect more sunlight.
- Likewise, we should paint rooftops green, and install solar panels there amidst a green background.
- The other is to plant as many trees and plants as possible
Why plant more trees?
Relevant to the present context are:
- they combat climate change; clean the surrounding air by absorbing pollutant gases (NXOy, O3, NH3, SO2, and others) and trapping particulates on their leaves and bark;
- they cool the city and the streets; conserve energy (cutting air-conditioning costs by 50%); save water and help prevent water pollution; help prevent soil erosion; protect people and children from UV light;
- they offer economic opportunities; bring diverse group of people together; encourage civic pride by giving neighborhoods a new identity; mask concrete walls, thus muffling sounds from streets and highways, and eye-soothing canopy of green; and the more a business district has trees, more business follows.
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India’s Scientific Expedition to the Southern Ocean
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Southern Ocean
Mains level: Role of Southern Ocean in Climate dynamics
A South African oceanographic research vessel SA Agulhas set off from Port Louise in Mauritius, on a two-month Indian Scientific Expedition to the Southern Ocean 2020. Recently the vessel was at Prydz Bay, in the coastal waters of “Bharati”, India’s third station in Antarctica.
India’s polar mission
- This is the 11th expedition of an Indian mission to the Southern Ocean, or Antarctic Ocean.
- The first mission took place between January and March 2004.
About the Southern Ocean expedition
- The researchers from IITM Pune are collecting air and water samples from around 60 stations along the cruise track.
- These will give valuable information on the state of the ocean and atmosphere in this remote environment and will help to understand its impacts on the climate.
- A key objective of the mission is to quantify changes that are occurring and the impact of these changes on large-scale weather phenomenon, like the Indian monsoon, through tele-connection.
Why study Southern Ocean?
- We know that carbon dioxide is getting emitted into the atmosphere, and through atmospheric circulation goes to the Antarctic and Polar Regions.
- Since the temperature is very low there, these gases are getting absorbed and converted into dissolved inorganic carbon or organic carbon, and through water masses and circulation it is coming back to tropical regions.
- All oceans around the world are connected through the Southern Ocean, which acts as a transport agent for things like heat across all these oceans.
- The conveyor belt that circulates heat around the world is connected through the Southern Ocean and can have a large impact on how climate is going to change due to anthropogenic forces.
Core projects of the expedition
- Study hydrodynamics and biogeochemistry of the Indian Ocean sector of the Southern Ocean; involves sampling seawater at different depths. This will help understand the formation of Antarctic bottom water.
- Observations of trace gases in the atmosphere, such as halogens and dimethyl sulphur from the ocean to the atmosphere. This will help improve parameterizations that are used in global models.
- Study of organisms called coccolithophores that have existed in the oceans for several million years; their concentrations in sediments will create a picture of past climate
- Investigate atmospheric aerosols and their optical and radiative properties. Continuous measurements will quantify the impact on Earth’s climate.
- Study the Southern Ocean’s impact on Indian monsoons. Look for signs in a sediment core taken from the bottom of the ocean
- Dynamics of the food web in the Southern Ocean; important for safeguarding catch and planning sustainable fishing
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‘Future of Earth, 2020’ Report
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Highlights of the report
Mains level: Various global threats and their mitigation
The “The Future of Earth, 2020” Report was recently released.
About the report
- The report is released by the South Asia Future Earth Regional Office, Divecha Centre for Climate Change, Indian Institute of Science.
- The report was prepared with the aim of reducing carbon footprint and halting global warming below 2 degree Celsius by 2050.
Highlights of the report
- Five global risks that have the potential to impact and amplify one another in ways that may cascade to create global systemic crisis have been listed by report.
- It listed the following as five global risks:
- failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation
- extreme weather events
- major biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse
- food crises; and
- water crises
- Offering examples of how the interrelation of risk factors play a role, scientists say extreme heatwaves can accelerate global warming by releasing large amounts of stored carbon from affected ecosystems, and at the same time intensify water crises and/ or food scarcity.
- The loss of biodiversity also weakens the capacity of natural and agricultural systems to cope with climate extremes, increasing our vulnerability to food crises, they point out.
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Thwaites Glacier
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thwaites Glacier
Mains level: Sea level rise and its impact
In the Antarctic floats a massive glacier, roughly the size of Britain, whose melting has been a cause of alarm for scientists over the years. Now, a new study has pinned the cause of the melting to the presence of warm water at a vital point beneath the glacier.
Thwaites Glacier
- The Thwaites Glacier is 120 km wide at its broadest, fast-moving and melting fast over the years.
- Because of its size (1.9 lakh square km), it contains enough water to raise the world sea level by more than half a metre.
- Studies have found the amount of ice flowing out of it has nearly doubled over the past 30 years. Today, Thwaites’s melting already contributes 4% to global sea level rise each year.
- It is estimated that it would collapse into the sea in 200-900 years. Thwaites is important for Antarctica as it slows the ice behind it from freely flowing into the ocean.
- Because of the risk it faces — and poses — Thwaites is often called the Doomsday Glacier.
What has the new study found?
- A 2019 study had discovered a fast-growing cavity in the glacier.
- More recently researchers detected warm water at a vital point below the glacier.
- Scientists dug a 600-m-deep and 35-cm-wide access hole, and deployed an ocean-sensing device called Icefin to measure the waters moving below the glacier’s surface.
- The study reported water at just two degrees above freezing point at Thwaites’s “grounding zone” or “grounding line”.
What is the grounding line?
- The grounding line is the place below a glacier at which the ice transitions between resting fully on bedrock and floating on the ocean as an ice shelf.
- The location of the line is a pointer to the rate of retreat of a glacier.
- When glaciers melt and lose weight, they float off the land where they used to be situated. When this happens, the grounding line retreats.
- That exposes more of a glacier’s underside to seawater, increasing the likelihood it will melt faster.
- This resulted in the glacier speeding up, stretching out, and thinning, causing the grounding line to retreat ever further.
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Global Go To Think-Tank Index
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Think Tank Index
Mains level: Not Much
Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) was placed No. 16 among 2019’s ‘top environment policy think tanks’ of the world in Global Go To Think Tank Index.
Think-Tank Index
- The Index is released by University of Pennsylvania each year since 2008.
- It evaluates public-policy research analysis and engagement organisations that generate policy-oriented research, analysis, and advice on domestic and international issues.
- It claims to enable policy makers and the public to make informed decisions on public policy.
- The 2020 report raised some critical threats and opportunities that think tanks across the globe face.
- It called upon such organisations to develop national, regional, and global partnerships and create new, innovative platforms to deliver for an ever-expanding audience of citizens, policy makers and businesses.
India’s performance
- CSE climbed up two notches in the 14th version of the report.
- The organisation also moved up three places among ‘best independent think tanks’ to be at No.123 in the world and sixth among Indian think tanks.
- Globally, it was ranked 41 of 60 organisations committed to energy and resource policy. It remained at No.58 among organisations working on science and technology policy in the world — fifth in India.
CSE as forerunner
- CSE was named the ‘national climate leader’ from India for 2019 in the first National Climate Leader Awards published in the Global Spotlight Report #22 by Climate Scorecard.
- CSE also received the prestigious Indira Gandhi Prize for Peace, Disarmament and Development for 2018 in 2019 for ‘pioneering work on environment and sustainable development’.
- CSE also featured in four other rankings in the report: ‘top water security think tanks’; ‘top energy and resource policy think tanks’; ‘top science and technology policy think tanks’ and ‘best independent think tanks’.
- It also ranked 18 among 78 global think tanks for its work on ‘water security’ — second in India after Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment.
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[op-ed snap]Partners in action
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Green Growth Equity Fund
Mains level: Paper 3- Climate change, Steps taken by India to mitigate the impact, collaboration in innovation with other countries.
Context
Both India and the UK are exploring how best to develop the technology and investment needed to spur the transition from fossil to renewable fuels and make this a beneficial trajectory for everyone.
Areas of collaboration with the UK
- Resilience to climate change: To build resilience to climate risks, the U.K. is working with the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Act to build flood defences and river structures to encourage aquifer replenishment.
- Monsoon forecasting: Together with India’s Ministry of Earth Sciences, we are gathering land, sea and atmospheric data to help deliver a decisive step forward in monsoon forecasting.
- Electric mobility: On electric mobility, a major joint venture between UK’s EO Charging and India’s Yahhvi Enterprises will deliver world-class smart charging infrastructure for electric vehicles across India.
- Finance of Green Growth Equity Fund: On finance, the U.K. government committed 240 million pounds of anchor capital in the Green Growth Equity Fund.
- Its first investment going to Ayana Renewable Power, which is developing 800MW of solar generation capacity.
India’s efforts to tackle climate change
- India’s size and ecological diversity have placed it on the frontlines of global warming.
- India walking the talk on climate change: It is on course to deliver the target of 40 per cent electricity generation from non-fossil fuels by 2030.
- ISA: India has already demonstrated this personal commitment on the world stage with the India-led International Solar Alliance.
- CDRI: India also announced the global Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, both of which the UK a part of.
- India and the UK can also work together on–
- Resilience and adaption.
- Clean energy.
- Green finance and nature-based solutions.
- Infrastructure development.
- Sustainable energy and smart cities.
Conclusion
India and the UK need to make sure that the present partnership on climate and the environment go from strength to strength in the future.
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Biorock technique for Coral Restoration
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Biorock Technique, Coral Bleaching
Mains level: Coral restoration measures
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with help from Gujarat’s forest department, is attempting for the first time a process to restore coral reefs using biorock or mineral accretion technology.
What is Biorock Technique?
- Biorock is the name given to the substance formed by electro accumulation of minerals dissolved in seawater on steel structures that are lowered onto the sea bed and are connected to a power source, in this case solar panels that float on the surface.
- The technology works by passing a small amount of electrical current through electrodes in the water.
- When a positively charged anode and negatively charged cathode are placed on the sea floor, with an electric current flowing between them, calcium ions combine with carbonate ions and adhere to the structure (cathode).
- This results in calcium carbonate formation. Coral larvae adhere to the CaCO3 and grow quickly.
- Fragments of broken corals are also tied to the biorock structure, where they are able to grow at least four to six times faster than their actual growth as they need not spend their energy in building their own calcium carbonate skeletons.
Significance of the move
- The technology helps corals, including the highly sensitive branching corals, to counter the threats posed by global warming.
- In 2015, the same group of ZSI scientists had successfully restored branching coral species (staghorn corals) belonging to the family Acroporidae (Acropora formosa, Acropora humilis, Montipora digitata) that had gone extinct about 10,000 years ago to the Gulf of Kachchh.
Back2Basics
Coral Bleaching
- The stunning colours in corals come from a marine algae called zooxanthellae, which live inside their tissues.
- This algae provides the corals with an easy food supply thanks to photosynthesis, which gives the corals energy, allowing them to grow and reproduce.
- When corals get stressed, from things such as heat or pollution, they react by expelling this algae, leaving a ghostly, transparent skeleton behind.
- This is known as ‘coral bleaching’. Some corals can feed themselves, but without the zooxanthellae most corals starve.
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[op-ed snap] Think climate change action, act glocal
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much.
Mains level: Paper 3-Climate change and India's SAPCCs. India acting at state level.
Context
The recent global climate summit, the annual Conference of the Parties (COP25), held in Madrid was a failure and that the multilateral process to address the climate crisis is broken. The growing global stalemate gives India the chance to focus on the State and sub-State levels.
COP 25 at Madrid and what future prospects
- Wealthy countries disowning responsibility: At several discussions on finance, ambition, transparency of support and pre-2020 action, wealthy countries were recalcitrant.
- Disavowing obligations: Although responsible for using the bulk of the carbon space in the atmosphere, they now disavow their obligations. With some even denying anthropogenic climate change.
- Complete severance of science from negotiations: At this stage, there is a complete severance of climate science from the negotiations and agreements at the global level.
- The question is, what can we do now?
- What can happen at the next COP?
- Hope of little change: The next COP will be held at Glasgow, U.K. (in late 2020) and there may be little change in the outcomes.
- The global political order may not alter much. The fact that we live in an unequal and unjust world is not going to change either.
- What else can happen on the global level?
- Right leader: The right political leaders could nudge action in a new direction.
- Green New Deal could pass: Younger members could be elected to the U.S. Congress and the Green New Deal could pass sometime in 2021.
- Growing activism: In the meantime, climate activism is increasing awareness and having some success in removing insurance and financial support for fossil fuel companies. But these kinds of changes will occur slowly.
- Participation of other stakeholders at next COP: At least one expert has called for a parallel action COP at future summits where sub-state actors, civil society groups, non-governmental organisations and academics can share ideas and nudge action.
The chance for India to develop climate change action at State and Sub-state level
- Chance to develop climate change action: The stalemate at the global level offers India the opportunity to focus earnestly on developing its climate change action at State and sub-State levels.
- Peripheral status of climate change: In the states, the environment and climate continue to be relegated to peripheral status.
- Damage to the environment: This neglect has led to the destruction of ecosystems, forests, water-bodies and biodiversity.
- Vulnerability and economic costs of the neglect: Numerous studies have shown the high economic and ecological costs and loss of lives due to extreme events.
- We do not need more data to stimulate action. As is also well recognised, India is extremely vulnerable to the effects of warming.
Progress made by the states so far
- The first round of SAPCCs: With support from bilateral agencies, States initially took different approaches in the first round of State Action Plans on Climate Change (SAPCCs).
- Some of them set up separate climate change cells while some collaborated with academic institutions.
- A few produced detailed action plans while others developed strategy documents.
- Still, others integrated improvements in energy efficiency (contributing to reducing emissions), while almost all focused on adaptation.
- The synergy between climate change and development:
- Attention to climate change offers co-benefits to India for development. For instance-
- Efficiency reduces pollution: Improving energy efficiency in industry reduces costs and local pollution.
- Transport and congestion: Improving public transport reduces congestion, pollution and improves access.
- Natural farming and fertilisers: Using natural farming methods reduces fossil fuel-based fertilizers, improves soil health and biodiversity.
- These examples show that there are synergies in the steps to be taken for good development and climate change.
- Next round of SAPCCs and strategies
- The next round of the SAPCCs is being drawn up, under recommendations from the Centre.
- Where should be the focus? The focus ought to be on integrating the response to climate change with the development plan in different departments.
- States together to contribute NDCs: Since the States together are to deliver the Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) that India has promised, it means that they require guidance from the Centre.
- Unfortunately, most State government departments are handling climate change as a fringe issue and do not seem to recognise its urgency.
Integration of various sectors for climate action
- Identification of sectors: Line departments for government schemes and programmes in key development sectors, such as agriculture, transport and water, should be identified for carefully integrating actions that respond to climate change.
- Integration at district level: This integration should also take place at district and sub-district levels. But only a demonstration of its success in some departments would show how this can be done.
- The realisation of climate as an important issue: But first and foremost, States need to get the signal that climate is an urgent issue.
- Funds for implementing SAPCCs
- How funds for implementing SAPCCs will be obtained is not clear.
- There will not be enough from the Green Climate Fund, Adaptation Fund and bilateral agencies to support all States unless new sources are found.
- Use of coal cess: The coal cess in India is a good initiative, and as others have pointed out, could be used for environment and climate-related expenses.
- Alternative sources: Alternative sources from high emissions’ industries and practices would be an option, but still probably insufficient.
Way forward
- Performance analysis of first SAPCCs: There is also needs to be a clear analysis of how the first round of action plans fared.
- Challenges and performance: What were the challenges and how did they perform?
- Reasons for success and failures: Which approaches and projects were successful and ought to be scaled up and what lessons do the failures offer?
- Finally, what institutional structure works best?
- Need for the greenhouse gas inventory: The country needs reliable greenhouse gas inventories.
- Individual research groups and the civil society initiative, GHG Platform India, have been producing such inventories.
- Such inventories would be useful in synchronising and co-ordinating State and Central mitigation programmes.
- Programmes with longer timelines: States must also develop their programmes with longer timelines.
- With mid-course correction based on lessons and successes that can be integrated into the next stage of the plan.
- If the second round of SAPCCs were treated as an entry point to long-term development strategy, the States and the country would be better prepared for climate change.
- Ultimately, climate should be part and parcel of all thinking on development.
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Global Risks Report 2020
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Risks Report 2020
Mains level: Read the attached story
The top five risks to humanity are recently published in the Global Risks Report of the World Economic Forum (WEF).
Top five risks
- An important finding of the report is that today’s younger generation, consisting of “Millenials” born after 1980 have ranked environmental risks higher than other older respondents in the short- and long-terms.
- According to the report, the top five risks by likelihood over the next decade are:
- Extreme weather events like floods and storms
- Failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation
- Major natural disasters like earthquakes, tsunamis, volcanic eruptions and geomagnetic storms
- Major biodiversity losses and ecosystem collapse
- Human-made environmental damage and disasters
Top 5 risks by severity of impact over the next 10 years
- Failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation
- Weapons of mass destruction
- Major biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse
- Extreme weather events (e.g. floods, storms, etc.)
- Water crises
Top most strongly connected global risks
- Extreme weather events + failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation
- Large-scale cyber-attacks + breakdown of critical information infrastructure and networks
- High structural unemployment or underemployment + adverse consequences of technological advances
- Major biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse + failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation
- Food crises + extreme weather events
Other risks
- The report also warned about the increasing economic and societal costs due to non-communicable diseases and the lack of research on vaccines and drug resistance to address the threat of pandemics in the recent future.
- “Economic confrontations” and “domestic political polarization” are significant short-term risks in 2020, the report said.
- This is a warning for the global South including India and Africa where social unrest has seen a rise. For example, unrest has grown among India’s youth.
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[op-ed of the day] Electricity 4.0: The future of power in the age of climate change
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much.
Mains level: Paper 3-Climate change and adoption of clean and sustainable energy to tackle with it.
Context
Significance of electricity in our life
- Interconnecting economic prosperity: Electrical energy is a juncture that inter-connects economic prosperity.
- Amplifies social equity.
- Ushers in a liveable environment for us.
- No development in its true sense is possible if we leave aside energy and specifically sustainable energy.
- It is almost indispensable for holistic and sustainable progress of any kind.
Burning of fossil fuel and climate change
- Singular reliance on fossil fuel: Ever since the industrial revolution, development has almost singularly relied on the burning of fossil fuels, emitting huge volumes of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.
- 41% of electricity from coal: As per data by the World Coal Association, a little over 41% of all electricity generated is produced from coal.
- Problems with coal: Burning coal for electricity production leads to-
- High level of hazardous carbon emissions.
- Rising levels of pollution: water and air pollution during mining and air pollution during burning.
- Working condition of miners: Added to the disastrous working conditions of miners, coal cannot be regarded as a sustainable source of energy.
- Global warming and climate change: Despite increasing awareness, not much is being done to mitigate climate change.
- Rise over 1.5oC and Consequences: IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) has reiterated that unless global temperature rise is not kept within 1.5 degrees Celsius, natural and human systems will be irreparably damaged.
- Rise over 2o C and Consequences: Even a slight increase in atmospheric temperature by 2 degrees Celsius will result in a substantial rise in sea levels.
- Consequences for human life: The rise in sea level would, in turn, translate into a whopping 10 million more people going homeless and another 50% people facing severe water scarcity.
- The aim of becoming carbon neutral: To join the efforts, many global public and private stakeholders have pledged their allegiance into becoming net-zero carbon emitters.
- But we are still far from achieving our objectives, as the IEA (International Energy Agency) recently reported that the Earth’s temperature rise will range between 1.8 degrees Celsius and 2.7 degrees Celsius soon.
Sustainable energy as a necessity
- Energy efficiency and energy management: As the world is evolving into an interconnected form of world-of work, life and more-energy efficiency and energy management have slowly come to be a central driving force.
- Sustainable energy a necessity: In order to power smart homes, industries, hospitals and other mission-critical operations, sustainable energy is no more a matter of choice, but of necessity.
- IoT to help achieve energy efficiency: Technology adoptions like IoT and connected services can greatly enhance energy efficiencies and many global behemoths are coming to terms with this reality.
- Demand for an alternative source of energy: Environmental factors, coupled with rising costs and stringent regulatory guidelines, are adding to the demand for alternative sources of energy.
- Alternate as well as sustainable: The alternate sources are expected not only to satiate the growing consumption needs but are proven to be a sustainable option in the long run.
Electricity 4.0
- Electricity 4.0: That is, sustainable methods of energy generation and efficient and cost-effective usage of produced energy.
- The sustainable energy need of the sustainable future: To lay the foundation stone for a sustainable future, there is a critical need to investigate how we create and consume energy.
- The answer lies in renewables becoming the dominant source of power, globally.
- A new form of energy mix: There is a growing need to build a new form of energy mix under Electricity 4.0, with renewable ways of electricity creation, at its very core. A new order where-
- Electrical internet of things (EIOT).
- Cloud computing.
- Artificial intelligence.
- And the tools of today’s digital era are fully leveraged to maximise energy efficiency.
Way forward
- Given that the major cause of global warming is Carbon Dioxide, so the first step to combat it would be-
- Electrifying the planet: The augmented proliferation of energy-efficient, electricity-based equipments that are prevalent now, such as e-mobility, electrical heating, innovative applications such as electric aviation fleets can be one way to do that.
- Scale up the production of renewable energy: The immediate need is to scale up the production of renewable electricity and build conducive public-policy frameworks to further this goal.
- Adoption of digital technology: It is imperative to adopt digital technology in order to optimise the efficiency of our energy consumption and electrical networks. Digital connectivity, software and artificial intelligence can well be dubbed as the fulcrum that will support our transition toward Industry 4.0.
- Concerted efforts from all stakeholders: To reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions or to promote energy decarbonisation, concerted efforts are required from all stakeholders – the community, regions, government and the private sector.
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[op-ed snap] Global warming puts forests, plantations in the country at risk
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Not much.
Mains level: Paper 3- Need to define the natural forests and effects of climate change on forests.
Context
Global warming, drought and El Niño may lead to increased forest fires.
The success story of India
- Reduced deforestation: India has succeeded in reducing deforestation to some extent through an effective Forest Conservation Act and large-scale afforestation programme.
- Comparison with other countries: India performed better when compared with other forest-rich tropical countries such as Brazil, Indonesia and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
- Without the Forest Conservation Act and its reasonably effective implementation, India would have lost significant extent of forest area.
- Increased afforestation: India has also been implementing significant scale afforestation, though the rates of afforestation have declined recently.
- Agro-forestry, involving raising fruit tree plantations contribute to some extent.
- Commercial plantations of eucalyptus, casuarina, teak, poplar, etc., have been raised by farmers for commercial purposes.
- The above steps have resulted in potentially reducing the pressure on natural forests.
Need to measure ‘natural forest’
- Increase in an area under forest: According to the latest biennial State of Forest Report (SFR) of the Forest Survey of India (FSI), an area under forests has been increasing.
- Natural forests not specifically measured: It is not clear what percentage of increase in forest area is due to changes in natural forests which are generally rich in biodiversity.
- The report doesn’t specify what percentage of change in area is due to commercial plantation and what percentage is contributed by horticulture or urban parks.
- Need to define ‘natural forest’: What will be of most concern to forest and biodiversity conservation is to understand the status of natural forest and biodiversity.
- India can use the same definition of forests but must estimate and report the area under natural forests and other forest plantation categories.
- India needs to define ‘natural forests’ first, further, this would involve additional staff time and resources.
- The resilience of natural forests to forest fires: Tropical forests rich in biodiversity are likely to be more resilient than monoculture dominated plantations or exotics.
- Vulnerability to forest fires varies from forests to forests: Studies by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have shown that degraded forests, fragmented forests and biodiversity-poor forests are more vulnerable to climate change.
Climate change and its impacts
- IPCC reports on large scale loss: The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) reports have repeatedly concluded that climate change will lead to large-scale loss of biodiversity, before the end of the current century or even earlier.
- Modelling studies by IISc.: Preliminary modelling studies by Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have shown that about 20% of forests will be impacted by climate change.
- No change to adapt: The modelling studies means that existing forest biodiversity and its structure and composition will not be able to adapt to the new climate and there could be mortality or forest dieback.
- The threat of forest fires: Further, warming, drought and El Niño will lead to increased forest fires, and may even be favourable to forest pests.
- Unfortunately, the models currently in use for assessing the impact of climate change are not suitable for the complex and highly diverse forest types that exist in India.
Conclusions
- Given that global warming will continue, India will have to brace itself to adapt to the impending impacts. In India, there is very limited research on climate change and its impacts on forests, putting our famed biodiversity-rich country status under threat.
- India needs to realistically assess, monitor and model climate change and its impacts and be prepared to adapt to impending climate change.
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Thawing of Permafrost
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thermokarsts, Thawing of permafrost
Mains level: Impact of climate change on polar permafrost
A recent study makes a disturbing connection between the loss of Arctic sea ice and thawing (melting) of permafrost in the region, with global implications.
What is Permafrost?
- ‘Permafrost’ or permanently frozen ground is land that has been frozen at or below 0 degrees Celsius for two or more consecutive years.
- A staggering 17 per cent of Earth’s entire exposed land surface is comprised of permafrost.
- Composed of rock, sediments, dead plant and animal matter, soil, and varying degrees of ice, permafrost is mainly found near the poles, covering parts of Greenland, Alaska, Northern Canada, Siberia and Scandinavia.
- The Arctic region is a vast ocean, covered by thick ice on the surface (called sea ice), surrounded by land masses that are also covered with snow and ice.
Permafrost thawing
- When permafrost thaws, water from the melted ice makes its way to the caves along with ground sediments, and deposits on the rocks.
- In other words, when permafrost thaws, the rocks grow and when permafrost is stable and frozen, they do not grow.
Why thawing?
- The link between the Siberian permafrost and Arctic sea ice can be explained by two factors:
- One is heat transport from the open Arctic Ocean into Siberia, making the Siberian climate warmer.
- The second is moisture transport from open seawater into Siberia, leading to thicker snow cover that insulates the ground from cold winter air, contributing to its warming.
- This is drastically different from the situation just a couple of decades ago when the sea ice acted as a protective layer, maintaining cold temperatures in the region and shielding the permafrost from the moisture from the ocean.
- If sea ice (in the summer) is gone, permafrost start thawing.
Impact on Climate Change
- Due to relentlessly rising temperatures in the region, since the late-twentieth century, the Arctic sea ice and surrounding land ice are melting at accelerating rates.
- When permafrost thaws due to rising temperatures, the microbes in the soil decompose the dead organic matter (plants and animals) to produce methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2), both potent greenhouse gases.
- CH4 is at least 80 times more powerful than CO2 on a decadal timescale and around 25 times more powerful on a century timescale.
- The greenhouse gases produced from thawing permafrost will further increase temperatures which will, in turn, lead to more permafrost thawing, forming an unstoppable and irreversible self-reinforcing feedback loop.
- Experts believe this process may have already begun. Giant craters and ponds of water (called ‘thermokarst lakes’) formed due to thawing have been recorded in the Arctic region. Some are so big that they can be seen from space.
Why a matter of concern?
- An estimated 1,700 billion tonnes — twice the amount currently present in the atmosphere — of carbon is locked in all of the world’s permafrost.
- Even if half of that were to be released to the atmosphere, it would be game over for the climate.
- Scientific estimates suggest that the Arctic Ocean could be largely sea ice-free in the summer months by as early as 2030, based on observational trends, or as late as 2050, based on climate model projections.
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[op-ed of the day] Weathering the storm
Context
State of Climate of India report by IMD should occasion interventions to make people resilient to extreme weather events.
What does the report confirm?
- Frequent extreme weather events: The report states that extreme weather events have become par for the course in the country.
- The report notes that excessive heat, cold and rainfall killed 1,562 people during the year.
- Intense dry spells, even droughts, were interspersed with floods in several parts of the country
- Above normal temperature: The mean temperature last year was 0.36 above normal.
- The excess rainfall: The country also recorded excess rainfall during both the southwest and northeast monsoons.
Long-term meteorological trends:
- The IMD report should be seen in conjunction with long-term meteorological trends.
- The warmest decade: The World Meteorological Organisation reckons that the decade starting 2011 remains on track to be the warmest on record.
- Increase in the relative humidity: At the same time, data from the European Centre for Medium-Range Forecast shows that the relative humidity in the mid-troposphere in the Subcontinent has increased by about 2 percent in the past four decades.
- Such warming has increased the capacity of oceans to form intense cyclonic disturbances.
Implications for disaster-preparedness:
- Cyclones: Last year, as the IMD report notes, the Indian Ocean witnessed eight cyclones.
- Cyclones don’t kill but buildings can turn hazardous during such extreme weather events.
- The vulnerability of the poor: In Odisha winds blowing at more than 140 kilometers per hour ripped off roofs and window frames in modern houses and also exposed the vulnerability of the mud and bamboo houses of the poor.
- Guidelines: The Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs does have guidelines for climate-friendly construction.
- But planners in coastal cities and towns rarely pay heed to its provisions.
- Cooperation between the states: The changing dynamics of weather also demands cooperation between states that share a river basin.
- Maharashtra and Karnataka bickered over opening the gates of the Almatti dam on the Krishna.
Implications for the farmers:
- For farmers, vagaries in nature mean disruptions in the entire cropping cycle.
- This year, Kerala, southern Karnataka, and Gujarat were heavily deficient till July.
- But within a few days in the last week of July, these states recorded surplus rainfall.
- Rainwater storage and use: Increasing their resilience calls for efficient rainwater storage and use.
Conclusion:
It’s clear that dealing with exceptional weather will require interventions at the national, state and local levels. The Statement on Climate of India 2019 drives home the urgency of such interventions.
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Carbon Stock in Indian forests
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Stock
Mains level: India's INDC
- The State of Forest Report (SFR) 2019 has shown an increase in the carbon stock trapped in Indian forests in the last two years.
- However it shows why it is going to be an uphill task for India in meeting one of its international obligations on climate change.
India’s carbon commitment
- India, as part of its contribution to the global fight against climate change, has committed itself to creating an “additional carbon sink of 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent” by 2030.
- That is one of the three targets India has set for itself in its climate action plan, called Nationally Determined Contributions, or NDCs, that every country has to submit under the 2015 Paris Agreement.
- The other two relate to an improvement in emissions intensity and an increase in renewable energy deployment.
- India has said it would reduce its emissions intensity (emissions per unit of GDP) by 33% to 35% by 2030 compared to 2005.
- It has also promised to ensure that at least 40% of its cumulative electricity generation in 2030 would be done through renewable energy.
What is the relationship between forests and carbon?
- Forests, by absorbing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere for the process of photosynthesis, act as a natural sink of carbon.
- Together with oceans, forests absorb nearly half of global annual carbon dioxide emissions.
- In fact, the carbon currently stored in the forests exceeds all the carbon emitted in the atmosphere since the start of the industrial age.
- An increase in the forest area is thus one of the most effective ways of reducing the emissions that accumulate in the atmosphere every year.
How do the latest forest data translate into carbon equivalent?
- The latest forest survey shows that the carbon stock in India’s forests (not including tree cover outside of forest areas) have increased from 7.08 billion tonnes in 2017.
- This translates into 26.14 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent as of now.
- It is estimated that India’s tree cover outside of forests would contribute another couple of billion of tonnes of carbon dioxide equivalent.
How challenging does this make it for India in meeting its target?
- An assessment by the Forest Survey of India (FSI) last year had projected that, by 2030, the carbon stock in forests as well as tree cover was likely to reach 31.87 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
- An additional 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of sink, as India has promised to do, would mean taking the size of the sink close to 35 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
- Considering the rate of growth of the carbon sink in the last few years, that is quite a stiff target India has set for itself.
- In the last two years, the carbon sink has grown by just about 0.6%%. Even compared to 2005, the size of carbon sink has increased by barely 7.5%.
- To meet its NDC target, even with most optimistic estimates of carbon stock trapped in trees outside of forest areas, the sink has to grow by at least 15% to 20% over the next ten-year period.
Way Forward
- There are two key decisions to be made in this regard — selection of the baseline year, and addition of the contribution of the agriculture sector to carbon sink.
- When India announced its NDC in 2015, it did not mention the baseline year.
- India’s emissions intensity target uses a 2005 baseline, so there is an argument that the forest target should also have the same baseline.
- But there is a strong demand for a 2015 baseline as well, so that it results in some concrete progress in adding new forest cover.
- The NDC specifically mentions that and “additional” 2.5 to 3 billion tonnes of carbon sink would be created through additional forest and tree cover by 2030 MoEFCC insist that tree cover outside forest areas must include agriculture as well.
- India would also have to specify whether it wants to count the carbon sink in the agriculture sector in its target.
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