Why in the News?

A groundbreaking study at the University of British Columbia, published in Nature Mental Health, reveals that addiction involves a complex neural circuit regulating cravings, emotions, and decision-making, shifting approaches to treatment and recovery.

The Three-Stage Cycle of Addiction

• Binge/Intoxication Stage (Basal Ganglia – Reward Processing)

• • Substance use triggers dopamine release, reinforcing pleasurable behaviors.
  • Over time, the brain associates substance use with intense rewards, increasing dependence.
  • Users experience cravings, leading to compulsive drug-seeking behavior.

• Withdrawal/Negative Affect Stage (Extended Amygdala – Emotional Distress)

• • When substance use stops, individuals experience withdrawal symptoms like stress, anxiety, and depression.
  • The brain craves relief, pushing individuals toward continued substance use to avoid discomfort.
  • This stage makes quitting extremely difficult, reinforcing addiction.

• Preoccupation/Anticipation Stage (Prefrontal Cortex – Impulse Control & Cravings)

• • The prefrontal cortex weakens, impairing decision-making and self-control.
  • Cravings dominate thoughts, leading to obsessive focus on substance use.
  • Despite knowing the negative consequences, individuals struggle to quit due to impaired cognitive function.

This cycle continuously repeats, making addiction a self-reinforcing loop.

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Researchers have discovered a reason why certain segments of the human and mouse genomes (Tra2b gene) have remained unchanged for 80 million years. These segments, known as ultra-conserved elements (UCEs), play a vital role in regulating protein production

What are Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA?

• Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) are long, highly conserved DNA sequences (200+ base pairs) that have remained unchanged for millions of years across multiple species, including humans, mice, rats, chickens, and even fish.
• Key Characteristics:
  • Found in both coding (gene) and non-coding (regulatory) regions of the genome.
  • Do not tolerate mutations, meaning they remain identical across species for tens of millions of years.
  • Many UCEs do not code for proteins but play crucial roles in gene regulation and cellular function.

• Their importance:

• • Evolutionary Significance: Their extreme conservation suggests they are essential for survival, as any mutation would likely be harmful.
  • Gene Regulation: UCEs may function as enhancers or silencers, controlling when and where genes are activated.
  • Developmental Roles: They are often linked to brain development, fertility, and immune response.
  • Disease Prevention: UCEs may protect against genetic disorders and cancers by stabilizing gene expression.

Why do Human and Mouse Genomes overlap?

• Humans and mice share a common mammalian ancestor that lived around 80 million years ago.
• Genomic Similarity:
  • Around 85% of mouse genes have direct counterparts in humans.
  • Nearly 500 UCEs are identical between humans and mice, despite millions of years of evolution.
• Many fundamental processes like cell division, metabolism, and brain function are similar between species, necessitating high conservation of crucial DNA regions.
• Medical Research:
  • Because of these similarities, mice serve as a model organism for studying human genetics, diseases, and drug responses.
  • UCEs help scientists understand gene function across species, leading to insights into evolution and biomedical advancements.

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In December 2024, Russia announced the development of a new mRNA-based personalized cancer vaccine, with plans to make it available for free to patients by early 2025.

What is an mRNA Cancer Vaccine?

• Unlike traditional vaccines, mRNA vaccines provide genetic instructions to train the immune system to detect and attack cancer cells.
• This technology gained prominence with the COVID-19 vaccines (Pfizer-BioNTech, Moderna) and is now being adapted for cancer treatment.
• These vaccines are therapeutic, designed for patients who already have cancer, not for prevention.

How do mRNA Cancer Vaccines Work?

• Cancer cells evade the immune system by suppressing immune responses.
  • Immunotherapy works by enhancing the body’s natural ability to detect and destroy these cancerous cells.
• Unlike chemotherapy, which kills both healthy and cancerous cells, immunotherapy selectively targets only cancer cells, reducing harmful side effects.
• mRNA cancer vaccines are customized for each patient, targeting specific tumor antigens, making them highly personalized and potentially more effective.
• While traditional infectious disease vaccines prevent illness, mRNA cancer vaccines are therapeutic, meaning they are administered to patients who already have cancer to help their immune system fight the disease.

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Researchers have created a gene-editing tool to fix ABCA4 gene mutations, offering hope for treating Stargardt disease, a rare condition that causes progressive vision loss.

What is Stargardt Disease?

• Stargardt Disease is a rare inherited eye disorder that causes progressive vision loss, primarily affecting the central part of the retina, called the macula.
• It is typically caused by mutations in the ABCA4 gene, which disrupts the body’s ability to use Vitamin A, leading to an excessive buildup of lipofuscin (yellowish-brown pigment) in retinal cells.
• The disease commonly begins in childhood or early adulthood and is usually bilateral, involving both eyes.
• Currently, there is no cure for Stargardt Disease.

Symptoms of Stargardt Disease

• Progressive vision loss, particularly affecting central vision.
• Difficulty seeing in low light (night blindness).
• Blurred or distorted vision, with colors appearing less vivid.
• Appearance of dark spots or areas of vision loss in the central visual field.
• Gradual deterioration of visual acuity, leading to potential legal blindness.

Present Scenario in India

• According to a 2023 study by L.V. Prasad Eye Institute, Hyderabad:
  • The disease predominantly affects males and typically manifests during the second decade of life.
  • Estimated prevalence: 1 in 8,000 to 10,000 individuals.
  • 10.79% of patients had a family history of Stargardt disease, while 10.69% were from consanguineous marriages.
• In India, Stargardt disease is a not uncommon hereditary condition, with limited treatment options available.

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Researchers at Columbia University found that cells can selectively switch off one parent’s copy of a gene. This may explain why some people with harmful mutations remain symptom-free, and it could lead to new diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for genetic disorders.

About the Selective Silencing Mechanism:

• Selective gene silencing refers to the process where cells inactivate one parent’s copy of a gene (either maternal or paternal), resulting in an unequal contribution of the two gene copies to cellular function.
• Previously thought to be rare, recent research reveals that this phenomenon is relatively common and plays a significant role in genetic variability, disease progression, and individual health outcomes.
• Key Features:
  • Inactivation can vary between different cell types (e.g., immune cells and kidney cells).
  • The process is dynamic and may change over time, adding complexity to how genes function in the body.
  • Approximately 1 in 20 active genes in some immune cells exhibit this selective bias.
• Implications for Health:
  • This mechanism helps explain why individuals carrying the same disease-causing mutation can have vastly different symptom severities.
  • It shifts the understanding of genetic diseases, emphasizing the importance of dynamic gene activity patterns alongside static genetic codes.
  • The discovery opens up opportunities for novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches by focusing on gene expression rather than genetic sequences.

What are its significant applications?

• Selective Gene Manipulation: Therapies could be developed to activate healthy gene copies while suppressing diseased ones, offering a less invasive alternative to traditional genetic editing.
• Improved Understanding of Diseases: Selective gene silencing explains variability in conditions like lupus and cancer, revealing why some individuals remain symptom-free.
• Precision Medicine: By identifying individual patterns of gene expression, personalized treatment options become possible, reducing the need for one-size-fits-all approaches.
• Early Interventions: Recognizing at-risk but asymptomatic individuals allows healthcare providers to implement preventive measures and potentially delay disease onset.
• Protein-Based Therapies: Focusing on selective gene activity aids in detecting and differentiating disease-related proteins from healthy ones, paving the way for targeted, protein-specific drugs.

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Researchers at the University of California, have developed a nanopore-based diagnostic tool capable of detecting illnesses more quickly and accurately by analyzing signals from individual molecules.

What is the Nanopore-Based Tool?

• The Nanopore-Based Tool is a groundbreaking innovation developed by UC Riverside scientists for disease diagnostics.
• It leverages nanopores, which are tiny openings capable of detecting individual molecules like DNA and proteins.
• By measuring electrical signals generated as molecules pass through the nanopore, the tool enables ultra-sensitive and precise detection of illnesses.

How does it Work?

• Biological samples mixed with salts are introduced into the system.
• Salts dissociate into ions, creating a flow through the nanopore.
• As a DNA or protein molecule passes through the nanopore, it blocks the flow of ions.
• This blockage reduces the flow, creating electrical signals.
• The system measures the reduction in ion flow to identify the molecule.
• Advanced circuitry accounts for missed signals, ensuring precise detection.
• Nanopores filter out background noise, unlike traditional systems that require external filters, preserving critical data for accurate diagnostics.

Significance and Features of Nanopore Technology

• It helps detect infections within 24 to 48 hours, much faster than traditional methods.
• It is crucial for fast-spreading diseases, enabling timely intervention.
• It captures signals from single molecules, eliminating the need for large biological samples.
• It could revolutionize home testing and clinic-based diagnostics.
• It helps Identify subtle differences in proteins, aiding in personalized treatment plans.
• It promotes deeper understanding of how proteins impact health and disease.
• It paves the way for single-molecule protein sequencing, offering insights beyond DNA sequencing.

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Recent research indicates that age-related losses in our cell’s mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)—specifically, deletion mutations—could be a major driver of aging. These mutations, once they accumulate, reduce the mitochondrion’s ability to produce energy (ATP), causing cell and tissue dysfunction.

What are Mitochondria?

• Mitochondria generate most of the cell’s energy (hence called the Powerhouse) in the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
• They originated from free-living bacteria absorbed by ancient single-celled organisms, retaining a fraction of their own DNA (mtDNA).
• Unlike nuclear DNA, mitochondria have their own circular DNA, though limited in size.
• Humans inherit mitochondria exclusively from the mother’s egg; sperm-contributed mitochondria are generally not passed on.
• They have a double membrane: a relatively permeable outer membrane and a highly folded inner membrane (cristae) that maximizes surface area for energy production.
  • Their inner compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, houses mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), ribosomes, and enzymes for the Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle) and fatty acid β-oxidation.
• Mitochondria help regulate intracellular calcium levels, which is crucial for various signalling pathways.
• They play a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death) by releasing factors such as cytochrome c when the cell is under severe stress.

Functions of the Mitochondrial Genome (mtDNA):

• Encodes Key Mitochondrial Proteins:
  • The mtDNA has 13 protein-coding genes crucial for mitochondrial energy production (ATP synthesis).
  • It also encodes 24 non-coding genes (like rRNAs and tRNAs), essential for mitochondrial protein synthesis.
• Energy Production:
  • mtDNA-encoded proteins form part of the electron transport chain, where most ATP is produced.
• Distinct Inheritance Pattern:
  • Inherited exclusively from the mother.
  • Each cell contains multiple mitochondria, each with multiple copies of mtDNA.
• Implication in Aging and Disease:
  • Age-related mutations (deletions, chimeric genes) in mtDNA can lead to functional decline in tissues like muscle and brain.
  • Loss of intact mtDNA reduces ATP generation, contributing to cellular and tissue ageing.

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A recent study published in the ‘Nature’ has shown that Extrachromosomal DNA (ecDNA) is present in approximately 50% of cancer types, playing a significant role in tumor evolution and genetic heterogeneity.

What is ecDNA?

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Recent research by scientists at the University of Nottingham’s has found that a chemical produced by a fungus growing on caterpillars may slow cancer cell growth.

What is Caterpillar fungus?

• Cordyceps militaris, also known as caterpillar fungus, is a parasitic fungus that primarily infects caterpillars and other insects.
• Found in the Himalayan region and parts of Asia, it is valued in traditional Asian medicine for its health benefits, including immune support, anti-inflammatory properties, and energy enhancement.
• It is considered a delicacy in some Asian cultures and has long been used for its purported wellness effects.

How it can slow down growth of cancer cells?

• Researchers from the University of Nottingham’s School of Pharmacy have identified cordycepin, a compound produced by Cordyceps militaris, as potentially effective in slowing cancer cell growth.
• Cordycepin works by interrupting overactive cell growth signals in cancer cells, which prevents rapid multiplication and allows for more targeted treatment.
• This approach may be less harmful to healthy tissues compared to conventional cancer treatments, offering a promising direction for targeted cancer therapies.

Other observations and significance of the species

• In addition to its traditional uses, Cordyceps militaris is significant for its role in ecological balance, helping control insect populations in forest ecosystems.
• Advances in research have enabled large-scale studies on cordycepin’s effects, with future studies focusing on derivatives of cordycepin for potentially enhanced anti-cancer properties.
• The fungus illustrates how natural compounds can contribute to sustainable medical practices, offering less toxic alternatives for disease treatment, especially in oncology.

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Recent research conducted by scientists at McGill University has shed light on the critical role of vitamin D in maintaining thymus health and its implications for immune function.

What is Vitamin D?

• Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin crucial for the body’s ability to absorb calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, which are essential for bone health.
• It supports muscle movement, nerve function, and immune system responses. Due to its synthesis in the skin upon exposure to sunlight, it is often called the ‘sunshine vitamin’.
• The body naturally produces Vitamin D when skin is exposed to ultraviolet B (UVB) rays from sunlight.
• Sources of Vitamin D:
  • Fish: Salmon, mackerel, tuna, and sardines are rich in Vitamin D.
  • Cod liver oil: A concentrated source, providing 400–1,000 IU per teaspoon.
  • Mushrooms: Varieties like portobello contain Vitamin D if exposed to UV light.
  • Fortified Foods: Milk, yogurt, orange juice, and cereals often have added Vitamin D.
  • Egg yolks: Contain a small amount of Vitamin D.
  • Common forms include Vitamin D2 (ergocalciferol) and Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), especially useful in autumn and winter when sunlight exposure is limited.

Significance of Vitamin D

• Bone Health: Essential for calcium absorption, which strengthens bones and prevents osteoporosis.
• Muscle and Nerve Function: Supports muscle contractions and nerve signaling between the brain and body.
• Immune System: Enhances immune defenses, helping to fight off infections by viruses and bacteria.
• Brain Health: May play a role in maintaining cognitive health, especially with aging.
• Inflammation and Pain: Helps regulate the body’s response to inflammation and pain.
• Blood Pressure: Linked to regulating blood pressure; deficiency is associated with hypertension.

Impacts of Vitamin D Deficiency

• Increases the risk of rickets in children (softening of bones) and osteoporosis in adults.
• Low levels of Vitamin D are linked to autoimmune conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, and multiple sclerosis.
• Recent studies indicate that Vitamin D deficiency can accelerate thymus aging, leading to immune dysfunction and a higher risk of autoimmune diseases.
• Deficiency has been associated with cancer, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, depression, and chronic pain.
• Can include fatigue, muscle weakness, bone pain, and depression.
• In severe cases, deficiency may cause impaired bone growth and fracture susceptibility.

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Indian researchers have developed a predictive model based on the Gompertz Model to estimate a newborn’s birth weight using routine pregnancy scans.

What is the Gompertz Model?

• It is a mathematical model developed by English mathematician Benjamin Gompertz in the early 19th century.

• • It was originally designed to model population growth in a constrained environment, such as a specific geographic region.
  • The model uses an S-shaped (sigmoid) curve to represent growth patterns that start slowly, accelerate, and then slow again as they approach a plateau.

• Applications:

• • Biology: The Gompertz Model is used to study tumor growth and cell population dynamics, reflecting constrained growth in biological systems.
  • Epidemiology: Applied in predicting the spread of infectious diseases like COVID-19, capturing how transmission rates slow with interventions.
  • Ecology: Useful for modelling species population growth in habitats with limited resources, aiding conservation and ecosystem management.
  • Healthcare: Recently adapted to predict foetal birth weight, helping identify potential risks associated with low or high birth weight.
  • Aging Research: Employed to analyze mortality rates and lifespan patterns, contributing to studies on aging and longevity.

Recent Research and Significance

• Recent research has applied the Gompertz Model in predicting foetal birth weight using routine scans, as shown by researchers from IISER Pune and IMSc Chennai, offering a non-invasive alternative for maternal health.
• The model is used in tumor growth studies, allowing researchers to understand and predict cancer progression.
• Its predictive accuracy under constrained conditions makes it useful for biological systems, including population growth and cell dynamics.
• In healthcare, it supports early detection and intervention for conditions impacted by growth patterns, such as low or high birth weight risks.

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• A team of researchers has discovered the genetic mechanisms that allow a newly identified tardigrades species—Hypsibius henanensis—to withstand high levels of radiation.

About Tardigrades

• Tardigrades, often called “water bears” or “moss piglets,” are tiny, water-dwelling microorganisms known for their remarkable ability to survive extreme conditions.
• They can withstand environments that would be lethal for most life forms, including:
  • Extremely high and low temperatures (from near absolute zero to over 150°C),
  • High levels of radiation and vacuum conditions found in space,
  • Extreme dehydration (losing nearly all water in their bodies),
  • High pressures (up to six times that of the ocean’s deepest trenches).
• This adaptability makes them a subject of interest for scientists, especially in understanding survival mechanisms in extreme conditions.

How Tardigrades resist High Radiations?

The researchers identified 2,801 genes involved in DNA repair. Three key factors contributing to radiation tolerance include:

• DNA Repair Protein (TRID1): Enabled the species to repair double-strand DNA breaks due to radiation.
• Gene Activation for Mitochondrial Proteins: Radiation exposure activated a gene that produced two proteins vital for mitochondrial synthesis and DNA repair.
• Antioxidant Pigments (Betalains): These pigments neutralize harmful chemicals generated by radiation within cells.

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Researcher have successfully mapped the entire brain of an adult fruit fly, marking the first time researchers have created such a detailed map of an adult animal’s brain.

Key findings

• Scientists identified more than 50 million connections between 139,000 neurons (brain nerve cells).
• They classified the cells into 8,453 distinct types, making it the largest catalogue of cell types in any brain.
• The research gave insights into how different types of cells function and how the fruit fly’s eyes process motion and color.
• A group of “hub neurons” was discovered, which may help speed up information flow.

Significance of the Work

• Although the human brain is more complex, the logic of how neurons communicate is similar between fruit flies and humans.
• Fruit flies are a valuable model system for neuroscience. Their brains solve many of the same problems that human brains do.
• It could help in understanding and treat mental health conditions like Parkinson’s and depression.
• The mapping of the fruit fly’s brain raises hopes that scientists will eventually be able to map the entire human brain.

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Angelina Jolie’s case highlighted hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) after she underwent preventive surgeries due to a BRCA1 gene mutation.

What is BRCA Testing?

• BRCA testing is a genetic test that looks for mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes.
• These genes normally help repair DNA, but when they are mutated, they increase a person’s risk of developing certain cancers, particularly breast and ovarian cancers.
• BRCA testing identifies whether a person has inherited these mutations, which can lead to Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (HBOC) and other cancers.
• The test is done using a blood or saliva sample, which is collected and sent to a laboratory for analysis.
• In the lab, next-generation DNA sequencing or other genetic analysis methods are used to examine the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes for harmful mutations.
• The test results can show whether a person has inherited a harmful mutation in these genes.
  • If the result is positive, it means they are at a higher risk for developing certain cancers.

Issues with BRCA Testing

• BRCA testing in India is expensive, costing between ₹15,000 to ₹30,000, which makes it unaffordable for many, particularly in lower-income populations.
• Testing is often only offered to individuals with a family history of cancer, which misses about 50% of people who may have the mutations but no known family history.

Significance for India

• Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in India, accounting for 27% of all cancer cases.
• Women with BRCA mutations have up to a 72% risk of developing breast cancer.
  • Early identification allows for preventive measures, such as regular screenings or surgeries, which can reduce cancer incidence by up to 100%.
• By increasing access to population-wide BRCA testing, India can improve early detection and reduce the burden of cancer on its healthcare system.
  • Early identification can also lower treatment costs and improve outcomes.

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Mumbai-based Entod Pharmaceuticals has announced that the Drug Controller General of India (DCGI) has approved its new eye drop, PresVu, aimed at reducing the dependency on reading glasses for individuals with presbyopia.

How does PresVu work? 

• The active ingredient in PresVu is pilocarpine, a compound that contracts the iris muscles, controlling the size of the pupil and helping individuals focus better on nearby objects.
• PresVu also uses an advanced dynamic buffer technology to adapt to the pH levels of tears, ensuring consistent efficacy and safety for extended use over the years.
• However, PresVu’s effects are temporary, typically lasting between four to six hours, and it is prescription-only.

• PresVu should not be used by individuals with iris inflammation.
• Regular use may lead to side effects such as:
  • Itching and redness
  • Eyebrow pain
  • Muscle spasms in the eyes

Is this a Novel Therapy?

• Although Entod claims PresVu is novel, the main compound, pilocarpine, has been available in India for decades and is commonly used as a first-line therapy for cataracts.
• Pilocarpine’s ability to temporarily improve the depth of focus has been explored in other countries, including the United States, where the FDA approved a pilocarpine eye drop for presbyopia in 2021.
• In India, the government regulates the ceiling price of pilocarpine in 4% and 2% concentrations, whereas PresVu contains 1.25%.

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Recent research reveals that FD&C Yellow 5, a common food dye, can temporarily make tissue transparent, with potential implications for cancer treatment and medical procedures.

About Yellow Food Dye 

• FD&C Yellow 5, also known as Tartrazine, is a widely used synthetic food dye found in various snacks, drinks, and processed foods.
• Approved by the FDA, it is commonly used to give products a vibrant yellow color.

How does it work?

• The dye has the ability to make tissue transparent is based on its interaction with light, specifically through the Kramers-Kronig relations, a principle in physics.
• It absorbs blue light, leaving only the red-orange spectrum visible.
• This alters the refractive index of water, causing it to match the refractive index of fats and proteins in tissue.
• When the refractive indices match, light can pass through tissue with less scattering, creating the appearance of transparency.

Potential Medical Applications of Yellow Food Dye

• Cancer Treatment: By making tissues transparent, FD&C Yellow 5 could enhance photodynamic and photothermal therapies, allowing laser light to reach deeper tissues and target cancerous cells more effectively.
• Vein Visibility: Transparent tissues could help make veins more visible, aiding in procedures like venepuncture for blood draws or injections, particularly in patients with hard-to-see veins.
• Non-invasive Diagnostics: The dye could allow doctors to visualize internal organs and structures without the need for invasive procedures like biopsies or expensive imaging technologies like CT scans or MRIs.

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• These medical tools—thermometers, stethoscopes, weighing scales, and sphygmomanometers—are essential for diagnosing and monitoring basic health parameters.
  • Each tool has its own function and specific way of operation, which helps healthcare professionals make informed decisions about patient care.

Here is the list of tools used in a Doctor’s Diagnosis:

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Leonard Hayflick, the renowned biomedical researcher who made a discovery about the limits of cell division in somatic cells (Hayflick Limit) has passed away at 98.

What is the Hayflick Limit?

• In the early 1960s, Hayflick discovered that somatic (non-reproductive) cells have a finite number of divisions, typically between 40-60 times.
• This phenomenon, the ‘Hayflick limit’ suggests that aging occurs because cells eventually stop dividing.
  • This leads to the accumulation of senescent cells that contribute to the aging process.
• The “ultimate Hayflick limit” for humans is estimated to be around 125 years.
• Beyond this, no amount of lifestyle changes or medical interventions can extend the human lifespan.

• Hayflick’s discovery has been applied to cells from various animals, revealing different Hayflick limits based on species’ lifespans.
• Ex. Galapagos turtles, have cells that can divide approximately 110 times, whereas laboratory mice have a much lower limit of around 15 divisions.

Broader Implications and Research

• Hayflick’s discovery led to the discovery of telomeres in the 1970s.
  • Telomeres are protective DNA sequences at the ends of chromosomes, which shorten with each cell division.
• When telomeres reach a critical length, cell division stops, which correlates with the Hayflick limit.
• In the 1980s, scientists discovered telomerase, a protein capable of replenishing telomeres, which is naturally active in cancer cells, allowing them to bypass the Hayflick limit.

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• “Osteoporosis” is a condition where bones become weak and brittle, with over 10 million cases annually in India.
  • It predominantly affects ageing women due to decreased oestrogen levels post-menopause.

Role of Oestrogen in Bone Growth

• Oestrogen is crucial for bone growth and formation, acting as a manager signaling the bone construction crew.
• During breastfeeding, oestrogen production drops to focus on milk production, which should weaken bones.
• Contrary to expectations, mothers’ bones become stronger to meet their babies’ high calcium demands.

How does the ‘Hidden’ Hormone Keep Mice Mothers’ Bones Healthy?

• During breastfeeding, the body suppresses oestrogen production to focus on milk production, which should weaken bones.
• Despite low oestrogen, mothers’ bones strengthen.

Experimental Findings:

• In experiments with genetically modified mice, those lacking the oestrogen receptor alpha still maintained healthy bones due to CCN3.
• When CCN3 was introduced to skeletal stem cells, it significantly increased bone formation, showing its potential to strengthen bones independently of oestrogen.

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Research suggests that around 8% of the human genome is composed of Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs) often referred to as ‘zombie’ regions.

What are Endogenous Retroviruses (ERVs)?

• ERVs are remnants of ancient viral infections that have integrated into the genome of the host species.
• When these retroviruses infect germ cells (sperm or egg cells), their genetic material can be passed down to the next generation, becoming a permanent part of the host’s DNA.
• Zombie Regions:
  • They refer to inactive viral sequences within the genome that no longer produce functional viruses but remain as embedded genetic fossils.
  • These regions are a result of retrovirus integration that has lost its ability to replicate and produce proteins, yet they persist in the host’s DNA.

Evolutionary Significance of ERVs:

• In the life cycle of a retrovirus, reverse-transcribed DNA is integrated into the host’s DNA with the help of integrase.
• The viral DNA, called a provirus, hijacks human cells, turning them into virus-making factories.
• Over tens of thousands of years, many retroviruses have left genomic elements in human genome, contributing to evolutionary processes.
• Example:
  • Syncytins are genes thought to have descended from ERVs and are crucial for placental development. These genes originally came from viruses and were acquired during mammalian evolution.

Their Contribution to Human Biology

• ERVs are highly expressed in the placenta and may influence conditions like preeclampsia.
• Researchers found that a particular RNA derived from an ERV is dysregulated in early-onset preeclampsia, suggesting it could be used as a biomarker for the condition.
• ERVs play a role in cell-type differentiation during embryo development.
• A protein called MERVL-gag is derived from an ERV. This transition is crucial for producing pluripotent stem cells capable of forming different cell types.
• Researchers also found that a human ERV element LTR10 affects tumour formation in colorectal cancer.

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• In the farmlands of central Thailand, thousands of pythons are raised in a warehouse for their diamond-patterned skins, which are sold to high-end European fashion houses.
  • Some scientists and industry insiders believe the true value of these snakes lies in their meat.

Python Farming in Asia

• Researchers estimate that China and Vietnam alone have at least 4,000 python farms, producing several million snakes primarily for the fashion industry.
• A study published in Nature highlighted python farming as a flexible and efficient response to global food insecurity.

Benefits of Python Farming

• Pythons can survive for months without food or water and maintain their condition.
• They were fed waste chicken and wild-caught rodents, offering a more efficient feed-to-meat ratio than poultry, beef, and even crickets.
• Female pythons can lay between 50 and 100 eggs annually, leading to rapid reproduction.

Advantages of Python Meat

• Pythons offer a more efficient feed-to-meat ratio than poultry, beef, and even crickets.
• They can survive without food and water for months without losing condition.
• Python meat has a chicken-like texture and is low in saturated fats.
• It could provide a sustainable protein source with a lower environmental impact compared to traditional meat.

Challenges and Market Acceptance

• Despite the advantages, the market is limited for python meat.
• Python farmers struggle to convince people to consume snake meat, resulting in most of it being discarded or sold to fish farms.

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There have been four cases, including three deaths, of the rare, but fatal brain-eating primary amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM) in Kerala in the last two months.

What is Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)?

• PAM is a rare brain infection caused by Naegleria fowleri, a free-living amoeba found in warm freshwater and soil worldwide.
  • An amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
  • Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments.
• The amoeba enters the body through the nose, typically during activities like swimming, and travels to the brain, causing severe damage.
• PAM is also non-communicable.
• Symptoms: Headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, and coma.
  • According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.

Diagnosis and Treatment:

• Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
• Diagnosis involves PCR tests of cerebrospinal fluid, though detection can be challenging due to the rarity of PAM.
• Treatment follows CDC guidelines, including miltefosine, Azithromycin, and Amphotericin B, with miltefosine recently procured by the State Health Department from Germany.
  • Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.

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Why in the News?

• The AMRSense Project of the IIIT-Delhi has won the joint second prize in Trinity Challenge’s competition focused on combating Antimicrobial resistance (AMR).
  • The project shares the £600,000 joint second prize with ‘OASIS: OneHealth Antimicrobial Stewardship for Informal Health Systems,’ also from India.

What is the AMRSense Project?

• The AMRSense is aimed at addressing the critical issue of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) through a comprehensive and proactive approach.
• The project focuses on empowering communities, particularly Community Health Workers (CHWs), with tools and strategies to enhance AMR surveillance and management.
• It seeks to bridge the gap in data collection and evidence-based interventions at the community level in India.
• Collaborators: The project involves collaboration with CHRI-PATH, 1mg.com, and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR).

Four Components of AMRSense:

1. Community Engagement: AMRSense empowers CHWs with AI-assisted tools for accurate and simplified data collection related to AMR. This helps in improving the quality and reliability of AMR data gathered from local communities.
2. Data Integration: The project integrates various sources of AMR-related data, including antibiotic sales, consumption patterns, and WHONet-compliant surveillance data. This integration is facilitated through open-source tools and APIs, aiming to create a unified AMR data ecosystem.
3. Predictive Analytics: AMRSense employs federated analytics across the OneHealth ecosystem. This approach provides integrated insights into AMR trends, facilitating proactive decision-making and interventions to manage and mitigate AMR risks.
4. AMRaura Scorecard: This tool is designed to monitor and evaluate AMR trends over time. It helps in assessing the effectiveness of interventions and guiding targeted strategies to combat AMR effectively.

Impact and Future Prospects

• AMRSense aims to fill gaps in CHW awareness, training, and motivation, enhancing community-level AMR data collection and management in India.
• The project’s comprehensive approach seeks to foster proactive AMR surveillance and management practices.

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• India is close to developing a gene therapy using CRISPR-Cas9, a gene-editing tool for sickle cell disease (SCD).
  • SCD is a genetic blood disorder prevalent among the Scheduled Tribes.

What is Sickle Cell Disease?

• Sickle cell disease (SCD) is a group of inherited blood disorders caused by a genetic mutation in the hemoglobin-β gene located on chromosome 11.
• This mutation results in defective hemoglobin, which forms rod-like structures after releasing oxygen.
• As a result, red blood cells become rigid and assume a sickle shape.
• The disease is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern, meaning both parents must carry the abnormal gene for a child to inherit it.
• Symptoms may not manifest immediately in newborns but can include extreme tiredness, fussiness, swollen hands and feet, and jaundice.

• Implications:

• • • The mis-shapen RBCs can block small blood vessels, leading to impaired blood flow and causing chronic anaemia.
    • Individuals with SCD often experience acute pain episodes, severe bacterial infections, and tissue damage due to inadequate blood supply.

• Treatment:

• • Presently treatment includes medications for pain relief, regular blood transfusions to replace damaged red blood cells.
  • In rare cases, a bone marrow or stem cell transplant, which carries significant risks, is recommended.

Eliminating Sickle Cell Disease: Global and National Context

• This progress follows the approval of CRISPR-Cas9 technology by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for a cell-based gene therapy to treat sickle cell disease in December 2023.
• One of the main challenges for India is to develop a cost-effective therapy, as part of its mission to eradicate sickle cell disease by 2047, launched by Prime Minister in July 2023.
• The mission aims to conduct over 7 crore screenings among vulnerable tribal populations across 17 States and Union Territories, with three crore screenings completed so far.

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Researchers at the Duke Human Vaccine Institute have successfully induced broadly neutralising antibodies (bNAbs) against HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) through vaccination for the first time.

N332-GT5 and eOD-GT8: The New Vaccines in Making

• N332-GT5: This vaccine candidate targets a specific region on the surface of the HIV virus known as the N332 glycan site. By engaging B-cells that have the potential to produce bNAbs against this site, N332-GT5 aims to stimulate the immune system to generate a protective response against a wide range of HIV strains.
• eOD-GT8: Similarly, eOD-GT8 is designed to target another region on the HIV virus, known as the eOD protein. By leveraging nanoparticles as carriers, eOD-GT8 aims to enhance the immune system’s ability to recognize and neutralize HIV, ultimately leading to the production of bNAbs.

What are Broadly Neutralizing Antibodies (bNAbs)?

• In the 1990s, scientists discovered that some HIV-infected individuals produced bNAbs, which neutralize many viral strains.
• bNAbs target viral protein areas crucial for infectivity, making them less likely to change.
• Despite their effectiveness, bNAbs take years to develop, by which time HIV has often evolved to escape them.

Developing bNAb-Based Vaccines

• The goal is to make the immune system produce bNAbs quickly in response to a vaccine.
• Germline targeting involves three steps:
  1. Identify and engage B-cells capable of producing bNAbs.
  2. Use a booster to guide these cells to produce stronger bNAbs.
  3. Refine bNAbs to neutralize a wide range of HIV strains.

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“Klebsiella pneumoniae” bacteria might employ a newly discovered protein called “Neo” to halt bacteriophage infections.

About Neo Protein

• Discovery Details: Researchers, led by Stephen Tang and Samuel Sternberg, reported the discovery of Neo in a 2023 preprint paper on bioRxiv, while investigating Klebsiella pneumoniae.
• Neo’s Defense Strategy: Bacteria employ diverse immune systems to fend off viral infections, including defense-associated reverse transcriptase (DRT) systems, which Neo is a part of.
  • DRT-2 System: This system involves de novo gene synthesis via rolling-circle reverse transcription (RT) of a non-coding RNA (ncRNA).
  • Operational Process: In uninfected cells, the ncRNA and RT enzyme catalyze the synthesis of a repetitive single-stranded cDNA.
  • Activation by Phage: Phage presence triggers the synthesis of the second-strand cDNA, resulting in long double-stranded DNA.
  • Role of Neo Protein: The translation of this double-strand cDNA produces the Neo protein, which induces potent growth arrest (cell dormancy), thereby protecting the bacterial population from phage proliferation.

Biotechnological and Medical Implications

• Potential Applications: Neo represents a promising tool for controlling viral infections, holding significance in both biotechnology and medicine.
• Evolutionary Connections: Neo’s discovery sheds light on the shared evolutionary history and functional mechanisms of retroelements in the human genome and bacterial reverse transcriptases.
• Technological Influence: Bacterial reverse transcriptases, predecessors of their eukaryotic counterparts, share analogous mechanisms and have revolutionized molecular biology research methods.

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• Fish oil supplements, highly regarded for their high omega-3 fatty acid content, have long been associated with heart health benefits.
  • A recent study has caused controversy by raising the possibility that these supplements may be as harmful as previously thought.

What are Omega-3 Fatty Acids?

• Omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3s) are polyunsaturated fats that perform important functions in the human body.
• There are three main types of omega-3 fatty acids:
  • EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid). EPA is a “marine omega-3” because it’s found in fish.
  • DHA (docosahexaenoic acid). DHA is also a marine omega-3 found in fish.
  • ALA (alpha-linolenic acid). ALA is the form of omega-3 found in plants.

• • When we get ALA from food, the human body can turn some of the ALA into EPA and subsequently to DHA. However, this process provides just a small amount of EPA and DHA. So, dietary sources of EPA and DHA (like fish) are essential.

Functions of Omega-s fatty acids:

• • They help to provide structure and supporting interactions between cells.
  • Omega-3s are concentrated in high levels in cells in human eyes and brain.
  • They provide the human body with energy (calories) and support the health of many body systems.  These include the human cardiovascular system and endocrine system.

Significance of Omega-3 fatty acids:

• Omega-3 fatty acids have many potential benefits for human cardiovascular health.
• One key benefit is that they help lower human triglyceride levels.
  • Too many triglycerides in human blood (hypertriglyceridemia) raise human risk of atherosclerosis, and through this, can increase human risk of heart disease and stroke. So, it’s important to keep triglyceride levels under control.
• Omega-3s may help us by raising human HDL (good) cholesterol and lowering human blood pressure.
  • Some studies show omega-3s may lower human risk for Cardiovascular disease (CVD), and hence lowering the sudden death caused by an abnormal heart rhythm (arrhythmia), and blood clots.
• Beyond heart health, omega-3s may help lower the human risk of developing some forms of cancer, including breast cancer, Alzheimer’s disease, and dementia, age-related macular degeneration (AMD), research continues to investigate these and other possible benefits.

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The recent passing away of Richard Slayman, the first recipient of a modified pig kidney transplant, has drawn attention to xenotransplantation—an innovative medical procedure with the potential to revolutionise organ transplantation.

What is Xenotransplantation?

• It involves transplanting live cells, tissues, or organs from nonhuman animal sources into human recipients.
• It seeks to address the critical gap between organ demand and supply.
• Xenotransplantation, pioneered in the 1980s with heart transplants, has emerged as a promising solution to alleviate the organ shortage crisis, particularly prevalent in kidney transplantation.

Examples:

• Chimpanzee-to-Human Transplants: In the 1960s, there were attempts at chimpanzee-to-human kidney transplants, heart transplants, and liver transplants.
• Pig-to-Human Heart Transplant: In 2022, a groundbreaking milestone was achieved with the first successful transplantation of a pig heart into a human with end-stage heart disease

Procedural Details

• Xenotransplantation involves genetic modifications to animal organs, like 69 CRISPR-Cas9 edits to a pig kidney, removing pig genes and adding human genes for compatibility.

Why is the Pig a Preferred Source?

• Anatomical Resemblance: Pigs are favoured for xenotransplantation due to their physiological similarities to humans, facilitating successful integration. Pig organs, like heart valves, have been used in human medicine for over 50 years.
• Breeding Advantages: Extensive pig farming ensures a readily available and cost-effective supply of organs, with diverse breeds offering size-matching opportunities.

Challenges associated

• The main challenge is preventing organ rejection. Innovative methods, such as embedding the pig’s thymus gland under the kidney’s outer layer, help manage immune responses.
• There are also significant concerns regarding potential infections from both recognised and unrecognised infectious agents that could affect not only the recipient but also the wider population.
• Retroviruses present in the animal organs pose a risk of cross-species infection, which could remain latent and cause diseases years after the transplantation.

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Why in the news?

Researchers at Princeton University found that Caenorhabditis elegans can inherit the ‘knowledge’ to avoid a disease-causing bacterium, Pseudomonas vranovensis, across several generations after initially consuming it.

About C. Elegans Worm

• C. elegans, or Caenorhabditis elegans, is a small, transparent nematode (roundworm) widely used in scientific research.
• It is about 1 mm in length, making it easy to study under a microscope.
• It has a simple body plan, which simplifies many types of biological research.
• C. elegans was the first multicellular organism to have its entire genome sequenced in 1998.

Key Features of C. Elegans Worm

• Short lifespan and quick regeneration: It has a short lifespan of about 2-3 weeks and develops from an egg to an adult in just 3-5 days. This allows for quick generation turnover and facilitates studies on genetics and developmental biology.
• Transparency:  It allows researchers to easily observe its internal structures and developmental processes in real time.
• Genetic information: This has provided a wealth of genetic information and made it a powerful tool for genetic studies.
• Consistent Somatic Cell Count: Adult C. elegans have exactly 959 somatic cells, and their lineage has been fully mapped, providing a consistent model for studying cell development and death.

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• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) revolutionized medical diagnostics, offering non-invasive insights into soft tissues.
• The pioneering efforts of Paul Lauterbur and Peter Mansfield led to its commercialization, earning them the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 2003.

What is MRI?

• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a non-invasive diagnostic procedure used to obtain detailed images of soft tissues within the body.
• It is particularly valuable for imaging sophisticated structures like the brain, cardiovascular system, spinal cord, joints, muscles, liver, and arteries.
• MRI is instrumental in diagnosing and monitoring various conditions, including cancer, neurological disorders (such as Alzheimer’s and stroke), and cardiovascular diseases.
• Functional MRI (fMRI) can also assess brain activity by monitoring changes in blood flow.

Working Principle:

• MRI utilizes the magnetic properties of hydrogen atoms (one proton with one electron around it), which are abundant in water and fat molecules found throughout the body.
• The MRI machine generates a powerful magnetic field, aligning hydrogen atoms within the body.
• Radiofrequency pulses are then applied, causing hydrogen atoms to absorb energy and emit signals.
• These emitted signals are detected by sensors and processed by a computer to create detailed images of the body’s internal structures.

Components of an MRI Machine:

The MRI machine consists:

• Superconducting Magnet: Large magnet (superconducting magnet) that produces a powerful and stable magnetic field.
• Gradient Coils: Gradient magnets produce smaller magnetic fields with varying strengths and directions, allowing for precise imaging of specific body areas.
• Radiofrequency Coils: This emit radiofrequency pulses to excite hydrogen atoms in the body. The frequency of pulse the ‘excess’ atoms have to absorb is called the Larmor frequency.
• Detectors: It capture emitted signals from hydrogen atoms and convert them into image data for analysis.

Advantages of MRI:

• High-Resolution Imaging: MRI offers high-resolution imaging with excellent tissue contrast, allowing for accurate diagnosis and treatment planning.
• Versatile Viewing Angles: It can visualize structures from various angles without the need for repositioning, providing comprehensive information.
• Safety and Non-Invasiveness: MRI scans are non-invasive and do not involve ionizing radiation, making them safe for repeated use.
• Enhanced Image Quality: Contrast agents can enhance image quality by highlighting specific tissues or abnormalities.

Limitations of MRI:

• High Costs: MRI machines are expensive to purchase and maintain, resulting in high healthcare costs for patients.
• Requirement for Patient Stillness: Patients undergoing MRI scans must remain still for extended periods to prevent image distortion, which can be challenging for some individuals.
• Discomfort or Anxiety: The strong magnetic fields and loud noises produced during MRI scans may cause discomfort or anxiety for patients.
• Limitations with Metallic Implants: Certain metallic implants or objects can interfere with MRI scans, limiting their use in individuals with such implants.

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• Researchers at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center in the US have identified specific subtypes of Fusobacterium nucleatum associated with colorectal cancer (CRC) tumors.
• These subtypes, particularly Fusobacterium nucleatum animalis (Fna), have been found in relatively higher quantities in CRC tumors.

About Fusobacterium nucleatum

• Fusobacterium nucleatum is a species of bacteria commonly found in the human mouth.
• It is a gram-negative anaerobic bacterium, meaning it does not require oxygen for growth.
• While typically residing in the oral cavity, it has been associated with various diseases and conditions, including periodontal diseases and colorectal cancer.

Association with Colorectal Cancer (CRC):

• In cases of colorectal cancer (CRC), Fusobacterium nucleatum has been found within tumors in the gut.
• Studies have shown that this bacterium can aid cancer cells in evading the immune system and promoting metastasis, or the spread of cancer to other parts of the body.
• Its presence in CRC tumors has led to investigations into its potential role in the development and progression of colorectal cancer.

Impact:

• Assisting cancer cells in evading the immune system.
• Promoting inflammation and creating an environment conducive to tumor growth.
• Facilitating metastasis by interacting with cancer cells and promoting their spread to other tissues.

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• The Kerala government disclosed the re-emergence of West Nile fever cases in Thrissur, Malappuram, and Kozhikode districts.
• West Nile fever was first detected in Kerala in 2011, with a fatal case recorded in 2019 involving a six-year-old from Malappuram.

What is West Nile Fever?

• West Nile fever is caused by a West Nile Virus (WNV) transmitted through bites from infected Culex mosquitoes.
• The WNV is a mosquito-borne, single-stranded RNA virus.
• According to the WHO, it is a member of the flavi-virus genus and belongs to the Japanese Encephalitis antigenic complex of the family Flaviviridae.

How does it spread?

• It is transmitted by infected mosquitoes between and among humans and animals, including birds, which are the reservoir host of the virus.
• Mosquitoes become infected when they feed on infected birds, which circulate the virus in their blood for a few days.
• The virus eventually gets into the mosquito’s salivary glands.
• During later blood meals (when mosquitoes bite), the virus may be injected into humans and animals, where it can multiply and possibly cause illness.
• WNV can also spread through blood transfusion, from an infected mother to her child, or through exposure to the virus in laboratories.
• It is not known to spread by contact with infected humans or animals.

Symptoms of WNV infection:

• The disease is asymptomatic in 80% of the infected people.
• The rest develop what is called the West Nile fever or severe West Nile disease.
• In these 20% cases, the symptoms include fever, headache, fatigue, body aches, nausea, rash, and swollen glands.

Back2Basics: Type of Viruses 

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• Researchers from Kerala reported 15 cases of Membranous Nephropathy (MN) linked to the regular application of fairness creams.
• These creams contained high levels of mercury, sometimes exceeding the safe limit by 10,000 times.

Mercury Contamination in Hair Cream

• Blood and urine screenings of affected individuals unveiled alarmingly high levels of mercury, a well-known toxic element.
• The fairness creams contained mercury levels up to 10,000 times above the permissible limit of 1 ppm under Minamata Convention (2013).
• Most cases were PLA2R (phospholipase A2 receptor) negative, indicating a different cause.
• Cases of MN linked to Neural epidermal growth factor-like protein 1 (NELL-1) have been identified.
• NELL-1 has been associated with MN caused by traditional medicines containing high mercury levels.

Understanding Membranous Nephropathy

• Membranous Nephropathy (MN) is a nephrotic syndrome, characterized by excessive protein leakage into urine, eventually leading to kidney failure. Symptoms such as fatigue, edema, and proteinuria were found to have a history of regular fairness cream usage.

Impact of Mercury:

• Mercury in fairness creams inhibits melanin formation, resulting in lighter skin. Consumers perceive higher mercury levels as more effective for skin whitening.
• Mercury, a potent heavy metal found in these creams, penetrates the body through various channels, including sweat glands and hair follicles, causing systemic toxicity.
• Chronic exposure to mercury can result in kidney damage, neurological disorders, and a myriad of other health complications.

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Why in the news?

After multiple rounds of screening, researchers have identified an antibody, 95Mat5 that showed promising results in making a potent antidote against various snake venoms.

What is 95Mat5?

• 95Mat5 is a universal antivenom developed to neutralize the toxins present in snake venoms.
• Development Process:

1. The scientists first synthesized variants of a toxin called long-chain 3FTxs (3FTx-L), which are found in the venoms of various snakes, including cobras, kraits, mambas, and monocled cobras.
2. They then screened billions of human antibodies expressed on the surface of yeast cells to find antibodies that bound best to the synthesized toxins.
3. After multiple rounds of screening, they identified a shortlist of antibodies that broadly reacted with most of the 3FTx variants used in the study.
4. The selected antibodies were further tested in vitro in human cells to determine which ones could best neutralize the toxins.

Mechanism of Action

• 95Mat5 specifically targets α-neurotoxins, which are a specific class of 3FTxs that prevent nerve and muscle cells from responding to acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter involved in carrying messages from neurons to muscles.
• By binding to the toxins, 95Mat5 prevents toxins from interacting with the receptors in human nerve and muscle cells, thereby blocking their ability to induce paralysis and other deadly effects.
• In animal experiments, 95Mat5 demonstrated efficacy in neutralizing the toxins present in the venoms of various snake species, protecting the animals from death.

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Why in the news?

• A significant health concern in Tamil Nadu is found through ingestion of Rat poison containing Yellow Phosphorus, leading to liver toxicity.
  • Since December 2017, the team at CMC Vellore introduced Plasma Exchange, (a cost-effective treatment) for acute liver failure caused by rat poison ingestion.

What is Plasma Therapy (Plasmapheresis)?

• Plasma exchange, also known as plasmapheresis, is a medical procedure used to treat various conditions by removing and replacing plasma from the blood.
• During Plasma Exchange, the patient’s blood is circulated through a machine that separates plasma from other blood components, such as red and white blood cells and platelets.

Working procedure:

• The plasma, which may contain harmful substances or antibodies, is discarded.
• The remaining blood components are mixed with replacement plasma or a plasma substitute and returned to the patient’s bloodstream.

Usage of Plasmapheresis:

• In Autoimmune diseases: Conditions such as Guillain-Barre syndrome, myasthenia gravis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and certain forms of vasculitis.
• In Neurological disorders: Conditions such as multiple sclerosis, chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, and certain types of encephalitis.
• In Toxicological emergencies: Poisoning or overdose with substances such as drugs, chemicals, or toxins that can be removed from the bloodstream through plasma exchange.

Benefits observed in TN’s Case

• The treatment significantly improved survival rates, with 63.9% of patients treated in 2022-2023 successfully discharged.
• Retrospective studies at CMC Vellore demonstrated promising outcomes, with survival rates of 75% among children and 80.2% among adults treated with plasma exchange.

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• Dr. Daniel Belsky from Columbia University introduced the concept of “Geroscience” and develops a blood test, termed “gerozyme,” to measure aging pace by studying DNA methylation.
• Various research groups explore drugs like Metformin and Rapamycin to target aging and enhance immunity in the elderly.

What is Geroscience?

• Geroscience refers to the interdisciplinary field focused on understanding the biological mechanisms of ageing and age-related diseases.
• It involves studying various factors, including DNA methylation, enzyme activity (such as the gerozyme), socio-economic influences, and lifestyle interventions like nutrition, exercise, and music therapy.
• It aims to develop strategies, such as drug interventions targeting specific ageing-related processes, to promote healthy ageing and combat age-related conditions like dementia.

Drug Interventions in Geroscience

• Metformin and TORC1 inhibitors show promise in targeting aging and improving immune response in seniors.
• Research proposes rapamycin’s potential in extending longevity and combating age-related diseases.

Impact of Socio-Economic Factors in Ageing

• Dr. Belsky’s research reveals the influence of socioeconomic status on DNA methylation levels, highlighting the role of disadvantage in ageing.
• Columbia Aging Centre emphasizes the role of a balanced diet in supporting brain health and reducing inflammation.
• Healthline.com advocates for proteins, healthy fats, and antioxidant-rich foods to promote healthy ageing, crucial for India’s ageing population.

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In the news

• The human brain, composed of billions of neurons, orchestrates intricate processes that sustain life and enable complex cognitive functions.
• Understanding these neural interactions is paramount, and scientists have achieved this through the concept of the connectome.

What is Connectome?

• Definition: The Connectome serves as a comprehensive map of neuronal connections, akin to a cartogram illustrating the intricate network of synapses transmitting electrical and chemical signals within the brain.
• Neural Communication: Neurons communicate through synapses, where dendrites receive chemical signals converted into electrical impulses transmitted along the axon. Subsequently, the cell releases chemicals into synapses based on electrical inputs, facilitating communication with neighbouring neurons.

Applications in Neuroscience

• Functional Insights: Mapping the connectome provides invaluable insights into brain function, shedding light on processes underlying cognitive functions and elucidating the impact of neurological disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and Alzheimer’s disease.
• Drug Development: By unravelling cellular connections, researchers gain crucial knowledge about cognitive processes and associated disorders, informing the development of novel therapeutic interventions for conditions affecting neurological health.

Challenges and Progress

• Complexity of the Brain: The intricate nature of the brain and the vast amount of data it processes present significant challenges in mapping the connectome.
• Simplified Understanding: Despite these challenges, the connectome has revolutionized scientists’ comprehension of the brain, offering a clearer understanding of neurological health and paving the way for advancements in neuroscience research.

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• Cannabis (Cannabis sativa) has long intrigued psychiatrists due to its impact on mood and cognition, prompting research into its potential therapeutic applications for conditions like schizophrenia and mood disorders.

What is Cannabis?

• Cannabis, also known as marijuana, weed, pot, or ganja, is a genus of flowering plants that belongs to the Cannabaceae family.
• It is primarily known for its psychoactive properties due to the presence of compounds such as tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).
• This THC interacts with the brain’s cannabinoid receptors, resulting in various effects including relaxation, euphoria, altered perception of time, and increased appetite.
• The plant contains over 100 different cannabinoids, with THC and cannabidiol (CBD) being the most well-known and studied.

Why discuss this?

• Researchers at the University of British Columbia initiated a clinical trial to explore the efficacy of cannabidiol (CBD) in treating bipolar depression, offering promise for addressing depressive episodes in bipolar disorder.
• While delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) is the primary psychoactive compound in cannabis, CBD has garnered attention for its potential antipsychotic and neuroprotective effects.

Understanding the Cannabinoid System

• Receptor Mechanisms: The human cannabinoid system, comprising CB1 and CB2 receptors, plays a crucial role in modulating various bodily functions, including pain, memory, and appetite, with THC exerting acute effects on motor control and memory.
• Endo-cannabinoid System (ECS): The ECS, governed by endogenous molecules, regulates neurotransmitter activity, influencing mood and cognitive processes.

Therapeutic Applications  

• Medical Uses: THC and synthetic cannabinoids are utilized to stimulate appetite, alleviate nausea, and manage pain associated with conditions like HIV-AIDS and cancer.
• Addiction and Withdrawal: Debate surrounds the addictive potential of THC, with animal studies suggesting addictive responses and withdrawal symptoms upon cessation of heavy use.

Psychiatric Implications

• Mood Effects: Cannabis’ impact on mood is multifaceted, with reports suggesting associations with depression and bipolar disorder, although rigorous scientific scrutiny is lacking.
• Psychotic Risks: Individuals with psychotic illnesses, including schizophrenia, exhibit heightened susceptibility to cannabis-induced psychotic symptoms, with youth cannabis use potentially advancing the onset of schizophrenia in genetically vulnerable individuals.

Policy Considerations

• Global Trends: The global trend toward legalizing medical and recreational cannabis underscores the need for informed policymaking to mitigate risks, particularly for vulnerable populations such as children and individuals with mental illnesses.
• Decriminalization Debate: Broader debates on decriminalization necessitate measures to prevent commercialization and ensure safeguards against misuse, emphasizing protection for vulnerable segments of society.

Conclusion

• Navigating the complexities of cannabis necessitates a balanced approach, leveraging its therapeutic potential while addressing associated risks through evidence-based policymaking and clinical interventions.

Back2Basics: Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Act, 1985

• The NDPS Act is a comprehensive law that consolidates and amends the existing laws relating to narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances in India.
• The Act prohibits the manufacture, cultivation, possession, sale, purchase, transport, storage, or consumption of drugs without permission from appropriate authorities.
• Violations are punishable with rigorous imprisonment for a minimum of 10 years and a fine.
• Lesser punishments are mandated for illegal possession in small quantities for personal consumption.
• The Act also provides for the forfeiture of property derived from, or used in, illicit traffic in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances.
• Drugs covered include:

1. Narcotic Drugs: Coca leaf, cannabis (hemp), opium, poppy straw, and their manufactured goods.
2. Psychotropic Substances: Any substance that modifies the mind, including amphetamine, methaqualone, diazepam, alprazolam, ketamine, etc.
3. Other substances: Cocaine, morphine, diacetylmorphine, or any other narcotic drug or any psychotropic substance as may be specified on this behalf by the Central Government.

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In the news

• Recently identified by scientists at Stanford University, obelisks represent a distinct class of virus-like entities residing within the human body.

What are Obelisks?

• Novel Discoveries: Recently identified, obelisks represent a distinct class of virus-like entities residing within the human body.
• Genetic Diversity: Comprising diverse RNA molecules, obelisks have pervaded both human and global microbiomes, yet remained unnoticed until now.
• Distinctive Characteristics:

• 1. Structural Symmetry: Named after the rod-like, highly symmetrical structures formed by their twisted RNA strands.
  2. Genetic Makeup: Obelisks boast compact genetic sequences of approximately 1,000 nucleotides, devoid of known similarities to other biological agents.
  3. Size Disparity: Significantly larger than conventional genetic molecules like plasmids, which are primarily composed of DNA.

• Taxonomic Position: Positioned between viruses and viroids, obelisks constitute a unique class of organisms with intriguing properties.
• Host Interaction: While the hosts of certain obelisks remain unidentified, bacterial associations are speculated, hinting at a broader ecological significance.
• Spatial Distribution: Various types of obelisks inhabit diverse regions within the human body, highlighting their pervasive presence and potential physiological roles.

Understanding Viroids: Nature’s Tiny RNA Loops

• Genetic Cousins: Viroids are compact loops of RNA, closely related to DNA, primarily infecting plant organisms.
• Discovery: In 1971, Theodor Diener identified viroids during research on potato spindle tuber disease, revealing naked RNA entities devoid of protein coats or lipid layers.
• Unique Features:
  1. Lack of Encapsulation: Unlike larger RNA viruses, viroids lack protective shells, relying solely on their RNA structure for stability.
  2. Genetic Composition: Viroid RNA does not encode protein-building instructions, contrasting with viruses that carry genetic blueprints for their replication machinery.
• Host Interactions: Viroids exploit host enzymes for replication, highlighting their parasitic nature within plant cells.

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