International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Shenzhou-16 successfully launches with 3 Astronauts to Space
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Shenzhou-16, Gaganyan
Mains level : Manned missions to Space
Central Idea
- China has achieved a successful launch of the Shenzhou-16 spacecraft carrying three astronauts to the Tiangong space station.
What is Shenzhou-16?
- Shenzhou-16 spacecraft is part of Chinese manned spaceflight missions and was designed to transport astronauts to the Tiangong space station.
- This mission marks an important step in China’s space exploration efforts, with the crew set to conduct a range of tests and experiments during their five-month stay.
- The Tiangong space station, operated by the China Manned Space Agency (CMSA), is an integral part of China’s ambitious space program and aims to be a hub for scientific research.
Astronauts on Shenzhou-16
- The crew of the Shenzhou-16 mission consists of three astronauts: Jing Haipeng as the leading commander, Zhu Yangzhu, and Gui Haichao.
- Jing Haipeng is an experienced senior spacecraft pilot and one of China’s first batch of astronaut trainees.
- Zhu Yangzhu, a postdoctoral fellow in aerodynamics and former university teacher, will serve as a spaceflight engineer.
- Gui Haichao is the first Chinese civilian to travel to space and will be responsible for overseeing science experiments at the space station.
Objectives of the Mission
- The Shenzhou-16 crew will replace the previous crew from the Shenzhou-15 mission that has been aboard the Tiangong space station since November.
- The new crew will carry out large-scale tests and experiments in various fields, including the study of quantum phenomena, high-precision space time-frequency systems, verification of general relativity, and the origin of life.
- These scientific endeavors are expected to lead to significant achievements during the crew’s five-month stay.
About the Tiangong Space Station
- The Tiangong space station, operated by the CMSA, was developed by China after being barred from collaborating with NASA due to concerns of espionage.
- The station’s first module entered orbit in 2021, with two more modules added subsequently.
- China’s long-term plan is to expand the station, with the next module set to dock and create a cross-shaped structure.
- The Tiangong space station aims to become a leading outpost for scientific research once the International Space Station’s operations conclude in 2030.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA develops Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : EELS Mission
Mains level : NA
NASA is developing a snake-like robot- Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS), which it says can boost space exploration through its diverse adaptability to various terrains.
Exobiology Extant Life Surveyor (EELS)
Details | |
Purpose | Designed to explore internal and enclosed dynamic terrain structures to assess evidence for life. |
Focus | To explore ocean-world-inspired terrain, and besides Enceladus, it can explore Martian polar caps and descending crevasses in Earth’s ice sheets. |
Enceladus and EELS system | Enceladus is a small and icy body, and the Cassini spacecraft dubbed it to be one of the most scientifically interesting destinations in the solar system. |
Scientific investigations | Work is underway to identify high-priority and high-impact scientific investigations to show the capabilities of the snake-like robot. |
Features of EELS Robot
Details | |
Propulsion and gripping mechanism | EELS robot has an actuation and propulsion mechanism, driven by power and communication electronics.
It uses a rotating propulsion unit that acts as tracks, while the gripping mechanism and propeller unit help it to access a plume vent exit. |
Adaptability | The robot’s adaptability to various terrains and its unique features make it capable of exploring areas that were once inaccessible. |
Enceladus | Geyser-like jets spew water vapor and ice particles from an underground ocean beneath Enceladus’s icy crust, making it a promising lead for NASA in its search for life. |
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Repeating radio signal detected from nearby Exoplanet YZ Ceti b
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : YZ Ceti exoplanet , Exoplanets
Mains level : NA
Central idea: Astronomers have detected a repeating radio signal from the YZ Ceti exoplanet that suggests the presence of a magnetic field around it.
What is YZ Ceti b?
- YZ Ceti b is an earth-sized exoplanet (a planet that orbits a star other than our sun).
- It is located barely 12 light-years from Earth, and it rotates around a small red dwarf star called YZ Ceti.
How was the discovery made?
- The researchers had to make multiple rounds of observations before they could detect the radio signals from the star YZ Ceti, which seemed to match the orbital period of the planet YZ Ceti b.
- From this, they deduced that the signals were a result of the interaction between the planet’s magnetic field and the star.
Why does the magnetic field matter?
- Intense bursts of energy from the YZ Ceti star-exoplanet exchange produce spectacular auroral lights, similar to the energy surges from the sun that disrupt telecommunications on earth.
- The radio waves confirmed the existence of an exoplanetary magnetic field.
- This can only be produced if the exoplanet orbits very close to its parent star and has its own magnetic field to influence the stellar wind and generate the signals.
What’s the implication for YZ Ceti b?
- The small orbit of YZ Ceti b indicates that the planet takes just a couple of earth days to circle its star.
- Nearly half of all the stars visible in the sky could potentially harbor rocky, earth-sized planets in habitable orbits around them.
- Astronomers indicated that the possibility of the existence of a magnetic field on the Earth-like exoplanet, called YZ Ceti b, probably hints at the habitability of life on that planet.
How common are such magnetic fields?
- Planetary scientists have never been able to identify magnetic fields on smaller, rocky exoplanets until now.
- The survival of a planet’s atmosphere may depend on its having, or not having, a strong magnetic field, since the field protects its atmosphere from being eroded by the charged particles blowing in from its star.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Polar Crown Prominence (PCP)?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Polar Crown Prominence (PCP)
Mains level : Not Much
Central idea: The article talks about an astrophotographer named Andrew McCarthy capturing an image of a plasma waterfall on the sun. The phenomenon is called Polar Crown Prominence (PCP).
Polar Crown Prominence (PCP)
- PCP is a solar phenomenon that occurs on the sun’s Polar Regions.
- It is a type of solar prominence, which is a large, bright, gaseous feature that extends out from the sun’s surface.
- A solar prominence is a large, bright, gaseous feature that extends out from the sun’s surface.
- It is made up of ionized gas (plasma) that is held in place by magnetic fields.
- Prominences are visible during total solar eclipses and can also be observed using specialized telescopes.
- PCPs are often associated with sunspots, which are dark regions on the sun’s surface that are caused by magnetic activity.
How are PCPs Formed?
- PCPs are formed by the interaction of magnetic fields on the sun’s surface.
- Magnetic fields are created by the movement of charged particles (plasma) in the sun’s interior.
- When these magnetic fields interact, they can create regions of intense magnetic activity, such as sunspots.
- PCPs are often associated with these regions of magnetic activity.
Why are PCPs Important?
- PCPs are important because they provide clues about the sun’s magnetic activity and how it affects the Earth’s environment.
- Solar activity, including PCPs, can cause disturbances in the Earth’s magnetic field, which can lead to auroras and disruptions in communication systems.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SpaceX Starship: World’s biggest rocket set for first test flight
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : SpaceX Starship
Mains level : Read the attached story
SpaceX is preparing for the first test flight of Starship, which is the most powerful rocket ever built.
About SpaceX Starship
- Starship is a fully reusable spacecraft designed and built by SpaceX with the primary goal of sending humans to the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
Key objectives
- SpaceX aims to use Starship to establish a self-sustaining human settlement on Mars.
- The ultimate goal is to enable humans to become a multi-planetary species.
- It also aims to make Starship reusable, reducing the cost of spaceflight and bringing down the price to a few million dollars per flight.
- In the long run, the company aims to achieve full and rapid reusability of the spacecraft.
Features |
Details |
Design and configuration |
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Manoeuvrability |
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Construction and materials |
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Power and thrust |
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
ESA to launch Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (JUICE) Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Juice Mission
Mains level : Not Much
The European Space Agency (ESA) is all set to launch the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer, or Juice, mission from its spaceport in French Guiana on an Ariane 5 launcher.
What is the Juice Mission?
- Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (Juice) mission is a project by the European Space Agency (ESA) to explore the Solar System’s largest planet Jupiter and its three largest moons, Ganymede, Callisto, and Europa.
- Juice is constructed by an industrial consortium led by Airbus Defence and Space and is planned to reach Jupiter in 2031 using remote sensing, geophysical, and in situ instruments.
Goals of the Juice mission
- Juice aims to create a detailed map of the surfaces of Jupiter’s moons and to look beneath them to probe their potential habitability by creating a comprehensive picture of Jupiter.
- One of the primary goals of the Juice mission is to gain insight into how planetary systems form and evolve over time and how possibly habitable environments can arise in Jupiter-like systems around other stars.
- Juice will also analyze the chemistry, structure, dynamics, weather, and climate of Jupiter and its ever-changing atmosphere.
Ganymede: Focus of the Juice mission
- Ganymede is the largest moon in the Solar System and the only one to generate its magnetic field.
- Juice will move into Ganymede’s orbit after approximately four of arriving at Jupiter.
- Juice will use its suite of ten sophisticated instruments to measure how Ganymede rotates, its gravity, its shape and interior structure, its magnetic field, its composition, and to penetrate its icy crust using radar down to a depth of about nine km.
Can Juice detect life?
- Juice is not equipped to detect life on Jupiter or its moons.
- It is, however, capable of finding out whether there could be places around Jupiter, inside the icy moons, where the necessary conditions, such as water, biological essential elements, energy, and stability, to sustain life are present.
- Scientists believe that there is a possibility that life is present on Jupiter’s moons, in the form of microbes or more advanced species, such as those found in deep-sea trenches and at hydrothermal vents on Earth.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SNAP-10A: World’s first Operational Nuclear Reactor in Space
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : SNAP 10A
Mains level : Not Much
Central idea: The newscard is about the US government-sponsored System for Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP) program, also known as SNAPSHOT for Space Nuclear Auxiliary Power Shot, and its SNAP-10A space nuclear reactor.
What is SNAP-10A?
SNAP-10A | A nuclear reactor sent to space by the US in 1965 |
SNAP program | A government-sponsored program for developing compact, lightweight, and reliable atomic devices for use in space, sea, and land |
Objective | To produce at least 500 watts of electricity for a year or longer in Earth orbit |
Components | Enriched uranium fuel with zirconium hydride as a moderator, and liquid sodium-potassium alloy as the coolant |
Conversion | A thermoelectric converter was used to directly convert heat from the reactor into electricity |
Payload | Weighed less than 431 kg, including the instruments and shielding, and was designed to be remotely started and operated in space |
Launch | April 3, 1965, on an Atlas-Agena D rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base and placed in a polar orbit |
Operations | Achieved on-orbit criticality within six hours of startup and set to autonomous operation at full power after 200 hours of reactor operations |
Contact loss | Contact was lost with SNAP-10A for about 40 hours on May 16, 1965, and the reactor’s reflectors ejected from the core, causing the core to shut down and bringing an end to the reactor’s operations |
Test objectives | All test flight objectives were met, except the length of operation, which was just 43 days as opposed to the expected year or more |
Significance | Only known nuclear reactor sent to space by the US, while Russia has sent several, including one that crashed and scattered radioactive debris over Canada in 1978 |
Current status | Continues to be in Earth orbit, and NASA expects it to do so for 2,000 years or more |
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s IBEX spacecraft to study Edge of Solar System
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : IBEX
Mains level : Not much
NASA has announced that its Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX) spacecraft is fully operational after the mission team successfully reset it.
Edge of Solar System: HeliopauseThe edge of the Solar System, also known as the heliopause, is the point where the solar wind from the Sun meets the interstellar medium. Here are some key points about the edge of the Solar System:
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Interstellar Boundary Explorer (IBEX)
- IBEX is a small NASA spacecraft designed to map the boundary where winds from the Sun interact with winds from other stars.
- The spacecraft is about the size of a bus tire and its instruments look towards the interstellar boundary while it is on its nine-day orbit around our planet.
- It was launched in 2008 and has spent nearly 15 years in space already.
Purpose
- The purpose of IBEX is to study the interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium and to map the boundary of the solar system.
Technology
- IBEX uses two neutral atom imaging cameras to detect energetic neutral atoms that are created at the boundary of the heliosphere.
- The cameras are mounted on a spinning spacecraft, allowing them to scan the sky and build up a map of the boundary.
Discoveries
Since its launch, IBEX has made several important discoveries, including:
- The first direct measurements of the interstellar wind, which flows into the solar system from the direction of the constellation Scorpius.
- The discovery of a “ribbon” of energetic neutral atoms that stretches across the sky, which may be caused by the interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium.
Current Status
- IBEX is still in operation and continues to gather data about the interstellar boundary.
- Its mission has been extended several times, with the most recent extension running until 2023.
Significance
- IBEX’s findings have increased our understanding of the interaction between the solar wind and the interstellar medium.
- It has helped to refine models of the heliosphere and the solar system’s place in the galaxy.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Moon to get its own Time Zone
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Lunar Time Zone
Mains level : NA
The European Space Agency is planning a universal timekeeping system for the moon.
Timekeeping on the Moon
- The Moon has its own day and night cycle, which lasts about 29.5 Earth days.
- This means that if humans were to live on the Moon, they would need to develop their own timekeeping system.
- Currently, the time on the Moon is measured using Universal Time Coordinated (UTC), which is the same timekeeping system used on the Earth.
- However, because the Moon’s day is much longer than Earth’s day, it would be difficult to use UTC for day-to-day activities on the Moon.
Universal Time Coordinated (UTC)
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Why need lunar time zone?
- The Moon is the Earth’s only natural satellite, and humans have been interested in exploring and colonizing it for many years.
- With recent advancements in space technology, there is renewed interest in lunar exploration and settlement.
Proposed Lunar Time Zone
- To address this issue, scientists and researchers have proposed creating a lunar time zone that would be based on the Moon’s day and night cycle.
- This would make it easier for lunar settlers to keep track of time and coordinate activities.
Benefits offered
- Having a lunar time zone would also make it easier for scientists and researchers to conduct experiments and collect data on the Moon.
- It would also help to prevent confusion and errors that could arise from using different timekeeping systems on Earth and the Moon.
Various challenges
- Time on Earth is precisely tracked by atomic clocks, but synchronizing time on the moon is tricky because clocks run faster there, gaining around 56 microseconds, or millionths of a second, per day.
- It would also be difficult to establish a consistent time zone for the entire Moon, given that the terrain and lighting conditions vary widely across its surface.
- Additionally, any timekeeping system on the Moon would need to be able to account for the Moon’s irregular rotation and movement.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Upgrades in the ALMA Telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : ALMA Telescope
Mains level : NA
The Atacama Large Millimetre/submillimetre Array (ALMA) — a radio telescope in the Atacama Desert of northern Chile is set to get software and hardware upgrades.
What is ALMA?
- ALMA is a state-of-the-art telescope that studies celestial objects at millimetre and submillimetre wavelengths which can penetrate through dust clouds.
- It helps astronomers examine dim and distant galaxies and stars out there.
- It also has extraordinary sensitivity, which allows it to detect even extremely faint radio signals.
- The telescope consists of 66 high-precision antennas, spread over a distance of up to 16 km.
- Each antenna is outfitted with a series of receivers, and each receiver is tuned to a specific range of wavelengths on the electromagnetic spectrum.
Who operates ALMA?
- ALMA is operated under a partnership among the United States, 16 countries in Europe, Canada, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Chile.
- Fully functional since 2013, the radio telescope was designed, planned and constructed by US, Japan and EU.
Why is ALMA located in Chile’s Atacama Desert?
- ALMA is situated at an altitude of 16,570 feet (5,050 metres) above sea level on the Chajnantor plateau in Chile’s Atacama Desert.
- The high altitude and low humidity of the site make it an ideal location for a radio telescope, as there is minimal atmospheric interference.
- Moreover, the desert is the driest place in the world, meaning most of the nights here are clear of clouds and free of light-distorting moisture — making it a perfect location for examining the universe.
Significant discoveries
- One of the earliest findings came in 2013 when it discovered starburst galaxies earlier in the universe’s history than they were previously thought to have existed.
- These newly discovered galaxies represent what today’s most massive galaxies looked like in their energetic, star-forming youth.
- In 2015, the telescope helped scientists observe a phenomenon known as the Einstein ring, which occurs when light from a galaxy or star passes by a massive object en route to the Earth, in extraordinary detail.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Cooling Earth with Moon Dust
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Moon dust for sheilding Earth
Mains level : Global Warming
The article introduces the idea of using Moon dust to cool the Earth and explores the feasibility and potential risks associated with the proposal.
Moonlight cooling of Earth
- The idea of using lunar dust to cool the Earth’s temperature is based on a natural phenomenon called “moonlight cooling.”
- When the Moon’s surface reflects the sun’s rays, it cools down rapidly after sunset.
- Scientists believe that a thin layer of lunar dust could be used to create a similar effect on the Earth’s surface.
- The proposal suggests launching a spacecraft to the Moon to collect dust particles, which would then be transported to the Earth’s atmosphere and released.
Feasibility of the move
- This is not a new idea. In fact, it has been proposed before as a way to combat global warming, and several studies have been conducted to explore its feasibility.
- One study published in the journal Earth’s Future estimated that the technique could reduce the Earth’s temperature by 1.5 degrees Celsius, which is a significant amount in the context of climate change.
Risks and Drawbacks
- Health concerns: The dust could harm the environment or respiratory health if it is not properly controlled.
- Threats to aviation: The particles are abrasive and could damage aircraft engines or other machinery if they were to fall to the ground.
- Feasibility and cost: Collecting enough dust to make a significant impact on the Earth’s temperature would require a significant investment of resources, including launching multiple spacecraft to the Moon.
Frankenstein’s Monster Analogy
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Ring around a dwarf planet lies in Roche Limit: What it means, why it matters
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Roche Limit, Quaoar, Dwarf Planets
Mains level : Not Much
Central idea: A new study shows that a dwarf planet, named Quaoar, has a ring system that exists within its Roche limit.
What is the news?
- Astronomers have found a ring around a dwarf planet, located in the Kuiper Belt at the solar system’s edge, called Quaoar, according to a new study.
- The ring, however, is positioned much further away from the planet than is usual and defies theoretical explanations.
About Quaoar
- With an estimated radius of 555 km, Quaoar is roughly half the size of Pluto and orbits beyond Neptune.
- It also has a moon of its own, which is known as Weywot.
- As the dwarf planet is too small and too distant to be observed directly, the researchers detected the ring with the help of a phenomenon called stellar occultation.
How was the ring discovered?
- A stellar occultation occurs when, as seen from Earth, a bright star passes behind a planet.
- This allows astronomers or anybody on Earth to observe the sharp silhouette of the planet for a brief period of time.
- The phenomenon, which rarely occurs, is used by researchers to analyze a planet’s atmosphere and determine if it has a ring around it — in 1977, scientists discovered the Uranian ring system with the help of stellar occultation.
What is the Roche limit?
- The most intriguing part of the findings is the distance between Quaoar and its ring.
- Located 2,500 miles away from the dwarf planet, the ring is around 1,400 miles further away from the Roche limit, as per the calculations of the scientists.
- It suggests that at such a distance, the particles of the ring should have come together to form a moon.
- For a further understanding of the Roche limit, let’s look at the Earth and the moon. The Earth’s gravity pulls on the moon.
- However, one side of the moon is closer to the planet and hence, the pull is stronger on the side facing the Earth.
- The result is the so-called tidal force, which either stretches or compresses the moon from all sides.
What is the reason behind Quaoar’s far-out ring?
- As of now, nobody exactly knows how Quaoar’s ring has managed to remain stable at such a distance from the Roche limit.
- The researchers said that there can be a variety of possible explanations but they aren’t sure about any one of them.
- It might be possible that Quaoar’s moon, Weywot, or some other unseen moon contributes gravity that somehow holds the ring stable.
- Another potential explanation can be that the particles of the ring are colliding with each other in such a way that they are avoiding to coalesce into a moon.
Try this MCQ:
Q.What is the Roche limit?
A) The distance from a planet where its gravity is balanced by the gravitational force of another celestial body
B) The minimum distance from a planet that a moon can orbit without being pulled apart by tidal forces
C) The distance from the sun at which a planet can have a stable orbit
D) The distance from the earth where meteoroids burn up upon entering the atmosphere
Post your answers here.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
1st Saudi Women to space via Axiom-2 Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Axiom Mission 2
Mains level : NA
Central idea: Saudi Arabia will send its first-ever woman astronaut on the US-led Axiom 2 space mission later this year, in the latest move to revamp the kingdom’s ultra-conservative image.
Axiom Mission 2
- Axiom Mission 2 is a private spaceflight mission organized by Axiom Space, a Houston-based aerospace company.
- The mission is scheduled to launch in 2023 and aims to send four private individuals on a 10-day trip to the International Space Station (ISS).
- Rayyana Barnawi will join fellow Saudi male astronaut Ali Al-Qarni on a mission to the International Space Station (ISS) during the second quarter of 2023.
- The mission is the second private crewed flight to the ISS, following the Inspiration4 mission by SpaceX.
- The crew is expected to undergo months of training, including simulations, physical conditioning, and emergency procedures.
- The mission is part of Axiom Space’s plan to establish a private space station attached to the ISS, which is expected to be launched in 2024.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Solar Prominence?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Solar Prominence
Mains level : Not Much
Recently, the sun puzzled many scientists with a large prominence near its north pole.
What is Solar Prominence?
- A solar prominence (also known as a filament when viewed against the solar disk) is a large, bright feature extending outward from the Sun’s surface.
- Prominences are anchored to the Sun’s surface in the photosphere, and extend outwards into the Sun’s hot outer atmosphere, called the corona.
- A prominence forms over timescales of about a day, and stable prominences may persist in the corona for several months, looping hundreds of thousands of miles into space.
How are they formed?
- Scientists are still researching how and why prominences are formed.
- The red-glowing looped material is plasma, a hot gas comprised of electrically charged hydrogen and helium.
- The prominence plasma flows along a tangled and twisted structure of magnetic fields generated by the sun’s internal dynamo.
- An erupting prominence occurs when such a structure becomes unstable and bursts outward, releasing the plasma.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is the North Star?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : North Star
Mains level : Features of parliamentary democracy
Vice President said Parliament is the “North Star” of democracy, “a place of discussion and deliberation to realize the aspirations and dreams of the people”.
What is North Star?
- North Star is a metaphor to refer to something constant/permanent that leads and provides direction.
- Polaris, also known as the North Star or the Pole Star, is a very bright star (around 2500 times more luminous than our sun) placed less than 1° away from the north celestial pole.
- Its position and brightness have made humans use it for navigation since late antiquity.
- It is a part of the constellation Ursa Minor and is around 323 light-years away from Earth.
How it helps navigation?
- It stands almost motionless in the night sky, with all the stars of the northern sky appearing to rotate around it.
- This makes it an excellent fixed point from which to draw measurements for celestial navigation.
- Simply the elevation of the star above the horizon gives the approximate latitude of the observer and in the northern hemisphere, if you can see Polaris you can always tell which way is north.
- Upon crossing the equator to the South, the North Star is lost over the horizon and hence stops being a useful navigational aid.
When the North Star was first used to navigate?
- Polaris seems to have been first charted by the Roman mathematician and astronomer Ptolemy, who lived from about 85 to 165 B.C.
- While there does exist some evidence pointing at how the star was used for navigation in late antiquity, it is during the ‘Age of Exploration’ that it becomes such a central part of human history.
- Christopher Columbus, on his first trans-Atlantic voyage of 1492, “had to correct (his ship’s bearings) for the circle described by the pole star about the pole”, wrote his son in his biography.
- As European colonizers set sail for exotic locations across the world, the North Star became an ever-so-important feature.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Green Comet appears close to Earth after 50,000 years
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Green Comet
Mains level : Not Much
The rare green comet that last came to Earth about 50,000 years ago has returned to the skies of Earth. C/2022 E3 (ZTF) can be seen with the naked eye if the conditions in the sky are just right.
What are Comets?
- Comets are frozen rocky or gas-filled objects that are remnants of the formation of the solar system.
- Due to their composition, characteristics and the path they move in, they tend to leave a light “behind them”.
- Here, the comet itself is green (called the head of the comet) and emits a whitish light behind it (often called the tail of the comet).
- Just like other bodies in space, comets also have orbits.
- They are sometimes pulled in close to the sun because of the sun’s gravity acting on them.
- As they orbit near the Sun, they heat up and spew gases and dust into a glowing head that can be larger than a planet.
- The remains of dust following this burning up, from a distance, look like a trail of light to humans on Earth.
What is Green Comet C/2022 E3 (ZTF)?
- Comet C/2022 E3 (ZTF) was first discovered in March last year by the wide-field survey camera at the Zwicky Transient Facility when it was already inside the orbit of Jupiter.
- While it was initially believed to be an asteroid, it began developing a tail as the Sun’s influence began vapourising the ice.
- At the time of its discovery, it was shining with a magnitude of 17.3.
Why is it green in colour?
- Comets have often been seen giving out blue or whitish light, or even green.
- In this case, the green glow “is thought to arise from the presence of diatomic carbon – pairs of carbon atoms that are bound together – in the head of the comet.
- The molecule emits green light when excited by the ultraviolet rays in solar radiation.
When and where can the green comet be seen?
- Observers in the Northern Hemisphere will find the comet in the morning sky, as it moves swiftly toward the northwest during January.
- It’ll become visible in the Southern Hemisphere in early February.
- In Indian skies, when looking in the northwest direction, one might spot it 16° above the horizon in the Bootes constellation.
- But with lights from buildings and streetlights on, it can be difficult to make it out without equipment.
Is the green comet rare?
- It last came in the skies above Earth during the Upper Paleolithic period, a time when Neanderthals roamed the planet and early homo sapiens had just come around.
- Coming under the category of long-period comets, which take more than 200 years to orbit the Sun, the green comet is not easily spotted.
- With a highly elliptical orbit, the comet will head back to the Oort cloud and make its next appearance roughly 50,000 years later.
- But given their orbits, it’s not unique for comets to reappear close to Earth only after many, many years.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Bimodal Nuclear Propulsion can send missions to Mars in 45 days
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Bimodal Nuclear Propulsion
Mains level : Not Much
NASA is planning to send mission to Mars in 45 days using the Bimodal Nuclear Propulsion.
Bimodal Nuclear Propulsion: What is it?
- NASA relaunched its program to develop bimodal nuclear propulsion a few years ago. Bimodal nuclear propulsion is a two-part system that includes an NTP and NEP element.
- This system is expected to enable transits to Mars in 100 days.
- In 2023, the US space agency started a new program named NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC) and has selected a nuclear concept for Phase I development.
- This new bimodal nuclear propulsion system will use a “wave rotor topping cycle” that may reduce transit times to Mars to 45 days.
How will nuclear propulsion work?
- Nuclear propulsion is based on two concepts Nuclear-Thermal Propulsion (NTP) and Nuclear-Electric Propulsion (NEP).
- The NTP system includes a nuclear reactor that will heat liquid hydrogen (LH2) propellant and turn it into ionised hydrogen gas (plasma) that will then be channelled through nozzles to generate thrust.
- NEP depends on a nuclear reactor to provide electricity to a Hall-Effect thruster (ion engine).
- It will generate an electromagnetic field that will ionise and accelerate an inert gas (for example xenon) to create thrust.
Benefits offered
- Nuclear propulsions have major advantages over conventional chemical propulsion.
- These benefits include fuel efficiency, a higher specific impulse rating and unlimited energy density (virtually).
- NEP’s advantage over NTP and conventional chemical propulsion systems is that it offers more than 10,000 seconds of Specific impulse (ISP).
- ISP is a measure of how efficiently a reaction mass engine (a rocket using propellant or a jet engine using fuel) creates thrust.
Benefits for manned missions
- A crewed mission to Mars based on conventional propulsion technology may last up to three years.
- However, A transit time of 45 days will reduce the overall mission time to months instead of years.
- This will drastically reduce the major risks associated with missions to Mars which include – radiation exposure, the time spent in microgravity and related health concerns.
Limitations of these nuclear propulsion systems
- This means NEP systems can maintain thrust for close to three hours.
- However, the thrust level is lower compared to conventional rockets and NTP systems.
- In outer space, the thermal energy conversion rate is just 30-40% under ideal circumstances.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
James Webb Telescope discovers its first Earth-sized Exoplanet
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : JSWT, Exoplanets, Goldilock Zone
Mains level : Not Much
NASA has announced that the James Webb Space Telescope has discovered its first new exoplanet LHS 475 b.
LHS 475 b
- The exoplanet LHS 475 b is roughly the same size as Earth.
- Located just 41 light-years away, the planet orbits very close to a red dwarf star and completes a full orbit in just two days.
Red Dwarf Stars
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What are Exoplanets?
- Exoplanets are planets that orbit other stars and are beyond our solar system.
- According to NASA, to date, more than 5,000 exoplanets have been discovered.
- Scientists believe that there are more planets than stars as each star has at least one planet orbiting it.
- Exoplanets come in a host of different sizes. They can be gas giants bigger than Jupiter or as small and rocky as Earth.
- They are also known to have different kinds of temperatures — boiling hot to freezing cold.
Significance of exoplanets study
- Studying exoplanets not only broadens our understanding of other solar systems but also helps us piece together information about our own planetary system and origin.
- However, the most compelling reason to learn about them is to find extraterrestrial life.
- Researchers emphasize on determining if exoplanets are solid or gaseous or even has water vapour in the atmosphere.
- This helps scientists determine if a discovered world is habitable or not.
- Another important element of the study is finding out the distance between an exoplanet and its host star.
Do you know?
If an exoplanet is too close to the star, it might be too hot to sustain liquid water. If it’s too far, it might only have frozen water. When such a planet is at a distance that enables it to have liquid water, it is said to be in the “Goldilocks zone”.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
1st-ever 3D map of Local Bubble’s magnetic fields
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Local Bubble
Mains level : Not Much
Researchers have generated a 3D magnetic map of the giant cosmic cavity called Local Bubble that surrounds the solar system could reveal the universe’s secrets, including questions about the origins of stars.
What is the Local Bubble?
- The Local Bubble is a 1,000-light-year-wide cavity or a super-bubble.
- It is a relative cavity in the interstellar medium (ISM) of the Orion Arm in the Milky Way.
- Local Bubble is thought to have originated from supernovae roughly 14 million years ago. Supernova is a cosmic explosion occurring when stars meet their end.
- Space is full of these super-bubbles that trigger the formation of new stars and planets and influence the overall shapes of galaxies.
How are they formed?
- Super-bubbles are comparable to holes in Swiss cheese. Supernova explosions blow holes in the cheese. New stars form around these holes.
- However, mechanisms powering the formation and expansion of the Local Bubble are not well-understood.
- Further, there is little information on how magnetic fields likely impact the bubble and local star formation.
- Max Planck has provided information on the magnetic alignment of cosmic dust. This alignment can indicate the orientation of the magnetic field acting on the dust particles.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Five space exploration missions to look out for in 2023
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Read the attached story
Mains level : NA
2023 is set to be another busy year. Here are five of the most exciting missions to watch out for.
(1) Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer
- In April, the European Space Agency (ESA) is set to launch the Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer (Juice), in what will be Europe’s first dedicated robotic mission to Jupiter.
- Juice is due to reach the planet in July 2031 after performing an incredible flight path through the Solar System.
- The mission will enter into orbit around Jupiter and perform numerous flybys of its large icy moons: Europa, Ganymede and Callisto.
- After four years of moon flybys, Juice will then enter into orbit around Ganymede, the largest moon in the Solar System — becoming the first spacecraft ever to reach orbit around the moon of another planet.
- The icy moons of Jupiter are interesting as they are all believed to host oceans of liquid water beneath their frozen surfaces.
- Europa, in particular, is regarded as one of the most likely abodes in the Solar System for extra-terrestrial life.
(2) SpaceX Starship
- Starship will be the largest spacecraft capable of carrying humans from Earth to destinations in space (the International Space Station is larger, but it was assembled in space).
- It will be the most powerful launch vehicle ever to fly, capable of lifting 100 tonnes of cargo to low Earth orbit.
- Starship is the collective name for a two-component system consisting of the Starship spacecraft (which carries the crew and cargo) and the Super Heavy rocket.
- The rocket component will lift Starship to some 65km altitude before separating and returning to Earth in a controlled landing.
- The upper Starship component will then use its own engines to push itself the rest of the way to orbit.
(3) dearMoon Project
- The long-awaited dearMoon project, which will take members of the public on a six-day trip around the Moon and back, is due for launch on Starship and was originally planned for 2023.
- It will be the first true deep space tourism launch.
- This mission will mark a big change in the way we think about space, as previously only astronauts picked using incredibly stringent criteria have been able to go into deep space.
- The success or failure of the dearMoon mission could affect whether deep space tourism becomes the next big thing, or it is relegated back to being a pipe-dream.
(4) OSIRIS-REx returning Earth
- The Origins Spectral Interpretation Resource Identification Security — Regolith Explorer, mercifully more commonly known as OSIRIS-REx, is a NASA mission to near-Earth asteroid Bennu.
- A key goal of this robotic mission was to acquire samples of Bennu and return them to Earth for analysis.
- OSIRIS-REx is now fast returning to Earth with up to a kilogram of precious asteroid samples stored aboard.
- If all goes well, the capsule will detach from the spacecraft, enter the Earth’s atmosphere and parachute to a soft landing in the deserts of Utah.
- Asteroid sample return has only been achieved once before, by the Japanese Space Agency’s Hayabusa 2 mission in 2020.
- Bennu is an approximately diamond-shaped world just half a kilometre in size, but has many interesting characteristics.
- Some of the minerals detected within it have been altered by water, implying that Bennu’s ancient parent body possessed liquid water.
- It also has an abundance of precious metals, including gold and platinum.
- It is however classed as a potentially hazardous object with a (very) small possibility of Earth impact in the next century.
(5) India’s private space launch
- Skyroot Aerospace, which successfully launched its Vikram-S rocket in November 2022, is soon to become the first private Indian company to launch a satellite.
- The rocket itself reached 90km in altitude, a distance that would need to be improved upon to get a constellation of satellites into orbit.
- Skyroot’s first satellite launch is planned for 2023, with a goal of undercutting the cost of private space launch rivals by producing its 3D-printed rockets in a matter of days.
- If successful, this could also provide a route for cheaper launches of scientific missions, enabling a faster rate of research.
Conclusion
- With many bold advances and launches due in 2023, we are entering a new phase akin to the “Golden era” of space launches in the 1960s and ’70s.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SWOT Satellite to Survey Earth’s Water
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : SWOT mission
Mains level : Not Much
A NASA-led SWOT international satellite was launched on a major Earth science project to conduct a comprehensive survey of the world’s oceans, lakes and rivers for the first time.
SWOT Satellite
- Dubbed as SWOT (Surface Water and Ocean Topography, the advanced radar satellite is designed to give an unprecedented view of the life-giving fluid covering 70% of the planet.
- The mission is a joint effort between NASA and the French space agency.
- It will survey water on more than 90% of the world’s surface and measure the height of water in freshwater bodies as well as the oceans.
- It would shed new light on the mechanics and consequences of climate change.
Key feature: Precise computation
- The SWOT is designed to precisely measure fine differences in surface elevations around smaller currents and eddies, where much the oceans’ drawdown of heat and carbon is believed to occur.
- The SWOT can do so with 10 times greater resolution than existing technologies.
- Freshwater bodies are another key focus of the SWOT, equipped to observe the entire length of nearly all rivers wider than 330 feet and more than 1 million lakes and reservoirs larger than 15 acres.
For climate analysis
- Data from SWOT can help researchers fill knowledge gaps as they seek to understand the ripple effects of the climate crisis.
- It would study how sea level is shifting along coastlines and areas that may be more prone to flooding, to better predict rising water levels in the future.
- The climate crisis is also fueling extreme weather patterns, including droughts and downpours.
- The satellite’s instruments can monitor both and provide essential information for disaster preparedness and water management agencies.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
In news: Geminids meteor shower
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Geminids meteoric shower
Mains level : Not Much
Bengalurians are all set to witness the annual Geminids meteor shower.
What are meteor showers?
- Meteors are usually fragments of comets.
- As they enter the Earth’s atmosphere at high speed, they burn up, creating a spectacular “shower”.
- Meteors come from leftover comet particles and bits from asteroids.
- When these objects come around the Sun, they leave a dusty trail behind them.
- Every year Earth passes through these debris trails, which allows the bits to collide with our atmosphere where they disintegrate to create fiery and colorful streaks in the sky.
What makes the Geminids unique?
- Geminids is one of the brightest and most reliable annual meteor showers.
- They are unique because unlike most meteor showers, they originate not from a comet, but from an asteroid, the 3200 Phaethon.
- The 3200 Phaethon was discovered on October 11, 1983.
- It is named after the Greek mythology character Phaethon, son of the Sun God Helios.
- It takes 1.4 years to complete one round of the Sun.
- As the 3200 Phaethon moves close to the Sun while orbiting it, the rocks on its surface heat up and break off.
- When the Earth passes through the trail of this debris, the Geminids are caused.
Why are they called Geminids?
- That comes from the constellation Gemini, from whose location in the sky the meteor shower appears to originate.
- The constellation for which a meteor shower is named only serves to aid viewers in determining which shower they are viewing on a given night.
- The constellation is not the source of the meteors.
Back2Basics:
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
2022 AP7: the Planet Killer Asteroid
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : 2022 AP7 Asteroid
Mains level : NA
A team of astronomers have spotted a massive near-Earth asteroid called 2022 AP7 believed to be the largest planet killer-sized asteroid to be spotted in nearly a decade.
2022 AP7 Asteroid
- An asteroid is a relatively small chunk of rocky minerals that orbits the Sun, often described as a minor planet.
- 2022 AP7 is among the three asteroids hiding in the glare of the Sun.
- It is 1.5-kilometre-wide and has an orbit that may someday put it on a collision course with our planet.
- At present, researchers have little information about the asteroid, including further details on its possible trajectory and its composition.
- It was found using the Dark Energy Camera at the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory in Chile.
What about the other two?
- The two — 2021 LJ4 and 2021 PH27 — have orbits that are safely constrained inside the limits of Earth’s orbit.
- At less than a kilometer in diameter, 2021 LJ4 is the smallest in size.
- The asteroid, 2021 PH27, is the closest known asteroid to the Sun.
- Due to this, its surface gets hot enough to melt lead.
Is there an immediate threat to Earth?
- At present, the asteroid only crosses the Earth’s orbit while it is on the opposite side of the Sun i.e., when the Sun comes between the Earth and the asteroid.
- This will continue for several centuries as it takes the asteroid about five years to orbit the sun.
- If impacted, Earth’s atmosphere would be inundated with dust and pollutants for years, preventing sunlight from entering.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What are Coronal Holes?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Coronal Holes
Mains level : Not Much
Recently, NASA tweeted an image of the sun seemingly ‘smiling’. NASA explained that the patches are called coronal holes, which can be seen in ultraviolet light but are typically invisible to our eyes.
What are Coronal Holes?
- Coronal holes are regions on the sun’s surface from where fast solar wind gushes out into space.
- Because they contain little solar material, they have lower temperatures and thus appear much darker than their surroundings.
- Here, the magnetic field is open to interplanetary space, sending solar material out in a high-speed stream of solar wind.
- They can last between a few weeks to months.
- The holes are not a unique phenomenon, appearing throughout the sun’s approximately 11-year solar cycle.
- They can last much longer during solar minimum – a period of time when activity on the Sun is substantially diminished.
How are they formed?
- It is unclear what causes coronal holes.
- They correlate to areas on the sun where magnetic fields soar up and away, without looping back down to the surface as they do elsewhere.
What do they tell us?
- These ‘coronal holes’ are important to understanding the space environment around the earth through which our technology and astronauts travel.
- In 2016 coronal holes covering “six-eight per cent of the total solar surface” were spotted.
- Scientists study these fast solar wind streams because they sometimes interact with earth’s magnetic field, creating what’s called a geomagnetic storm.
- These storms can expose satellites to radiation and interfere with communications signals.
Back2Basics: Geomagnetic Storms
- Geomagnetic storms relate to earth’s magnetosphere – the space around a planet that is influenced by its magnetic field.
- When a high-speed solar stream arrives at the earth, in certain circumstances it can allow energetic solar wind particles to hit the atmosphere over the poles.
- Such geomagnetic storms cause a major disturbance of the magnetosphere as there is a very efficient exchange of energy from the solar wind into the space environment surrounding earth.
- In cases of a strong solar wind reaching the earth, the resulting geomagnetic storm can cause changes in the ionosphere, part of the earth’s upper atmosphere.
- Radio and GPS signals travel through this layer of the atmosphere, and so communications can get disrupted.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
The illusion of being faster than light: how a star problem was solved
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Speed of light, Neutron stars, various terms mentioned
Mains level : Not Much
Scientists have spotted something that appeared to be moving 7 times faster than the Speed of Light in a supernova like event.
What is the news?
- In 2017, astrophysicists observed an unusual feat among the stars.
- The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave (LIGO) observatories recorded a signal which indicated that two massive and dense stellar bodies had merged to form a third body, likely a black hole.
- An unusual jet of matter was observed that gave an illusion of travelling faster than light.
Can matter move faster than Light?
- From the data, it appeared the jets of matter were moving seven times faster than light.
- The researchers explain the reason behind the discrepancy is due to something called superluminal motion.
- Since the jet of matter reaches Earth at the speed of light, the light it emits at later points has a relatively shorter distance, making it appear faster than it actually is.
- After more calculations, astronomers found the real speed to be at least 99.7 percent of the speed of light (3 × 10^8 m / s).
Crossing the speed of light: An illusion
- The data of same incident has been recorded by the Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA) spacecraft and Hubble (James Web) Space Telescope
- Using it, scientists confirmed that the above picture is correct.
How to assess it?
- Scientists have also measured more accurately a factor called the Lorenz factor which scales with the actual speed of the particles in the jet.
- Unlike earlier estimates which placed this factor at about 4, the present paper estimates this factor to be over 40.
- This is because they measure the speed of the relativistic jet to be close to 9997c, where “c” is the speed of light.
How are they observed?
- Source is clearly as massive neutron stars merging to give a black hole and throwing off relativistic jets of particles in the process.
Merging neutron stars: Faking to cross speed of light
- Neutron stars are stellar corpses, left behind after a star has undergone a supernova explosion and reached the end of its lifetime.
- They are extremely dense, containing more mass than the sun in a sphere that is a few tens of kilometre wide.
- The observation of particles moving at seven times the speed of light is an illusion.
- This happens in cases where a source moves (towards us) with a velocity that is very close to light’s velocity.
- This has been seen in many active galactic nuclei — galaxy centres that harbour black holes — and binary star systems within our galaxy, where one of the stars is a black hole.
- Mostly, black holes are responsible for producing such fast-moving material.
How is this illusion created?
- Normally, if one were making these measurements from earth-based telescopes, it would require data from radio telescopes spaced apart by intercontinental distances.
- This technique is called Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) and was used in the earlier papers.
Significance of this study
- The significance of the paper is that now, we have learnt that neutron star mergers can result in material moving with speeds as high as 0.9997c.
- Earlier results using Very Long Baseline Interferometry had pegged this value at about 0.938c.
- And with the new results this lower limit has been improved.
- Even earlier, with VLBI, it was understood that it was a neutron-star merger that produced such ultra-relativistic material.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
James Webb telescope : The most powerful space telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : JSWT
Mains level : JSWT, Big bang
Context
- Much of the universe remains unknown. The James Webb telescope will hopefully provide a powerful window to help resolve some of the cosmos’s many mysteries.
What is James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)?
- It is a space telescope being jointly developed by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
- It has taken 30 years and $10bn to develop, and is being described as one of the grand scientific endeavors of the 21st Century.
Where it is placed?
- The James Webb Space Telescope will not be in orbit around the Earth, like the Hubble Space Telescope is – it will actually orbit the Sun, 1.5 million kilometres (1 million miles) away from the Earth at what is called the second Lagrange point or L2.
Mission
- It will be “a giant leap forward in quest to understand the Universe and our origins”, as it will examine every phase of cosmic history: from the Big Bang to the formation of galaxies, stars, and planets to the evolution of our own Solar System.
Special features of JWST
- Time machine in space: Powerful space telescopes, like JWST or the Hubble Telescope, are often called time machines because of their ability to view very faraway objects. The light coming from those objects, stars or galaxies, which is captured by these telescopes, began its journey millions of years earlier. Essentially, what these telescopes see are images of these stars or galaxies as they were millions of years ago. The more distant the planet or star, the farther back in time are the telescopes able to see.
- Farthest from Earth: James Webb telescope will also be positioned much deeper into space, about a million miles from Earth, at a spot known as L2. It is one of the five points, known as Lagrange’s points, in any revolving two-body system like Earth and Sun, where the gravitational forces of the two large bodies cancel each other out.
- Engineering marvel: JWST has one large mirror, with a diameter of 21 feet (the height of a typical two-storey building), that will capture the infra-red light coming in from the deep universe while facing away from the Sun.
What is the goal of this telescope?
- The telescope will be able to see just about anything in the sky.
- However, it has one overriding objective – to see the light coming from the very first stars to shine in the Universe.
- These pioneer stars are thought to have switched on about 100-200 million years after the Big Bang, or a little over 13.5 billion years ago.
- James Webb telescope will be picking out groupings of these stars.
Its significance
- It is widely expected to unveil many secrets of the universe, particularly those related to the Formation of stars and galaxies in the early period the first few hundred million years after the Big Bang.
- Some have called James Webb telescope the “telescope that ate astronomy”.
- It is said to look back in time to the Dark Ages of the universe.
Conclusion
- The universe is vast and most of it is unknown. We hope that the James Webb telescope, over its lifetime would provide us with a powerful window to help resolve some of the many mysteries of the cosmos and make it a little bit more comprehensible.
Mains question
Q. What is James Webb telescope experiment? Do you think it shades light on dark matter? Explain.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s DART mission prepares for an asteroid Dimorphos collision
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : DART Mission, Didymos, Dimorphos
Mains level : Not Much
In the first-of-its kind NASA’s DART Mission is about to hit a small, harmless asteroid millions of miles away.
What is DART Mission?
- The main aim of the mission is to test the newly developed technology that would allow a spacecraft to crash into an asteroid and change its course.
- It is a suicide mission and the spacecraft will be completely destroyed.
- The target of the spacecraft is a small moonlet called Dimorphos (Greek for “two forms”).
- It is about 160-metre in diameter and the spacecraft is expected to collide when it is 11 million kilometres away from Earth.
- Dimorphos orbits a larger asteroid named Didymos (Greek for “twin”) which has a diameter of 780 metres.
Why Dimorphos?
- Didymos is a perfect system for the test mission because it is an eclipsing binary which means it has a moonlet that regularly orbits the asteroid.
- It is observable when it passes in front of the main asteroid.
- Earth-based telescopes can study this variation in brightness to understand how long it takes Dimorphos to orbit Didymos.
Collision course
- At the time of impact, Didymos and Dimorphos will be relatively close to Earth – within 6.8 million miles (11 million kilometers).
- The spacecraft will accelerate at about 24,140 kilometers per hour when it collides with Dimorphos.
- It aims to crash into Dimorphos to change the asteroid’s motion in space.
- This collision will be recorded by LICIACube, or Light Italian CubeSat for Imaging of Asteroids, a companion cube satellite provided by the Italian Space Agency.
- Three minutes after impact, the CubeSat will fly by Dimorphos to capture images and video.
Why such mission?
- Dimorphos was chosen for this mission because its size is relative to asteroids that could pose a threat to Earth.
- The spacecraft is about 100 times smaller than Dimorphos, so it won’t obliterate the asteroid.
- The fast impact will only change Dimorphos’ speed as it orbits Didymos by 1%, which doesn’t sound like a lot — but it will change the moon’s orbital period.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Artemis 1 Mission?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : particulars of artemis mission
Mains level : NA
NASA’s Artemis 1 mission has sought unexpected delay due to fuel leakages issue.
What is the Artemis I Mission?
- NASA’s Artemis mission is touted as the next generation of lunar exploration, and is named after the twin sister of Apollo from Greek mythology.
- Artemis is also the goddess of the moon.
- Artemis I is the first of NASA’s deep space exploration systems.
- It is an uncrewed space mission where the spacecraft will launch on SLS — the most powerful rocket in the world — and travel 2,80,000 miles from the earth for over four to six weeks during the course of the mission.
- The Orion spacecraft is going to remain in space without docking to a space station, longer than any ship for astronauts has ever done before.
- The SLS rocket has been designed for space missions beyond the low-earth orbit and can carry crew or cargo to the moon and beyond.
Key objectives of the mission
- With the Artemis Mission, NASA aims to land humans on the moon by 2024, and it also plans to land the first woman and first person of colour on the moon.
- With this mission, NASA aims to contribute to scientific discovery and economic benefits and inspire a new generation of explorers.
- NASA will establish an Artemis Base Camp on the surface and a gateway in the lunar orbit to aid exploration by robots and astronauts.
- The gateway is a critical component of NASA’s sustainable lunar operations and will serve as a multi-purpose outpost orbiting the moon.
Other agencies involved
- Other space agencies are also involved in the Artemis programme.
- The Canadian Space Agency has committed to providing advanced robotics for the gateway.
- The European Space Agency will provide the International Habitat and the ESPRIT module, which will deliver additional communications capabilities among other things.
- The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency plans to contribute habitation components and logistics resupply.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
In news: James Webb Space Telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : James Webb Space Telescope, Jupiter
Mains level : Not Much
The James Webb Space Telescope, NASA’s latest and most powerful telescope, has captured new images of our solar system’s largest planet, Jupiter, presenting it in a never before seen light.
What is so special about snapping Jupiter?
- The photographs have captured a new view of the planet, presenting in detail its massive storms, colourful auroras, faint rings and two small moons — Amalthea and Adrastea.
- While most of us are familiar with the yellow and reddish-brown gas giant.
- The JSWT’s Near-Infrared Camera, with its specialized infrared filters, has shown Jupiter encompassed in blue, green, white, yellow and orange hues.
- Jupiter’s famous Great Red Spot, a storm so big that it could swallow Earth, appeared bright white in the image, since it was reflecting a lot of sunlight.
- The brightness here indicates high altitude — so the Great Red Spot has high-altitude hazes, as does the equatorial region.
- The numerous bright white ‘spots’ and ‘streaks’ are likely very high-altitude cloud tops of condensed convective storms.
About James Webb Space Telescope
- JWST is a space telescope jointly developed by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
- It is planned to succeed the Hubble Space Telescope as NASA’s flagship astrophysics mission.
- It will conduct a broad range of investigations across the fields of astronomy and cosmology, including:
- Observing some of the most distant events and objects in the universe such as the formation of the first galaxies
- Detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets
How is it different from other telescopes?
- JWST is much more powerful and has the ability to look in the infrared spectrum, which will allow it to peer through much deeper into the universe, and see through obstructions such as gas clouds.
- As electromagnetic waves travel for long distances, they lose energy, resulting in an increase in their wavelength.
- An ultraviolet wave, for example, can slowly move into the visible light spectrum and the infrared spectrum, and further weaken to microwaves or radio waves, as it loses energy.
- Hubble was designed to look mainly into the ultraviolet and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
- JWST is primarily an infrared telescope, the first of its kind.
Special features of JWST
(1) Time machine in space
- Powerful space telescopes, like JWST or the Hubble Telescope, are often called time machines because of their ability to view very faraway objects.
- The light coming from those objects, stars or galaxies, which is captured by these telescopes, began its journey millions of years earlier.
- Essentially, what these telescopes see are images of these stars or galaxies as they were millions of years ago.
- The more distant the planet or star, the farther back in time are the telescopes able to see.
(2) Farthest from Earth
- JWST will also be positioned much deeper into space, about a million miles from Earth, at a spot known as L2.
- It is one of the five points, known as Lagrange’s points, in any revolving two-body system like Earth and Sun, where the gravitational forces of the two large bodies cancel each other out.
- Objects placed at these positions are relatively stable and require minimal external energy to keep them there. L2 is a position directly behind Earth in the line joining the Sun and the Earth.
- It would be shielded from the Sun by the Earth as it goes around the Sun, in sync with the Earth.
(3) Engineering marvel
- JWST has one large mirror, with a diameter of 21 feet (the height of a typical two-storey building), that will capture the infra-red light coming in from the deep universe while facing away from the Sun.
- It will be shielded by a five-layer, tennis court-sized, kite-shaped sunscreen that is designed to block the heat from Sun and ensure the extremely cool temperatures that the instruments are built to operate at.
- Temperatures on the sun-facing side can get as high as 110°C, while the other side would be maintained at –200° to –230°C.
- The extremely cold temperatures are needed to detect the extremely faint heat signals from distant galaxies.
- The mirror as well as the sunscreen is so large they could not have fit into any rocket. They have been built as foldable items and would be unravelled in space.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Uncontrolled Descent of Space Debris
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Space Junk
Mains level : Read the attached story
A Chinese booster rocket made an uncontrolled return to earth, leading to US furore against Beijing for not sharing information about the potentially hazardous object’s descent.
Yet another Chinese irresponsibility
- Ending over a week of global anxiety and alarm, the debris from a large Chinese rocket – the Long March 5B — crashed to earth over the Pacific and the Indian oceans.
- It felt into the Sulu Sea near Malaysia.
- The 22-tonne core stage of the rocket hurtled uncontrollably back to earth. There were fears that it might hit a populated area.
- China, however, had dismissed these fears despite widespread criticism for rocket re-entry risks imposed by it on the world.
What is an Uncontrolled Re-entry?
- Generally, the core or first stage of a rocket is made up of heavy pieces that usually don’t reach orbit after liftoff, and fall back safely along a near-precise projected trajectory.
- If they do enter an orbit, then a costly de-orbit manoeuvre is required for a steered, controlled return using engine burn.
- Without a de-orbit manoeuvre, the orbital core stage makes an uncontrolled fall.
Why did it fell back?
- Gigantic remnants from China’s Long March 5B rockets’ core stage are known to make such fiery, out-of-control descents back to earth.
- Most nations’ rockets, separate the launcher from the payload before leaving the atmosphere.
- An extra engine then gives the payload a final boost.
- But China’s 5B series does NOT use a second engine and pushes right into orbit, the report points out.
Why is it difficult to track uncontrolled descents?
- The variables involved make it difficult to precisely track the re-entry time and drop zone of rocket debris in uncontrolled descents.
- The factors that make this prediction extremely challenging include atmospheric drag, variations in solar activity, angle and rotational variation of the object among others.
- A miscalculation of even a minute in re-entry time could result in the final resting place of the debris changing by hundreds of kilometres.
- It’s important to understand that among the 10 tough things that we do in space, debris re-entry is probably one of the toughest ones to predict.
Are there laws regulating space junk?
Yes. The Space Liability Convention of 1972.
- It defines responsibility in case a space object causes harm.
- The treaty says that a launching State shall be absolutely liable to pay compensation for damage caused by its space objects on the surface of the earth or to aircraft, and liable for damage due to its faults in space.
- The Convention also provides for procedures for the settlement of claims for damages.
- However, there is no law against space junk crashing back to earth.
- In April this year, suspected debris from a Chinese rocket was found in two Maharashtra villages.
Cases of settlements
- In 1979, the re-entry of NASA’s 76-ton Skylab had scattered debris over uninhabited parts of Australia, and the space agency was fined $400 for littering by a local government.
- The only settlement using the Liability Convention was between the erstwhile Soviet Union and Canada over the debris of Soviet Cosmos 954 falling in a barren region.
- Canada was paid CAD 3 million in accordance with international law for cleaning up the mess.
Do you know?
The 1979 Skylab was rumoured to be falling in India. We may ask our parents who were apparently kids at that time. The event was widely perceived as a Pralay (doomsday) in rural India back then! People were in all joy with festive food/partying every day fearing so that they would never see the next dawn!!
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What are Fast Radio Bursts (FRB)?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Fast Radio Burst (FRB)
Mains level : Not Much
A strange radio signal (called Fast Radio Bursts) has been detected in a galaxy several billion light-years from Earth, a recent study claimed.
What is an FRB?
- The first FRB was discovered in 2007, since when scientists have been working towards finding the source of their origin.
- Essentially, FRBs are bright bursts of radio waves (radio waves can be produced by astronomical objects with changing magnetic fields).
- Its durations lie in the millisecond scale, because of which it is difficult to detect them and determine their position in the sky.
Who discovered it?
- The X-ray portion of the simultaneous bursts was detected by several satellites, including NASA’s Wind mission.
- Further, a NASA-funded project called Survey for Transient Astronomical Radio Emission 2 (STARE2) also detected the radio burst.
Why are they significant?
- First noticed in 2018 by the Canadian observatory the waves have created ripples across the globe for one reason — they arrive in a pattern.
- This gave birth to theories that they could be from an alien civilization.
- Initially, it was believed that the collision of black holes or neutron stars triggers them.
- But the discovery of repeating FRBs debunked the theory of colliding objects.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
James Webb Space Telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : JSWT
Mains level : Not Much
NASA has unveiled images from the James Webb Space Telescope, the largest and most powerful orbital observatory ever launched.
What is the image about?
- NASA released a deep field photo of a distant galaxy cluster, SMACS 0723, revealing the most detailed glimpse of the early universe recorded to date.
- The collection also included fresh images of another galaxy cluster known as Stephan’s Quintet, first discovered in 1877.
James Webb Space Telescope
- JWST is a joint NASA–ESA–CSA space telescope that is planned to succeed the Hubble Space Telescope as NASA’s flagship astrophysics mission
- It is the most powerful space telescope ever built.
- It will enable a broad range of investigations across the fields of astronomy and cosmology, including observing some of the most distant events and objects in the universe,
- It would help understand events such as the formation of the first galaxies, and detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets.
Its significance
- Some have called JSWT the “telescope that ate astronomy.”
- It is said to look back in time to the Dark Ages of the universe.
What does the ‘Dark Ages’ of the universe mean?
- Evidence shows that the universe started with an event called the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, which left it in an ultra-hot, ultra-dense state.
- The universe immediately began expanding and cooling after the Big Bang.
- One second after the Big Bang, the universe was a hundred trillion miles across with an average temperature of an incredible 18 billion F (10 billion C).
- Around 400,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe was 10 million light-years across and the temperature had cooled to 5,500 F (3,000 C).
- Throughout this time, space was filled with a smooth soup of high-energy particles, radiation, hydrogen and helium.
- There was no structure. As the expanding universe became bigger and colder, the soup thinned out and everything faded to black.
This was the start of what astronomers call the Dark Ages of the universe.
How will JWST study this?
Ans. Looking for the first light
- The Dark Ages ended when gravity formed the first stars and galaxies that eventually began to emit the first light.
- Astronomers aim to study this fascinating and important era of the universe, but detecting first light is incredibly challenging.
- Compared to massive, bright galaxies of today, the first objects were very small and due to the constant expansion of the universe, they’re now tens of billions of light years away from Earth.
- Also, the earliest stars were surrounded by gas left over from their formation and this gas acted like fog that absorbed most of the light.
- It took several hundred million years for radiation to blast away the fog. This early light is very faint by the time it gets to Earth.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
CAPSTONE: NASA’s satellite, newly launched
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : CAPSTONE satellite
Mains level : Not Much
NASA has launched CAPSTONE, a microwave oven-sized CubeSat weighing just 55 pounds (25 kg).
What is CAPSTONE?
- CAPSTONE, short for Cislunar Autonomous Positioning System Technology Operations and Navigation Experiment, is designed to test a unique, elliptical lunar orbit.
- It aims to help reduce risk for future spacecraft by validating innovative navigation technologies, and by verifying the dynamics of the halo-shaped orbit.
Its launch
- It is heading toward an orbit intended in the future for Gateway, a Moon-orbiting outpost that is part of NASA’s Artemis program.
- The orbit is known as a near-rectilinear halo orbit (NRHO).
- It is significantly elongated, and is located at a precise balance point in the gravities of Earth and the Moon.
- This offers stability for long-term missions like Gateway, NASA said on its website.
Mission details
- CAPSTONE will enter NRHO, where it will fly within 1,600 km of the Moon’s North Pole on its near pass and 70,000 km from the South Pole at its farthest.
- The spacecraft will repeat the cycle every six-and-a-half days and maintain this orbit for at least six months to study dynamics.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What are Fast Radio Bursts (FRB)?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Fast Radio Burst (FRB)
Mains level : Not Much
In a paper published in Nature, astronomers have reported a fast radio burst (FRB) whose characteristics are different from almost all other FRBs previously detected.
Such news makes us think about alien and extraterrestrial life at the first. Do not get carried away with such thoughts. Its simply a space based phenomena.
Fast Radio Burst (FRB)
- FRBs are super intense, millisecond-long bursts of radio waves produced by unidentified sources in the distant cosmos.
- They were first discovered in 2007 when scientists combed through archival pulsar data.
- Pulsars refer to spherical, compact objects in the universe, which are about the size of a large city but contain more mass than the sun.
- They often look like flickering stars but are not stars.
Why in news?
- The new study in Nature describes FRB 20190520B, first discovered in 2019.
- What makes it different is that unlike many other FRBs, it emits frequent, repeating bursts of radio waves.
- And between bursts, it constantly emits weaker radio waves.
- FRB 190520B is co-located with a compact, persistent radio source and associated with a dwarf host galaxy of high specific star formation.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Chinese astronauts enter Tiangong Space Station
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Tiangong space station
Mains level : Not Much
Three Chinese astronauts floated into the country’s new Tiangong space station for a three-month mission.
Tiangong Space Station
- Tiangong means “Heavenly Palace”.
- It was 10.4 metres long and 3.35 metres wide at its widest point, and weighed 8.6 metric tonnes.
- It was launched on September 15, 2016 and, in late 2016, hosted two Chinese astronauts for 30 days in what was China’s longest manned space mission so far.
- The recently decommissioned space lab followed the Tiangong-1, China’s first space station, which crashed into the southern Pacific Ocean on April 1, 2018 after Chinese scientists lost control of the spacecraft.
- China had launched Tiangong-1 in 2011 as proof-of-concept of technologies for future stations.
- The Tiangong will be fully operational by the end of 2022.
Features of this Space Station
- The significant feature of Tiangong is its two robotic arms.
- The US has previously expressed concern over its ability to grab objects including satellites from space.
- The 10-meter-long arm was in action previously seen in action successfully grabbing and moving a 20 tonne Tianzhou-2 cargo ship in a test.
- One of the noteworthy tasks for the Shenzhou-14 crew is to test and operate the large and small
- The small arm is quite flexible and can perform operations with greater precision.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
New research about Jupiter’s moon Europa
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Europa
Mains level : Hunt for extra-terrestrial life
A team of researchers from Stanford University have said that on one of Jupiter’s moons Europa, a prime candidate for life in the solar system might have abundance of water pockets beneath formations called double ridges.
About Europa
- Europa is slightly smaller than Earth’s moon and its diameter is about one-quarter that of the Earth.
- Even though Europa has a very thin oxygen atmosphere, it is considered one of the most promising places in the solar system to find present-day environments that are suitable for life beyond the Earth.
- It is also believed that underneath Europa’s icy surface the amount of water is twice that on Earth.
- NASA notes that scientists believe Europa’s ice shell is 15-25 km thick and is floating on an ocean, which is estimated to be 60-150 km deep.
- Interestingly, while its diameter is less than the Earth’s, Europa probably contains twice the amount of the water in all of the Earth’s oceans.
- NASA is expected to launch its Europa Clipper in 2024.
- The module will orbit Jupiter and conduct multiple close flybys to Europa to gather data on the moon’s atmosphere, surface and its interior.
What is the new finding?
- It is already known that Europa, whose surface is mostly solid water ice, contains water beneath it.
- The researchers are now saying that the double ridges – the formations which are most common on Europa’s surface and are similar to those seen on Earth’s Greenland ice sheet .
- They are formed over shallow pockets of water.
Significance of the recent findings
- The central implication is that the shallow water pockets beneath the double ridge increase the potential habitability of the moon.
- The ice shell, which is potentially miles thick, has been a difficult prospect for scientists to sample.
- But according to the new evidence, the ice shell is believed to be less of a barrier and more of a dynamic system.
- This means that the ice shell does not behave like an inert block of ice, but rather undergoes a variety of geological and hydrological processes.
- This suggests active volcanism and thus a possibility for life.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is NASA’s Artemis I Mission?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Artemis Mission
Mains level : Not Much
On March 17, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) rolled out its Artemis I moon mission to the launchpad for testing at the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida, United States.
What is the Artemis I Mission?
- NASA’s Artemis mission is touted as the next generation of lunar exploration, and is named after the twin sister of Apollo from Greek mythology.
- Artemis is also the goddess of the moon.
- Artemis I is the first of NASA’s deep space exploration systems.
- It is an uncrewed space mission where the spacecraft will launch on SLS — the most powerful rocket in the world — and travel 2,80,000 miles from the earth for over four to six weeks during the course of the mission.
- The Orion spacecraft is going to remain in space without docking to a space station, longer than any ship for astronauts has ever done before.
- The SLS rocket has been designed for space missions beyond the low-earth orbit and can carry crew or cargo to the moon and beyond.
Key objectives of the mission
- With the Artemis Mission, NASA aims to land humans on the moon by 2024, and it also plans to land the first woman and first person of colour on the moon.
- With this mission, NASA aims to contribute to scientific discovery and economic benefits and inspire a new generation of explorers.
- NASA will establish an Artemis Base Camp on the surface and a gateway in the lunar orbit to aid exploration by robots and astronauts.
- The gateway is a critical component of NASA’s sustainable lunar operations and will serve as a multi-purpose outpost orbiting the moon.
Other agencies involved
- Other space agencies are also involved in the Artemis programme.
- The Canadian Space Agency has committed to providing advanced robotics for the gateway.
- The European Space Agency will provide the International Habitat and the ESPRIT module, which will deliver additional communications capabilities among other things.
- The Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency plans to contribute habitation components and logistics resupply.
What is the mission trajectory?
- SLS and Orion under Artemis I will be launched from the Kennedy Space Centre in Florida, U.S. in the summer of 2022.
- The spacecraft will deploy the interim cryogenic propulsion stage (ICPS), a liquid oxygen/liquid hydrogen-based propulsion system that will give Orion the thrust needed to leave the earth’s orbit and travel towards the moon.
- On its way to the moon, Orion will be propelled by a service module provided by the European Space Agency (ESA).
- The spacecraft will communicate with the control centre back on Earth through the deep-space network.
- It will fly around 100 km above the surface of the moon and use its gravitational pull to propel Orion into an opposite deep orbit around 70,000 km from the moon, where it will stay for approximately six days.
What are the future missions in the Artemis programme?
- The second flight under the programme will have crew on board and will test Orion’s critical systems with humans onboard.
- Eventually, the learnings from the Artemis programme will be utilised to send the first astronauts to Mars.
- NASA plans on using the lunar orbit to gain the necessary experience to extend human exploration of space farther into the solar system.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Functioning of the ISS after US sanctions
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : ISS
Mains level : Decommissioning of ISS
Western sanctions against Russia could cause the International Space Station (ISS) to crash, the head of Russian space agency Roscosmos has warned.
What is the ISS?
- The ISS was launched in 1998 as part of joint efforts by the U.S., Russia, Japan, Canada and Europe.
- The idea of a space station originated in the 1984 State of the Union address by former U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
- The space station was assembled over many years, and it operates in low-earth orbit.
- Since its inception, it has served as a laboratory suspended in space and has aided multiple scientific and technological developments.
- The ISS was originally built to operate for 15 years.
Why was ISS launched?
- A space station permits quantum leaps in research in science, communications, and in metals and lifesaving medicines which could be manufactured only in space.
- ISS has consistently maintained human presence for the past 21 years, providing astronauts with sophisticated technologies for scientific research.
What is Russia’s role in maintaining the ISS?
- The ISS is built with the co-operation of scientists from five international space agencies — NASA of the U.S., Roscosmos of Russia, JAXA of Japan, Canadian Space Agency and the European Space Agency.
- Each agency has a role to play and a share in the upkeep of the ISS.
- Both in terms of expense and effort, it is not a feat that a single country can support.
- Russia’s part in the collaboration is the module responsible for making course corrections to the orbit of the ISS.
- They also ferry astronauts to the ISS from the Earth and back.
- Until SpaceX’s dragon spacecraft came into the picture the Russian spacecrafts were the only way of reaching the ISS and returning.
Why does the orbit of the ISS need to be corrected?
- Due to its enormous weight and the ensuing drag, the ISS tends to sink from its orbit at a height of about 250 miles above the Earth.
- It has to be pushed up to its original line of motion every now and then.
- This is rather routine, even for smaller satellites.
- Approximately once a month this effort has to be made.
- The other reason for altering the path of the ISS is to avoid its collision with space debris, which can damage the station.
What is the extent of effort and expense involved in this?
- Manoeuvring the ISS is expensive.
- In a year, 7-8 tonnes of fuel may need to be spent, with each manoeuvre costing nearly a tonne of fuel.
- If a manoeuvre is put off for later, the ISS may sink a little more and the delayed operation would cost more as a larger correction needs to be made.
Risks of crashing
- The orbit of the ISS does not fly over the Russian territory mostly.
- Places that are closer to the equator run a greater risk of it falling in their domain.
- The orbit is at about 50 degrees and so most probably, the ISS will fall in that level.
- But this is only a probability, as it can move or disintegrate.
- But in case of this eventuality, people in the ISS will be brought back, modules can be detached thereby making it much smaller which will ensure that it disintegrates before touching the earth.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What are Cluster Bombs and Thermobaric Weapons?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Cluster Bombs and Thermobaric Weapons
Mains level : Not Much
Human rights group Amnesty International has accused Russia of using cluster bombs and vacuum bombs in the ongoing war.
What are Cluster Munitions?
- According to the 2008 Convention on Cluster Munitions, a cluster munition means a “conventional munition that is designed to disperse or release explosive submunitions each weighing less than 20 kilograms, and includes those explosive submunitions”.
- Essentially, cluster munitions are non-precision weapons that are designed to injure or kill human beings indiscriminately over a large area.
- They are often designed to destroy vehicles and infrastructure such as runways, railway or power transmission lines.
- They can be dropped from an aircraft or launched in a projectile that spins in flight, scattering many bomblets as it travels.
- Many of these bomblets end up not exploding, but continue to lie on the ground, often partially or fully hidden and difficult to locate and remove, posing a threat to the civilian population.
- The Convention on Cluster Munitions specifically identifies “cluster munition remnants”, which include “failed cluster munitions, abandoned cluster munitions, unexploded submunitions and unexploded bomblets”.
And what is a Thermobaric Weapon?
- Thermobaric weapons — also known as aerosol bombs, fuel air explosives, or vaccum bombs — use oxygen from the air for a large, high-temperature blast.
- A thermobaric weapon causes significantly greater devastation than a conventional bomb of comparable size.
- The weapons, which go off in two separate stages, can be fired as rockets from tank-mounted launchers or dropped from aircraft.
- As they hit their target, a first explosion splits open the bomb’s fuel container, releasing a cloud of fuel and metal particles that spreads over a large area.
- A second explosion then occurs, igniting the aerosol cloud into a giant ball of fire and sending out intense blast waves that can destroy even reinforced buildings or equipment and vaporise human beings.
Is it legal to use these weapons?
- Countries that have ratified the Convention on Cluster Munitions are prohibited from using cluster bombs.
- As of date, there are 110 state parties to the convention, and 13 other countries have signed up but are yet to ratify it.
- Neither Russia nor Ukraine are signatories.
- These bombs are not prohibited by any international law or agreement, but their use against civilian populations in built-up areas, schools or hospitals, could attract action under the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907.
- International humanitarian law prohibits the use of inherently indiscriminate weapons such as cluster munitions.
- Launching indiscriminate attacks that kill or injure civilians constitutes a war crime.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA to decommission the International Space Station
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : International Space Station
Mains level : Space research
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has announced plans to retire and decommission the International Space Station (ISS) by 2031.
What is the ISS?
- The ISS was launched in 1998 as part of joint efforts by the U.S., Russia, Japan, Canada and Europe.
- The idea of a space station originated in the 1984 State of the Union address by former U.S. President Ronald Reagan.
- The space station was assembled over many years, and it operates in low-earth orbit.
- Since its inception, it has served as a laboratory suspended in space and has aided multiple scientific and technological developments.
- The ISS was originally built to operate for 15 years.
Why was ISS launched?
- A space station permits quantum leaps in research in science, communications, and in metals and lifesaving medicines which could be manufactured only in space.
- ISS has consistently maintained human presence for the past 21 years, providing astronauts with sophisticated technologies for scientific research.
Why is NASA planning to decommission the ISS?
- The space station has already surpassed that checkpoint by being active for 21 years, with plans to continue operations till 2030.
- The ISS goes through 16 rotations of the earth per day, causing extreme temperature changes on the exterior.
- The side facing the sun can get heated up to 121°C while the temperature on the opposite, darker side can fall to –157°C, causing intense expansion and contraction of the building material.
- This orbital thermal cycling, coupled with dynamic loading, affects the longevity of the primary structure of the space station.
- The technical lifetime is also limited by parts like radiators, modules and truss structures that tend to degrade over time.
What is the procedure to de-orbit the ISS?
- NASA plans to remove the ISS from its orbit around the earth and eventually plunge it into the ocean at a point farthest from human civilisation.
- The space agency will use the dual method of natural orbit decay and a re-entry manoeuvre to bring an end to the ISS as we know it.
- According to the plan, the earth’s natural atmospheric drag will be used in lowering the altitude of the ISS while setting up the de-orbit.
- The space station operators will then provide the final push to it to lower the structure to the maximum possible height and ensure safe re-entry into the earth’s atmosphere.
- It would then lead to Point Nemo over the South Pacific Oceanic Uninhabited Area (SPOUA).
- Dissembling process would have posed huge logistical and financial challenges.
How big is it?
- The ISS is a huge structure — almost the size of a football field — and it was not designed to be disassembled easily in space.
- The station currently operates in low-earth orbit above 400 km in altitude, at a point where it still experiences atmospheric drag and requires re-boosts to continue in its orbit.
- The station also has a mass of over 4,30,000 kg.
- Existing propulsion systems do not have the capacity to raise the station’s altitude to a high target and escape low-earth orbit.
- The random re-entry method was discarded since it carries a huge risk for the human population on the ground.
What is the future of space stations?
- As the ISS plans to end operations in space, new players are already lining up to replace it.
- In January 2022, China announced that its space station will be ready for operations this year.
- Blue Origin, the aerospace company founded by Jeff Bezos, has also announced its plans to build Orbital Reef, a commercially developed, owned, and operated space station in low-earth orbit.
- Blue Origin is working alongside Sierra Space on the project.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Can dark matter be composed, even partly, of black holes?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Dark Matters
Mains level : NA
A recent hypothesis says that dark matter comprises a large number of compact objects such as primordial black holes.
What are Dark Matters ?
- Astronomical observations suggest that a significant part of the universe is made up of dark matter which interacts with the rest of the universe only through the gravitational pull.
- Many large lab experiments have tried to detect elementary particles that could be candidates for dark matter.
- However, such dark matter particles have not been detected until now.
- Several astronomical observations suggest that all galaxies are embedded in a “halo” of dark matter.
- The “visible” galaxy is like a disc embedded in a dark matter halo that is much larger in size.
What is the recent proposition?
- When the universe was very young, hot and dense – soon after the Big Bang, it must have had quantum fluctuations of its density.
- This, in turn, would have caused some regions to become extremely dense, and therefore, to collapse under their own gravity to form the primordial black holes.
- While we have no conclusive evidence of spotting these objects, some of the binary black hole mergers detected by the LIGO gravitational wave detectors might be primordial black holes.
- The question is open there is good reason to believe that primordial black holes did form in the young universe.
Observing dark matter: Gravitational Lensing
- The paper explores what happens when such objects get in the way of gravitational waves traveling towards the Earth from the distance.
- It invokes a phenomenon called gravitational lensing that is used regularly in astronomy.
- When light travels through space and passes near a massive or compact body – a star, a galaxy or a black hole, for example, the intense gravity of that body may attract the light towards it.
- This causes bending it from its rectilinear (straight line) path.
- This phenomenon is known as gravitational lensing and was first observed by Arthur Eddington in 1919.
How intense are they?
- Massive objects like galaxies can bend light significantly, producing multiple images, this is called strong lensing.
- Lighter objects like stars or black holes bend light less, and this is called micro-lensing.
- A similar lensing can happen to gravitational waves travelling towards the Earth, and this would leave signatures in the detected gravitational waves.
- This can be used to detect the presence, or the existence, of primordial black holes.
Assessing dark matter
- Until now, individual black holes have not marked out these signatures on gravitational waves detected by the LIGO-VIRGO detectors.
- However, if all of the dark matter is made of primordial black holes, they should have produced detectable signatures on the gravitational wave signals.
- The researchers use the non-observation of the lensing signatures to assess what fraction of the dark matter could be made of black holes.
Way ahead
- This provides a new way of constraining the nature of dark matter.
- The study concludes that black holes in the mass range from a hundred to a million solar masses can contribute only up to 50-80% of the dark matter in the universe.
- This is an upper limit and the actual fraction can be much smaller.
- These upper limits will get better and better with more and more observations.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Lucy Mission to probe Jupiter’s Trojan Asteroids
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Lagrange Points, Lucy Mission
Mains level : NA
NASA is set to send its first spacecraft to study Jupiter’s Trojan asteroids to glean new insights into the solar system’s formation 4.5 billion years ago.
Lucy Mission
- Lucy will fly by eight Jupiter asteroids—seven Trojans and one main-belt asteroid — over the next 12 years.
- It is NASA’s first single spacecraft mission in history to explore so many different asteroids.
- Lucy will run on solar power out to 850 million km away from the Sun.
- This makes it the farthest-flung solar-powered spacecraft ever, according to NASA.
What is Jupiter Trojan Asteroids?
- Simply known as Trojans, they are a large group of asteroids that share Jupiter’s orbit around the Sun.
- Thousands of such asteroids exist in a gravitationally stable space.
- The swarms lead and follow the planet Jupiter along its orbit around the Sun.
What exactly are Trojans?
- Lucy’s Trojan destinations are trapped near Jupiter’s Lagrange (L) points, which are gravitationally stable locations — it is where the gravity from the Sun and from Jupiter cancel each other out.
- This means their orbits are stable and the Trojans are trapped in the space between.
- This also means that asteroids are as far away from Jupiter as they are from the Sun.
- Jupiter’s leading and trailing Lagrangian points (L4 and L5) have been stable over the age of the solar system.
- This means that their orbits have accumulated many, many asteroids.
- It makes sense to call a Trojan a co-orbital object, which moves around one of the two stable Lagrangian points.
When and how were they discovered?
- It took many a scientist to understand Trojans, and subsequently, name them so.
- A German astrophotographer in 1906 made an important discovery: An asteroid with a particularly unusual orbit. As Jupiter moved, this asteroid remained ahead of Jupiter.
- It was observed that the asteroid was nearly 60 degrees in front of Jupiter.
Students with engineering background would better understand who Lagrange was. Rest need not care.
Lagrange’s propositions
- This specific position of a particular behavior was predicted by the Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange over 100 years earlier.
- Lagrange had argued that if a small celestial body is placed at one of two stable points in a planet’s orbit around the Sun (the L4 and L5), the asteroid would remain stationary from the planet’s perspective.
- This is due to the combined gravitational forces of the planet and the Sun.
- Thus, Lagrange’s prediction acquired credibility. More such asteroids were discovered over subsequent months in Jupiter’s Lagrange point L5.
Behind the name: Lucy
- It is the fossil of a hominin that lived 3.2 million years ago.
- She is known to be one of the most famous pre-human fossils in history.
- Nearly 40 percent of the fossilized skeleton of this hominin was discovered in 1974 by a team of paleoanthropologists led by Donald Johanson.
- The name was inspired from the famous Beatles song “Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds,” which Johanson’s team listened to at camp the night of their discovery.
Back2Basics: Lagrange Points
- Lagrange points are positions in space where objects sent there tend to stay put.
- They are named after Italian-French mathematician Josephy-Louis Lagrange.
- At Lagrange points, the gravitational pull of two large masses precisely equals the centripetal force required for a small object to move with them.
- These points in space can be used by spacecraft to reduce the fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
- There are five special points where a small mass can orbit in a constant pattern with two larger masses.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is a Solar Storm?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Solar Storm
Mains level : NA
Spacex’s newest fleet of satellites is tumbling out of orbit after being struck by a solar storm.
Solar Storm
- A solar storm or a Coronal Mass Ejection as astronomers call it is an ejection of highly magnetized particles from the sun.
- These particles can travel several million km per hour and can take about 13 hours to five days to reach Earth.
- Earth’s atmosphere protects us, humans, from these particles.
- But the particles can interact with our Earth’s magnetic field, induce strong electric currents on the surface and affect man-made structures.
How did they impact SpaceX satellites?
- The issue came up due to increased drag created by the solar storm in the upper reaches of the Earth’s atmosphere.
- These storms cause the atmosphere to warm and atmospheric density at our low deployment altitudes to increase.
- In fact onboard GPS suggests the escalation speed and severity of the storm caused atmospheric drag to increase up to 50 percent higher than during previous launches.
History of solar storms
- The first recorded solar storm occurred in 1859 and it reached Earth in about 17 hours.
- It affected the telegraph network and many operators experienced electric shocks.
- A solar storm that occurred in 1921 impacted New York telegraph and railroad systems and another small-scale storm collapsed the power grid in Quebec, Canada in 1989.
- A 2013 report noted that if a solar storm similar to the 1859 one hit the US today, about 20-40 million people could be without power for 1-2 years, and the total economic cost will be $0.6-2.6 trillion.
Why are they a cause of concern?
- The Sun goes through an 11-year cycle – cycles of high and low activity.
- It also has a longer 100-year cycle.
- During the last three decades, when the internet infrastructure was booming, it was a low period.
- And very soon, either in this cycle or the next cycle, we are going towards the peaks of the 100-year cycle.
- So it is highly likely that we might see one powerful solar storm during our lifetime.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Study of distant Magnetar reveals facets of the Exotic Star
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Magnetars
Mains level : Not Much
An international group of researchers has succeeded in measuring for the first time the characteristics of a flare on a distant magnetar.
What is a Magnetar?
- Magnetars are the most magnetic stars in the universe.
- It is a rare compact type of neutron star teeming with energy and magnetism.
- It is an exotic type of neutron star, its defining feature that it has an ultra-powerful magnetic field.
- The field is about 1,000 times stronger than a normal neutron star and about a trillion times stronger than the Earth’s.
- Magnetars are relatively rare objects, with only about thirty having been spotted within the Milky Way so far.
What is the recent study?
- The studied magnetar is about 13 million light years away, in the direction of the NGC 253, a prominent galaxy in the Sculptor group of galaxies.
- Its flare spewed within a few tenths of a second as much energy as the Sun would shed in 100,000 years.
- It was captured accidentally on April 15, 2020, by the Atmosphere-Space Interactions Monitor instrument (ASIM) of the International Space Station.
- This is the first study to characterize such a flare from so distant a magnetar.
How do magnetars form?
- During the course of their evolution, massive stars – with masses around 10-25 times the mass of the Sun – eventually collapse and shrink to form very compact objects called neutron stars.
- A subset of these neutron stars is the so-called magnetars which possess intense magnetic fields.
- These are highly dense and have breathtakingly high rotation speeds – they have rotational periods that can be just 0.3 to 12.0 seconds.
What characterizes Magnetars?
(1) Violent flares
- The observed giant flare lasted approximately 160 milliseconds and during this time 1039 joules of energy was released.
- The flare spewed as much energy in a tenth of a second that our Sun will radiate in 100,000 years.
(2) Starquakes
- Eruptions in magnetars are believed to be due to instabilities in their magnetosphere, or “starquakes” produced in their crust – a rigid, elastic layer about one kilometer thick.
- This causes waves in the magnetosphere, and interaction between these waves causes dissipation of energy.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
How James Webb Telescope seeks to unlock Universe’s Secrets
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : JWST
Mains level : Not Much
Today, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), the largest and most powerful space telescope ever built, will be launched from French Guiana, on the northeast coast of South America on the European Ariane 5 rocket.
James Webb Space Telescope
- JWST is a space telescope jointly developed by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
- It is planned to succeed the Hubble Space Telescope as NASA’s flagship astrophysics mission.
- It will conduct a broad range of investigations across the fields of astronomy and cosmology, including:
- Observing some of the most distant events and objects in the universe such as the formation of the first galaxies
- Detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets
How is it different from other telescopes?
- JWST is much more powerful and has the ability to look in the infrared spectrum, which will allow it to peer through much deeper into the universe, and see through obstructions such as gas clouds.
- As electromagnetic waves travel for long distances, they lose energy, resulting in an increase in their wavelength.
- An ultraviolet wave, for example, can slowly move into the visible light spectrum and the infrared spectrum, and further weaken to microwaves or radio waves, as it loses energy.
- Hubble was designed to look mainly into the ultraviolet and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
- JWST is primarily an infrared telescope, the first of its kind.
Special features of JWST
(1) Time machine in space
- Powerful space telescopes, like JWST or the Hubble Telescope, are often called time machines because of their ability to view very faraway objects.
- The light coming from those objects, stars or galaxies, which is captured by these telescopes, began its journey millions of years earlier.
- Essentially, what these telescopes see are images of these stars or galaxies as they were millions of years ago.
- The more distant the planet or star, the farther back in time are the telescopes able to see.
(2) Farthest from Earth
- JWST will also be positioned much deeper into space, about a million miles from Earth, at a spot known as L2.
- It is one of the five points, known as Lagrange’s points, in any revolving two-body system like Earth and Sun, where the gravitational forces of the two large bodies cancel each other out.
- Objects placed at these positions are relatively stable and require minimal external energy to keep them there. L2 is a position directly behind Earth in the line joining the Sun and the Earth.
- It would be shielded from the Sun by the Earth as it goes around the Sun, in sync with the Earth.
(3) Engineering marvel
- JWST has one large mirror, with a diameter of 21 feet (the height of a typical two-storey building), that will capture the infra-red light coming in from the deep universe while facing away from the Sun.
- It will be shielded by a five-layer, tennis court-sized, kite-shaped sunscreen that is designed to block the heat from Sun and ensure the extremely cool temperatures that the instruments are built to operate at.
- Temperatures on the sun-facing side can get as high as 110°C, while the other side would be maintained at –200° to –230°C.
- The extremely cold temperatures are needed to detect the extremely faint heat signals from distant galaxies.
- The mirror as well as the sunscreen is so large they could not have fit into any rocket. They have been built as foldable items and would be unraveled in space.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s Imaging X-Ray Polarimetry Explorer (IXPE) Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : IXPE
Mains level : Not Much
NASA has launched a new mission named Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer or IXPE.
About IXPE
- IXPE observatory is a joint effort of NASA and the Italian Space Agency.
- The mission will study “the most extreme and mysterious objects in the universe – supernova remnants, supermassive black holes, and dozens of other high-energy objects.”
- The mission’s primary length is two years and the observatory will be at 600 kilometers altitude, orbiting around Earth’s equator.
- IXPE is expected to study about 40 celestial objects in its first year in space.
What are the instruments onboard?
- IXPE carries three state-of-the-art space telescopes.
- Each of the three identical telescopes hosts one light-weight X-ray mirror and one detector unit.
- These will help observe polarized X-rays from neutron stars and supermassive black holes.
- By measuring the polarization of these X-rays, we can study where the light came from and understand the geometry and inner workings of the light source.
- This new mission will complement other X-ray telescopes such as the Chandra X-ray Observatory and the European Space Agency’s X-ray observatory, XMM-Newton.
Why is it important?
The mission will help scientists answer questions such as:
- How do black holes spin?
- Was the black hole at the center of the Milky Way actively feeding on surrounding material in the past?
- How do pulsars shine so brightly in X-rays?
- What powers the jets of energetic particles that are ejected from the region around the supermassive black holes at the centers of galaxies?
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : LCRD
Mains level : NA
NASA has launched its new Laser Communications Relay Demonstration (LCRD) — the agency’s first-ever laser communications system.
What is LCRD?
- LCRD involves laser communications – also called optical communications which uses infrared light to send information.
- LCRD is launched in a geosynchronous orbit, over 35,000km above Earth.
- LCRD has two optical terminals – one to receive data from a user spacecraft, and the other to transmit data to ground stations.
- The modems will translate the digital data into laser signals. This will then be transmitted via encoded beams of light.
Benefits offered by LCRD
- Currently, most NASA spacecraft use radio frequency communications to send data.
- Optical communications will help increase the bandwidth 10 to 100 times more than radio frequency systems.
- The LCRD will help the agency test optical communication in space.
Laser vs Radio
- Laser communications and radio waves use different wavelengths of light. It uses infrared light and has a shorter wavelength than radio waves.
- This will help the transmission of more data in a short time.
- Using infrared lasers, LCRD will send data to Earth at 1.2 gigabits-per-second (Gbps).
- It would take roughly nine weeks to transmit a completed map of Mars back to Earth with current radio frequency systems. With lasers, we can accelerate that to about nine days, says NASA.
Other advantages
Optical communications systems are smaller in size, weight, and require less power compared with radio instruments.
- A smaller size means more room for science instruments.
- Less weight means a less expensive launch.
- Less power means less drain on the spacecraft’s batteries.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
James Webb Space Telescope
The James Webb Space Telescope, NASA’s largest space science telescope ever constructed, is scheduled to be sent into orbit in December.
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)
- It is a space telescope being jointly developed by NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA).
- It has taken 30 years and $10bn to develop, and is being described as one of the grand scientific endeavors of the 21st Century.
What is the goal of this telescope?
- The telescope will be able to see just about anything in the sky.
- However, it has one overriding objective – to see the light coming from the very first stars to shine in the Universe.
- These pioneer stars are thought to have switched on about 100-200 million years after the Big Bang, or a little over 13.5 billion years ago.
- Webb will be picking out groupings of these stars.
- They are so far away their light – even though it moves at 300,000km per second – will have taken billions of years to travel the cosmos.
JWST mirror
- One of the most important objects it will carry is a large mirror which will help collect light from the objects being observed.
- The primary mirror is made of 18 hexagonal-shaped mirror segments — each 1.32 metre in diameter — stitched together in a honeycomb pattern.
- The primary mirror is a technological marvel.
- The lightweight mirrors, coatings, actuators and mechanisms, electronics, and thermal blankets when fully deployed form a single precise mirror that is truly remarkable.
- Each mirror segment weighs approximately 20 kilograms and is made from beryllium.
Why beryllium?
- NASA explains that beryllium was used as it is both strong and light.
- Beryllium is very strong for its weight and is good at holding its shape across a range of temperatures. Beryllium is a good conductor of electricity and heat and is not magnetic.
- Because it is light and strong, beryllium is often used to build parts for supersonic airplanes and the Space Shuttle.
- It added that special care was taken when working with beryllium because it is unhealthy to breathe in or swallow beryllium dust.
So, it does not have gold?
- After the beryllium mirror segments were polished a thin coating of gold was applied to it. Gold helps improve the mirror’s reflection of infrared light.
- The gold was coated using a technique called vacuum vapour deposition.
- The mirrors are kept inside a vacuum chamber and a small quantity of gold is vapourised and deposited on the mirror.
- The thickness of the gold is just 100 nanometers. So less than 50 grams of gold was used for the entire mirror.
- A thin layer of glass was also deposited on top of the gold layer to protect it from scratches.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
A launch window for India as a space start-up hub
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Not much
Mains level : Paper 3- India as a space start up hub
Context
After the launch of Sputnik in 1957, space race is on again, but this time, private players are on the power field. This has huge implications for original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) in the space sector in India and is a promising venture for global investors.
Insignificant share of India in space economy
- 2% India’s share: The space economy is a $440 billion global sector, with India having less than 2% share in the sector.
- While total early-stage investments in space technologies in FY21 were $68 billion, India was on the fourth place with investments in about 110 firms, totalling not more than $2 billion.
Reasons for India’s insignificant private participation
- Absence of a framework: The reason for the lack of independent private participation in space includes the absence of a framework to provide transparency and clarity in laws.
- Brain drain: Another aspect to throw light on is the extensive brain drain in India, which has increased by 85% since 2005.
- Policy bottlenecks: Brain drain can be linked to the bottlenecks in policies which create hindrances for private space ventures and founders to attract investors, making it virtually non-feasible to operate in India.
Suggestions
- The laws need to be broken down into multiple sections, each to address specific parts of the value chain and in accordance with the Outer Space Treaty.
- Dividing into upstream and downstream: Dividing activities further into upstream and downstream space blocks will allow legislators to provide a solid foundation to products/services developed by the non-governmental and private sectors within the value chain.
- Timeline on licensing: With the technicalities involved in the space business, timelines on licensing, issuance of authorisation and continuous supervision mechanism need to be defined into phases.
- Insurance and indemnification clarity: Another crucial aspect of space law is insurance and indemnification clarity, particularly about who or which entity undertakes the liability in case of a mishap.
- In several western countries with an evolved private space industry, there is a cap on liability and the financial damages that need to be paid.
- Need to generate own IP: Currently, many of the private entities are involved in equipment and frame manufacturing, with either outsourced specifications or leased licences.
- However, to create value, Indian space private companies need to generate their intellectual property for an independent product or service with ISRO neither being their sole or largest customer nor providing them IP and ensuring buy-backs.
Possibilities for India and the government’s effort
- India currently stands on the cusp of building a space ecosystem and with ISRO being the guiding body, India can now evolve as a space start-up hub for the world.
- Already 350 plus start-ups such as AgniKul Cosmos, Skyroot Technologies, Dhruva Space and Pixxel have established firm grounds for home-grown technologies with a practical unit of economics.
- Last year the Government of India created a new organisation known as IN-SPACe (Indian National Space Promotion and Authorisation Centre) which is a “single window nodal agency” established to boost the commercialisation of Indian space activities.
- A supplement to the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO), the agency promotes the entry of the Non-Government Private Entities (NGPEs) in the Indian space sector.
Consider the question “Examine the factors responsible for hindering the participation of the private sector in India’s space industry? Suggest the ways to increase the participation of private sector.”
Conclusion
To continue the growth engine, investors need to look up to the sector as the next “new-age” boom and ISRO needs to turn into an enabler from being a supporter. To ensure that the sky is not the limit, investor confidence needs to be pumped up and for the same, clear laws need to be defined.
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Back2Basics: The Outer Space Treaty
- The Outer Space Treaty was considered by the Legal Subcommittee in 1966 and agreement was reached in the General Assembly in the same year ( resolution 2222 (XXI)).
- The Treaty was largely based on the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, which had been adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 1962 (XVIII) in 1963, but added a few new provisions.
- The Treaty was opened for signature by the three depository Governments (the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States of America) in January 1967, and it entered into force in October 1967.
- The Outer Space Treaty provides the basic framework on international space law, including the following principles:
- The exploration and use of outer space shall be carried out for the benefit and in the interests of all countries and shall be the province of all mankind;
- Outer space shall be free for exploration and use by all States;
- Outer space is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means;
- States shall not place nuclear weapons or other weapons of mass destruction in orbit or on celestial bodies or station them in outer space in any other manner;
- The Moon and other celestial bodies shall be used exclusively for peaceful purposes;
- Astronauts shall be regarded as the envoys of mankind;
- States shall be responsible for national space activities whether carried out by governmental or non-governmental entities;
- States shall be liable for damage caused by their space objects; and
- States shall avoid harmful contamination of space and celestial bodies.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is a Tundra Satellite?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Tundra Satellite, Various types of Orbits
Mains level : Not Much
Russia has successfully placed into orbit a military satellite believed to be part of the Kremlin’s early warning anti-missile system. This launch could be delivering a Tundra satellite.
Tundra Satellite
- The Tundra or EKS (Edinaya Kosmicheskaya Sistema) series of satellites is the next generation of Russian early-warning satellites.
- The development of the EKS started in 2000.
- These satellites carry a secure emergency communications payload to be used in case of a nuclear war.
- They are launched on Soyuz-2-1b Fregat boosters into Molniya-orbits, inclined highly elliptical 12 h orbits.
What are Tundra Orbits?
- A Tundra orbit is a highly elliptical geosynchronous orbit with a high inclination (approximately 63.4°), an orbital period of one sidereal day.
- A satellite placed in this orbit spends most of its time over a chosen area of the Earth, a phenomenon known as apogee dwell.
- It makes satellites particularly well suited for communications satellites serving high latitude regions.
- The ground track of a satellite in a Tundra orbit is a closed figure 8 with a smaller loop over either the northern or southern hemisphere.
- This differentiates them from Molniya orbits designed to service high-latitude regions, which have the same inclination but half the period and do not hover over a single region.
Back2Basics: Types of Orbits
[1] Geostationary orbit (GEO)
- Satellites in geostationary orbit (GEO) circle Earth above the equator from west to east following Earth’s rotation – taking 23 hours 56 minutes and 4 seconds – by travelling at exactly the same rate as Earth.
- This makes satellites in GEO appear to be ‘stationary’ over a fixed position.
- In order to perfectly match Earth’s rotation, the speed of GEO satellites should be about 3 km per second at an altitude of 35 786 km.
- This is much farther from Earth’s surface compared to many satellites.
- GEO is used by satellites that need to stay constantly above one particular place over Earth, such as telecommunication satellites.
- Satellites in GEO cover a large range of Earth so as few as three equally-spaced satellites can provide near-global coverage.
[2] Low Earth orbit (LEO)
- A low Earth orbit (LEO) is, as the name suggests, an orbit that is relatively close to Earth’s surface.
- It is normally at an altitude of less than 1000 km but could be as low as 160 km above Earth – which is low compared to other orbits, but still very far above Earth’s surface.
- Unlike satellites in GEO that must always orbit along Earth’s equator, LEO satellites do not always have to follow a particular path around Earth in the same way – their plane can be tilted.
- This means there are more available routes for satellites in LEO, which is one of the reasons why LEO is a very commonly used orbit.
- It is most commonly used for satellite imaging, as being near the surface allows it to take images of higher resolution.
- Satellites in this orbit travel at a speed of around 7.8 km per second; at this speed, a satellite takes approximately 90 minutes to circle Earth.
[3] Medium Earth orbit (MEO)
- Medium Earth orbit comprises a wide range of orbits anywhere between LEO and GEO.
- It is similar to LEO in that it also does not need to take specific paths around Earth, and it is used by a variety of satellites with many different applications.
- It is very commonly used by navigation satellites, like the European Galileo system of Europe.
- It uses a constellation of multiple satellites to provide coverage across large parts of the world all at once.
[4] Polar Orbit
- Satellites in polar orbits usually travel past Earth from north to south rather than from west to east, passing roughly over Earth’s poles.
- Satellites in a polar orbit do not have to pass the North and South Pole precisely; even a deviation within 20 to 30 degrees is still classed as a polar orbit.
- Polar orbits are a type of low Earth orbit, as they are at low altitudes between 200 to 1000 km.
[5] Sun-synchronous orbit (SSO)
- SSO is a particular kind of polar orbit. Satellites in SSO, travelling over the polar regions, are synchronous with the Sun.
- This means they are synchronised to always be in the same ‘fixed’ position relative to the Sun.
- This means that the satellite always visits the same spot at the same local time.
- Often, satellites in SSO are synchronised so that they are in constant dawn or dusk – this is because by constantly riding a sunset or sunrise, they will never have the Sun at an angle where the Earth shadows them.
- A satellite in a Sun-synchronous orbit would usually be at an altitude of between 600 to 800 km. At 800 km, it will be travelling at a speed of approximately 7.5 km per second.
[6] Transfer orbits and geostationary transfer orbit (GTO)
- Transfer orbits are a special kind of orbit used to get from one orbit to another.
- Often, the satellites are instead placed on a transfer orbit: an orbit where, by using relatively little energy from built-in motors, the satellite or spacecraft can move from one orbit to another.
- This allows a satellite to reach, for example, a high-altitude orbit like GEO without actually needing the launch vehicle.
- Reaching GEO in this way is an example of one of the most common transfer orbits, called the geostationary transfer orbit (GTO).
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Matosinhos Manifesto for accelerated use of space in Europe
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Matosinhos Manifesto
Mains level : Not Much
The European Space Agency (ESA) has approved a Matosinhos Manifesto to accelerate the use of space in Europe.
Matosinhos Manifesto
- At the Intermediate Ministerial Meeting that was held in Matosinhos, Portugal.
- The Council of Ministers unanimously adopted this resolution that lays down a vision for the continent in terms of maintaining and expanding its activities in space.
- The large-scale nature and fast pace of the climate crisis and other challenges means that no European nation will be able to effectively address them alone.
The manifesto defines three “accelerators” to further advance Europe’s space ambitions:
- The first of these accelerators is for the ESA to start working towards the “Space for a Green Future”
- The second accelerator is called “Rapid and Resilient Crisis Response” to support governments to act decisively on crises facing Europe, from flooding and storms to wildfires
- The third accelerator mentioned in the resolution is “Protection of Space Assets”, whose objective is to safeguard ESA astronauts and assets from interference by space debris and space weather
A brief history of the ESA
- The ESA is an intergovernmental organization that was formed in 1975 with the aim of developing Europe’s space capabilities.
- The organization has 22 member states — Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and the UK.
- Slovenia, Latvia and Lithuania are Associate Members.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s DART mission to hit and deflect an Asteroid
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : DART Mission
Mains level : Not Much
NASA will launch the agency’s first planetary defense test mission named the Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART).
What is DART Mission?
- The main aim of the mission is to test the newly developed technology that would allow a spacecraft to crash into an asteroid and change its course.
- It is a suicide mission and the spacecraft will be completely destroyed.
- The target of the spacecraft is a small moonlet called Dimorphos (Greek for “two forms”).
- It is about 160-metre in diameter and the spacecraft is expected to collide when it is 11 million kilometres away from Earth.
- Dimorphos orbits a larger asteroid named Didymos (Greek for “twin”) which has a diameter of 780 metres.
Is there any threat from this asteroid?
- The asteroid and the moonlet do not pose any threat to Earth and the mission is to test the new technology to be prepared in case an asteroid head towards Earth in the future.
- The spacecraft will navigate to the moonlet and intentionally collide with it at a speed of about 6.6 kilometres per second or 24,000 kilometres per hour.
Why Dimorphos?
- Didymos is a perfect system for the test mission because it is an eclipsing binary which means it has a moonlet that regularly orbits the asteroid.
- It is observable when it passes in front of the main asteroid.
- Earth-based telescopes can study this variation in brightness to understand how long it takes Dimorphos to orbit Didymos.
How big is the spacecraft?
- NASA states that DART is a low-cost spacecraft, weighing around 610 kg at launch and 550 kg during impact.
- The main structure is a box (1.2 × 1.3 × 1.3 metres). It has two solar arrays and uses hydrazine propellant for manoeuvring the spacecraft.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is White Dwarf?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : White dwarf
Mains level : Not Much
Using the Hubble Space telescope and Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS), astronomers have identified several white dwarfs over the years.
Where is this white dwarf?
- A white dwarf is what stars like the Sun become after they have exhausted their nuclear fuel.
- Near the end of its nuclear burning stage, this type of star expels most of its outer material, creating a planetary nebula.
- Only the hot core of the star remains. This core becomes a very hot white dwarf, with a temperature exceeding 100,000 Kelvin.
- Unless it is accreting matter from a nearby star, the white dwarf cools down over the next billion years or so.
Limits for white dwarf
- White Dwarf is half the size of our Sun and has a surface gravity 100,000 times that of Earth.
- There is a limit on the amount of mass a white dwarf can have.
- Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar discovered this limit to be 4 times the mass of the Sun. This is appropriately known as the “Chandrasekhar Limit.”
Observing white dwarf
- Many nearby, young white dwarfs have been detected as sources of soft, or lower-energy, X-rays.
- Recently, soft X-ray and extreme ultraviolet observations have become a powerful tool in the study the composition and structure of the thin atmosphere of these stars.
What is TESS?
- The researchers observed this phenomenon using Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS).
- TESS is a space telescope in NASA’s Explorer program, designed to search for extrasolar planets using the transit method.
- The primary mission objective for TESS is to survey the brightest stars near the Earth for transiting exoplanets over a two-year period.
- The TESS project will use an array of wide-field cameras to perform an all-sky survey. It will scan nearby stars for exoplanets.
How does white dwarf ‘switch on and off’?
- In these types of systems, the donor star orbit around the white dwarf keeps feeding the accretion disk.
- As the accretion disk material slowly sinks closer towards the white dwarf it generally becomes brighter.
- It is known that in some systems the donor stars stop feeding the disk.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is the Lucy Mission?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Lagrange Points, Lucy Mission
Mains level : Not Much
The NASA has launched Lucy, the spacecraft on a 12-year cruise to look back into the origins of the solar system through Trojans.
Lucy Mission
- Lucy will fly by eight Jupiter asteroids—seven Trojans and one main-belt asteroid — over the next 12 years.
- It is NASA’s first single spacecraft mission in history to explore so many different asteroids.
- Lucy will run on solar power out to 850 million kilometers away from the Sun.
- This makes it the farthest-flung solar powered spacecraft ever, according to NASA.
What is Jupiter Trojan Asteroids?
- Simply known as Trojans, they are a large group of asteroids that share Jupiter’s orbit around the Sun.
- Thousands of such asteroids exist in a gravitationally stable space.
- The swarms lead and follow the planet Jupiter along its orbit around the Sun.
What exactly are Trojans?
- Lucy’s Trojan destinations are trapped near Jupiter’s Lagrange (L) points, which are gravitationally stable locations — it is where the gravity from the Sun and from Jupiter cancel each other out.
- This means their orbits are stable and the Trojans are trapped in the space between.
- This also means that asteroids are as far away from Jupiter as they are from the Sun.
- Jupiter’s leading and trailing Lagrangian points (L4 and L5) have been stable over the age of the solar system.
- This means that their orbits have accumulated many, many asteroids.
- It makes sense to call a Trojan a co-orbital object, which moves around one of the two stable Lagrangian points.
When and how were they discovered?
- It took many a scientist to understand Trojans, and subsequently, name them so.
- A German astro-photographer in 1906 made an important discovery: An asteroid with a particularly unusual orbit. As Jupiter moved, this asteroid remained ahead of Jupiter.
- It was observed that the asteroid was nearly 60 degrees in front of Jupiter.
Students with engineering background would better understand who Lagrange was. Rest need not care.
Lagrange’s propositions
- This specific position of a peculiar behaviour was predicted by the Italian-French mathematician Joseph-Louis Lagrange over 100 years earlier.
- Lagrange had argued that if a small celestial body is placed at one of two stable points in a planet’s orbit around the Sun (the L4 and L5), the asteroid would remain stationary from the planet’s perspective.
- This is due to the combined gravitational forces of the planet and the Sun.
- Thus, Lagrange’s prediction acquired credibility. More such asteroids were discovered over subsequent months in Jupiter’s Lagrange point L5.
Behind the name: Lucy
- It is the fossil of a hominin that lived 3.2 million years ago.
- She is known to be one of the most famous pre-human fossil in history.
- Nearly 40 per cent of the fossilised skeleton of this hominin was discovered in 1974 by a team of paleoanthropologists led by Donald Johanson.
- The name was inspired from the famous Beatles song “Lucy in the Sky With Diamonds,” which Johanson’s team listened to at camp the night of their discovery.
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Back2Basics: Lagrange Points
- Lagrange points are positions in space where objects sent there tend to stay put.
- They are named after Italian-French mathematician Josephy-Louis Lagrange.
- At Lagrange points, the gravitational pull of two large masses precisely equals the centripetal force required for a small object to move with them.
- These points in space can be used by spacecraft to reduce the fuel consumption needed to remain in position.
- There are five special points where a small mass can orbit in a constant pattern with two larger masses.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
James Webb: The most powerful space telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : James Webb Space Telescope
Mains level : Dark Ages of the Univers
On Dec 18, 2021, after years of delays, the James Webb Space Telescope is scheduled to launch into orbit and usher in the next era of astronomy.
James Webb Space Telescope
- JWST is a joint NASA–ESA–CSA space telescope that is planned to succeed the Hubble Space Telescope as NASA’s flagship astrophysics mission
- It is the most powerful space telescope ever built.
- It will enable a broad range of investigations across the fields of astronomy and cosmology, including observing some of the most distant events and objects in the universe,
- It would help understand events such as the formation of the first galaxies, and detailed atmospheric characterization of potentially habitable exoplanets.
Its significance
- Some have called JSWT the “telescope that ate astronomy.”
- It is said to look back in time to the Dark Ages of the universe.
What does the ‘Dark Ages’ of the universe mean?
- Evidence shows that the universe started with an event called the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago, which left it in an ultra-hot, ultra-dense state.
- The universe immediately began expanding and cooling after the Big Bang.
- One second after the Big Bang, the universe was a hundred trillion miles across with an average temperature of an incredible 18 billion F (10 billion C).
- Around 400,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe was 10 million light-years across and the temperature had cooled to 5,500 F (3,000 C).
- Throughout this time, space was filled with a smooth soup of high-energy particles, radiation, hydrogen and helium.
- There was no structure. As the expanding universe became bigger and colder, the soup thinned out and everything faded to black.
This was the start of what astronomers call the Dark Ages of the universe.
How will JWST study this?
Ans. Looking for the first light
- The Dark Ages ended when gravity formed the first stars and galaxies that eventually began to emit the first light.
- Astronomers aim to study this fascinating and important era of the universe, but detecting first light is incredibly challenging.
- Compared to massive, bright galaxies of today, the first objects were very small and due to the constant expansion of the universe, they’re now tens of billions of light years away from Earth.
- Also, the earliest stars were surrounded by gas left over from their formation and this gas acted like fog that absorbed most of the light.
- It took several hundred million years for radiation to blast away the fog. This early light is very faint by the time it gets to Earth.
Try this PYQ:
Consider the following phenomena:
- Light is affected by gravity.
- The Universe is constantly expanding.
- Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
Which of the above is/are the predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Post your answers here.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Dark Energy?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Dark Energy, Dark Energy
Mains level : Theory of expansion of the universe
Last week, an international team of researchers has made the first direct detection of dark energy.
About the Project
- The XENON1T experiment is the world’s most sensitive dark matter experiment and was operated deep underground at the INFN Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso in Italy.
- The finding also suggests that experiments like XENON1T, which are designed to detect dark matter, could also be used to detect dark energy.
What is Dark Energy?
- Dark energy is an unknown form of energy that affects the universe on the largest scales.
- The first observational evidence for its existence came from measurements of supernovae, which showed that the universe does not expand at a constant rate; rather, the expansion of the universe is accelerating.
- Prior to these observations, it was thought that all forms of matter and energy in the universe would only cause the expansion to slow down over time.
- Measurements of the cosmic microwave background suggest the universe began in a hot Big Bang, from which general relativity explains its evolution and the subsequent large-scale motion.
- Without introducing a new form of energy, there was no way to explain how an accelerating universe could be measured.
Does it exist?
- Since the 1990s, dark energy has been the most accepted premise to account for the accelerated expansion.
- As of 2021, there are active areas of cosmology research aimed at understanding the fundamental nature of dark energy.
Dark energy Vs Dark matter
- Everything we see – the planets, moons, massive galaxies, you, me, this website – makes up less than 5% of the universe.
- About 27% is dark matter and 68% is dark energy.
- While dark matter attracts and holds galaxies together, dark energy repels and causes the expansion of our universe.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Chang’e-5 Lunar Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Chang'e 5 Mission
Mains level : NA
The Europlanet Society has released details from the samples brought back by China’s Chang’e-5 Lunar Mission in December 2020.
Chang’e-5 Lunar Mission
- The Chang’e-5 lunar mission delivered to Earth nearly 2 kg of rocky fragments and dust from the Moon.
- It had landed on an area of the Moon (the ‘far side’) not sampled by the American or Soviet missions nearly 50 years ago.
- It thus retrieved fragments of the youngest lunar rocks ever brought back for analysis in laboratories on Earth.
- The rocks are also different from those returned decades ago.
Key findings
- 90% of the materials collected by Chang’e-5 likely derive from the landing site and its immediate surroundings, which are of a type termed ‘mare basalts’.
- These volcanic rocks are visible to us as the darker grey areas that spilled over much of the nearside of the Moon as ancient eruptions of lava.
- Yet 10% percent of the fragments have distinctly different, ‘exotic’ chemical compositions.
What are the exotic compositions?
- The distinct 10% fragments may preserve records of other parts of the lunar surface as well as hints of the types of space rocks that have impacted the Moon’s surface.
- Researchers have looked at the potential sources of beads of rapidly cooled glassy material.
- They have traced these glassy droplets to extinct volcanic vents known as ‘Rima Mairan’ and ‘Rima Sharp’.
- These fragments could give insights into past episodes of energetic, fountain-like volcanic activity on the Moon.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Planet Nine?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Planet Nine, Dwarf Planets
Mains level : NA
A new study’s “treasure map” suggests that a planet several times more massive than Earth could be hiding in our solar system, camouflaged by the bright strip of stars that make up the Milky Way.
Do not wonder. This too was a PYQ:
Q.Which planet was downgraded to dwarf planet status?
(a) Pluto
(b) Mars
(c) Earth
(d) Venus
Post your answers here!
Planet 9
- Planet Nine is a hypothetical planet in the outer region of the Solar System.
- Its gravitational effects could explain the unlikely clustering of orbits for a group of extreme trans-Neptunian objects (ETNOs), bodies beyond Neptune that orbit the Sun at distances averaging more than 250 times that of the Earth.
- Based on earlier considerations, this hypothetical super-Earth-sized planet would have had a predicted mass of five to ten times that of the Earth, and an elongated orbit 400 to 800 times as far from the Sun as the Earth.
Curiosity for the ninth Planet
- In August 2006, the International Astronomical Union broke several hearts when it announced that it had reclassified Pluto as a dwarf planet. ‘
- The decision was based on Pluto’s size and the fact that it resides within a zone of other similarly-sized objects.
Is everyone convinced that Planet Nine exists?
- Researchers from across the globe have carried out several studies on Planet Nine and there are several theories about it, including one that stated Planet Nine could in fact be a black hole.
- Another research has argued that the unknown object causing anomalous orbits of the trans-Neptunian objects could be a primordial black hole.
- Yet another study noted that a trans-Neptunian object called 2015 BP519 had an unusual trajectory because it was affected by Planet Nine’s strong gravity.
Back2Basics: Dwarf Planet
- A dwarf planet is a small planetary-mass object that is in direct orbit of the Sun – something smaller than any of the eight classical planets, but still a world in its own right.
- As of today, there are officially five dwarf planets in our Solar System.
- The most famous is Pluto, downgraded from the status of a planet in 2006.
- The other four, in order of size, are Eris, Makemake, Haumea and Ceres. The sixth claimant for a dwarf planet is Hygiea, which so far has been taken to be an asteroid.
- These four criteria are – that the body orbits around the Sun, it is not a moon, has not cleared the neighborhood around its orbit, and has enough mass for its gravity to pull it into a roughly spherical shape.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is a Solar Storm?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Solar Storm
Mains level : Not Much
Studies have found that a powerful solar storm can cause a disruption of the internet, damage submarine cables, and communication satellites.
What is a Solar Storm?
- A solar storm or a Coronal Mass Ejection as astronomers call it is an ejection of highly magnetized particles from the sun.
- These particles can travel several million km per hour and can take about 13 hours to five days to reach Earth.
- Earth’s atmosphere protects us, humans, from these particles.
- But the particles can interact with our Earth’s magnetic field, induce strong electric currents on the surface and affect man-made structures.
History of solar storms
- The first recorded solar storm occurred in 1859 and it reached Earth in about 17 hours.
- It affected the telegraph network and many operators experienced electric shocks.
- A solar storm that occurred in 1921 impacted New York telegraph and railroad systems and another small-scale storm collapsed the power grid in Quebec, Canada in 1989.
- A 2013 report noted that if a solar storm similar to the 1859 one hit the US today, about 20-40 million people could be without power for 1-2 years, and the total economic cost will be $0.6-2.6 trillion.
Why is it a cause of concern?
- The Sun goes through an 11-year cycle – cycles of high and low activity.
- It also has a longer 100-year cycle.
- During the last three decades, when the internet infrastructure was booming, it was a low period.
- And very soon, either in this cycle or the next cycle, we are going towards the peaks of the 100-year cycle.
- So it is highly likely that we might see one powerful solar storm during our lifetime.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Inspiration4: SpaceX’s first all-civilian space mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Inspiration4 Mission
Mains level : Human spaceflights
SpaceX has announced its ‘Inspiration4’ mission, the first all-civilian, non-governmental spaceflight, for launch.
What is Inspiration4?
- Inspiraton4 is a part of an effort to raise funds for pediatric treatment and research facility that focuses on children’s catastrophic diseases, particularly leukemia and other cancers.
- The mission involves circling the Earth for three days and then splashing down into the Atlantic Ocean.
- Inspiration4 will orbit the Earth at 575km, higher than the International Space Station (408km) and the Hubble space telescope (547km).
- This will be the farthest distance travelled by a crewed mission since 2009, when astronauts last went to repair the Hubble.
- The Dragon module that the group will be using has also been modified for the mission.
- Usually, the SpaceX module is used for travelling to the ISS, where it has to dock or join the floating laboratory.
UPSC may ask an MCQ asking: Which of the following is/are the space missions related to human flights? It may throw up 4-5 options (which we all get confused at after few months) like Cassini , InSight , Messanger, Voyager etc.
Key feature: Dome window
- Since Inspiration4 is not going to the ISS, the docking port has been removed and has been replaced with a dome window instead.
- This dome window will offer breath-taking views of the Earth for the four travellers.
- The window has been inspired by the Cupola, a module on the ISS used to make observations about our planet.
Why is the mission significant?
- According to a report in the Independent, the journey will present an opportunity for collecting large amounts of health data that will aid in planning future crewed space missions.
- As per the report, they will collect data on ECG (electrocardiograph) activity, movement, sleep, heart rate, and rhythm, blood oxygen saturation, cabin noise and light intensity, which will help in assessing behavioral and cognitive changes over the journey.
- The travelers will undergo balance and prescription tests just before and after their journey to assess their response to the change in gravity.
- The immune system function will also be monitored by collecting blood. Their organ systems will also be monitored by an AI-powered ultrasound device.
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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
CHAPEA Mission by NASA
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : CHAPEA Mission
Mains level : Not Much
NASA is seeking applications for its new mission called the Crew Health and Performance Exploration Analog (CHAPEA), which is related to Mars.
CHAPEA
- The mission is set to begin in 2022 and will give four successful applicants the chance to live and work in a 1,700 square-foot module that is created by a 3D printer and is called the Mars Dune Alpha.
- The simulated quarters include a kitchen, areas for medical, recreation, fitness, work, crop growth, a technical work area and two bathrooms.
- This habitat will simulate what it feels like to carry out missions on Mars including resource limitations, equipment failure, communication delays and any other environmental stressors.
- The crew will be expected to perform simulated spacewalks, scientific research and use virtual reality and robotic controls and exchange communications.
What is the purpose of this mission?
- The habitat in which the crew members will stay will be as Mars-realistic as possible.
- The results from this analog mission will provide scientific data that will help in validating the systems that will be used for actual missions to Mars and also help in solving problems for spaceflight research.
- CHAPEA is not the only analog mission, there are others including Aquarius/NEEMO, Concordia, Desert RATS, and HESTIA.
- Analog missions are required because not all experiments can be carried out in space because resources and money are limited.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Russia’s Nauka Module for ISS
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : International Space Station (ISS), Nauka
Mains level : Not Much
Pirs, a Russian module on the International Space Station (ISS) used as a docking port for spacecraft and as a door for cosmonauts to go out on spacewalks. In its place, Russia’s space agency Roscosmos will be attaching a significantly larger module called Nauka.
What does Russia’s new Nauka module do?
- Nauka, which is 42 feet long and weighs 20 tonnes, was supposed to be launched as early as 2007, as per the ISS’s original plan.
- Nauka — meaning “science” in Russian — is the biggest space laboratory Russia has launched to date, and will primarily serve as a research facility.
- It is also bringing to the ISS another oxygen generator, a spare bed, another toilet, and a robotic cargo crane built by the European Space Agency (ESA).
- The new module was sent into orbit using a Proton rocket — the most powerful in Russia’s space inventory — on July 21 and will take eight days to reach the ISS.
What kind of research goes on at the International Space Station?
- A space station is essentially a large spacecraft that remains in low-earth orbit for extended periods of time.
- It is like a large laboratory in space and allows astronauts to come aboard and stay for weeks or months to carry out experiments in microgravity.
- For over 20 years since its launch, humans have continuously lived and carried out scientific investigations on the $150 billion ISS under microgravity conditions, being able to make breakthroughs in research not possible on Earth.
Back2Basics: International Space Station (ISS)
- The International Space Station, which launched its first piece in 1998, is a large spacecraft that orbits around the Earth and is home to the astronauts.
- The ISS is currently the only active space station in the earth’s orbit.
- The first crew on the space station arrived on November 2, 2000.
- The space station is home to a minimum of six astronauts, with two bathrooms, a gymnasium, and a big bay window.
- It is a joint project between five participating space agencies -NASA (USA), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada).
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Moon-forming region seen around an exoplanet for the first time
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Exoplanets
Mains level : Core accretion
Scientists for the first time have spotted a Moon-forming region around an exo-planet beyond our solar system.
What are Exoplanets?
- More than 4,400 planets have been discovered outside our solar system, called exoplanets.
- Most orbit other stars, but free-floating exoplanets, called rogue planets, orbit the galactic center and are untethered to any star.
- No circumplanetary discs had been found until now because all the known exoplanets resided in “mature” – fully developed – solar systems, except the two infant gas planets orbiting PDS 70.
What is the new finding?
- The researchers have detected a disc of swirling material accumulating around one of two newborn planets.
- They were seen orbiting a young star called PDS 70, located a relatively close 370 light-years from Earth.
- It is called a circumplanetary disc, and it is from these those moons are born.
- The discovery offers a deeper understanding of the formation of planets and moons.
Focus of the finding: Formation of disc
- In our solar system, the impressive rings of Saturn, a planet around which more than 80 moons orbit, represent a relic of a primordial moon-forming disc.
- The orange-colored star PDS 70, roughly the same mass as our Sun, is about 5 million years old– a blink of the eye in cosmic time.
- The two planets are even younger. Both planets are similar (although larger) to Jupiter, a gas giant.
- It was around one of the two planets, called PDS 70c, that a Moon-forming disc was observed.
Observing birth of a moon: Core Accretion
- Stars burst to life within clouds of interstellar gas and dust scattered throughout galaxies.
- Leftover material spinning around a new star then coalesces into planets, and circumplanetary discs surrounding some planets similarly yield moons.
- The dominant mechanism thought to underpin planet formation is called “core accretion”.
- In this scenario, small dust grains, coated in ice, gradually grow to larger and larger sizes through successive collisions with other grains.
- This continues until the grains have grown to a size of a planetary core, at which point the young planet has a strong enough gravitational potential to accrete gas which will form its atmosphere.
- Some nascent planets attract a disc of material around them, with the same process that gives rise to planets around a star leading to the formation of moons around planets.
- The disc around PDS 70c, with a diameter about equal to the distance of the Earth to the sun, possesses enough mass to produce up to three moons the size of Earth’s moon.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Near-Earth Asteroid Scout Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Near-Earth Asteroid Scout
Mains level : Study of asteroids
Last week, NASA announced that its new spacecraft, named NEA Scout, has completed all required tests and has been safely tucked inside the Space Launch System (SLS) rocket.
For landing on Moon
- NEA Scout is one of several payloads that will hitch a ride on Artemis I, which is expected to be launched in November.
- Artemis I will be an uncrewed test-flight of the Orion spacecraft and SLS rocket.
- Under the Artemis programme, NASA has aimed to land the first woman on the Moon in 2024 and also establish sustainable lunar exploration programs by 2030.
What is NEA Scout?
- Near-Earth Asteroid Scout, or NEA Scout, is a small spacecraft, about the size of a big shoebox. Its main mission is to fly by and collect data from a near-Earth asteroid.
- It will also be America’s first interplanetary mission using special solar sail propulsion.
- This type of propulsion is especially useful for small, lightweight spacecraft that cannot carry large amounts of conventional rocket propellant.
- NEA Scout will use stainless steel alloy booms and deploy an aluminium-coated sail measuring 925 square feet.
- The large-area sail will generate thrust by reflecting sunlight.
- Energetic particles of sunlight bounce off the solar sail to give it a gentle, yet constant push.
How will it study the asteroid?
- NEA Scout is equipped with special cameras and can take pictures ranging from 50 cm/pixels to 10 cm/pixels.
- It can also process the image and reduce the file sizes before sending them to the earth-based Deep Space Network via its medium-gain antenna.
- The spacecraft will take about two years to cruise to the asteroid and will be about 93 million miles away from Earth during the asteroid encounter.
Why should we study near-Earth asteroids?
- Despite their size, some of these small asteroids could pose a threat to Earth.
- Understanding their properties could help us develop strategies for reducing the potential damage caused in the event of an impact.
- Scientists will use this data to determine what is required to reduce risk, increase effectiveness, and improve the design and operations of robotic and human space exploration.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Why does Mercury have such a big iron core?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Our planetary system
Mains level : Not Much
Researchers have developed a model showing that the density, mass and iron content of a Mercury’s core is influenced by its distance from the Sun’s magnetic field.
About Mercury
- Mercury is the first and the smallest planet in our solar system.
- It is also the closest planet to Earth.
- Like the other three terrestrial planets, Mercury contains a core surrounded by a mantle and a crust.
- But unlike any other planet, Mercury’s core makes up a larger portion of the planet.
- MESSENGER was a NASA robotic space probe that orbited the planet Mercury between 2011 and 2015, studying Mercury’s chemical composition, geology, and magnetic field.
- It was the analysis from the MESSENGER mission that tells: Mercury’s core is solid.
Mystery over the core
- It has long been known that Mercury’s core composition is made of liquid metal.
- The core itself is about 3,600 km across. Surrounding that is a 600 km thick mantle.
- And around that is the crust, which is believed to be 100-200 km thick.
- The crust is known to have narrow ridges that extend for hundreds of kilometres.
- This large core has long been one of the most intriguing mysteries about Mercury.
Why does Mercury have a large core?
- A new study reveals that the sun’s magnetism is the reason.
- The sun’s magnetic field influences the density, mass, and iron content of Mercury’s core.
- The four inner planets of our solar system—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—are made up of different proportions of metal and rock.
- A gradient in which the metal content in the core drops off as the planets get farther from the sun.
- The researchers explain how this happened by showing that the sun’s magnetic field controlled the distribution of raw materials in the early forming solar system.
What are the key propositions?
- During the early formation of the solar system, when a swirling dust storm and gas encircled the sun, iron’s grain was drawn toward the centre by the sun’s magnetic field.
- At the time of planet formation from clumps of that dust and gas, planets nearer to the sun consolidated more iron into their centres than those farther away.
- Scientists also found that the density and proportion of iron in the planet’s core correlate with the strength of the magnetic field around the sun during planetary formation.
- Existing models on planetary formation were used to determine the speed at which gas and dust were pulled into the centre of our solar system during its formation.
- The magnetic field that the sun would have generated as it burst into being and calculated how that magnetic field would draw iron through the dust and gas cloud.
Cooling led solidification
- As the early solar system began to cool, dust and gas that were not drawn into the sun started to clump together.
- The clumps closer to the sun would have been exposed to a stronger magnetic field and thus would contain more iron than those farther away from the sun.
- As the clumps coalesced and cooled into spinning planets, gravitational forces drew the iron into their core.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Suborbital Flight?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Difference between Orbital and Suborbital Flight
Mains level : Space tourism
Virgin Group founder Richard Branson became the first billionaire to fly to the edge of space and back, riding aboard his own Virgin Galactic spacecraft in a suborbital flight.
What is Suborbital Flight?
- When an object travels at a horizontal speed of about 28,000 km/hr or more, it goes into orbit once it is above the atmosphere.
- Satellites need to reach that threshold speed in order to orbit Earth.
- Such a satellite would be accelerating towards the Earth due to gravity, but its horizontal movement is fast enough to offset the downward motion so that it moves along a circular path.
- Any object travelling slower than 28,000 km/hr must eventually return to Earth.
- These are suborbital flights, because they will not be travelling fast enough to orbit Earth once they reach there.
- Such a trip allows space travellers to experience a few minutes of “weightlessness”.
Analogical example
- For an analogy, consider a cricket ball thrown into the air.
- Given that no human hand can give it a speed of 28,000 km/hr (about 8 m/sec), the ball will fly in an arc until its entire kinetic energy is swapped with potential energy.
- At that instant, it will lose its vertical motion momentarily, before returning to Earth under the influence of gravity.
- A suborbital flight is like this cricket ball, but travelling fast enough to reach the “edge of space”, and yet without enough horizontal velocity to go into orbit.
- If an object travels as fast as 40,000 km/hr, it will achieve escape velocity, and never return to Earth.
Why the buzz?
- With Branson and Jeff Bezos kicking off private space flight, several companies are looking for customers wanting to go on suborbital or even orbital journeys.
- At Branson’s Virgin Galactic, around 600 people have already paid deposits for tickets that are priced up to $250,000 (Rs 1.86 crore).
- However, Bezos’s Blue Origin, which uses the reusable New Shepard rocket, is yet to announce commercialization plans, according to the BBC.
- There is also excitement among scientists who want to use suborbital flights for microgravity research.
- Such flights would be far less expensive than carrying experiments and people to the International Space Station.
- Suborbital flights could also be an alternative to parabolic flights in airplanes that space agencies currently use to simulate zero gravity.
Safety concerns
- The Branson flight comes seven years after his company’s first rocket, called Enterprise, crashed during a test flight, killing one of the pilots on board.
- The other survived after parachuting out.
- The current rocket is also not certified by the US Federal Aviation Administration, which is prohibited to do so by law until 2023.
- This is because the US government does not want to burden companies like Virgin Atlantic with regulations during their “learning” period, when they can innovate by trying out different designs and procedures.
- Passengers who go on such trips need to sign “informed consent” forms, similar to the ones before going for skydiving or bungee jumping.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Possibility of life on Saturn’s Moon
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Methanogens on saturn's moon
Mains level : Hunt for extra-terrestrial life
NASA’s Cassini spacecraft has detected an unusually high concentration of methane, along with carbon dioxide and dihydrogen, in the moons of Saturn by flying through their plumes.
What is the new observation?
- The spacecraft has found that Titan has methane in its atmosphere and Enceladus has a liquid ocean with erupting plumes of gas and water.
Are there methane-producing organisms on Earth?
- Most of the methane on Earth has a biological origin.
- Microorganisms called methanogens are capable of generating methane as a metabolic byproduct.
- They do not require oxygen to live and are widely distributed in nature.
- They are found in swamps, dead organic matter, and even in the human gut.
- They are known to survive in high temperatures and simulation studies have shown that they can live in Martian conditions.
- Methanogens have been widely studied to understand if they can be a contributor to global warming.
Could there be methanogens on Enceladus?
- We cannot conclude that life exists in the Enceladus ocean.
- It is the probability that Enceladus’ hydrothermal vents could be habitable to Earth-like microorganisms.
- There can be life hypotheses.
What other processes could have produced the methane?
- Methane could be formed by the chemical breakdown of organic matter present in Enceladus’ core.
- Hydrothermal processes could help the formation of carbon dioxide and methane.
- On Earth, hydrothermal vents on seafloors are known to release methane, but this happens at a very slow rate.
- This hypothesis is plausible but only if Enceladus was formed through the accretion of organic-rich material from comets.
- The results suggest that methane production from hydrothermal vents is not sufficient to explain the high methane concentration detected by Cassini in the plumes.
- An additional amount of methane produced via biological methanogenesis could match Cassini’s observations.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Discrete Auroras on Mars
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Aurora, Hope Mission
Mains level : Study of Mars
The UAE’s Hope spacecraft, which is orbiting Mars since February this year, has captured images of glowing atmospheric lights in the Red Planet’s night sky, known as discrete auroras.
What causes an Aurora on Earth?
- Auroras are caused when charged particles ejected from the Sun’s surface — called the solar wind — enter the Earth’s atmosphere.
- These particles are harmful, and our planet is protected by the geomagnetic field, which preserves life by shielding us from the solar wind.
- However, at the north and south poles, some of these solar wind particles are able to continuously stream down, and interact with different gases in the atmosphere to cause a display of light in the night sky.
- This display, known as an aurora, is seen from the Earth’s high latitude regions (called the auroral oval), and is active all year round.
Where are they observed on Earth?
- In the northern part of our globe, the polar lights are called aurora borealis or Northern Lights and are seen from the US (Alaska), Canada, Iceland, Greenland, Norway, Sweden and Finland.
- In the south, they are called aurora australis or southern lights and are visible from high latitudes in Antarctica, Chile, Argentina, New Zealand and Australia.
So, how are Martian auroras different?
- Unlike auroras on Earth, which are seen only near the north and south poles, discrete auroras on Mars are seen all around the planet at night time.
- Unlike Earth, which has a strong magnetic field, the Martian magnetic field has largely died out.
- This is because the molten iron at the interior of the planet– which produces magnetism– has cooled.
- However, the Martian crust, which hardened billions of years ago when the magnetic field still existed, retains some magnetism.
- So, in contrast with Earth, which acts like one single bar magnet, magnetism on Mars is unevenly distributed, with fields strewn across the planet and differing in direction and strength.
- These disjointed fields channel the solar wind to different parts of the Martian atmosphere, creating “discrete” auroras over the entire surface of the planet as charged particles interact with atoms and molecules in the sky– as they do on Earth.
Why is it important to study them?
- Studying Martian auroras is important for scientists, for it can offer clues as to why the Red Planet lost its magnetic field and thick atmosphere– among the essential requirements for sustaining life.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Which region of Mars has a densely packed river deposit indicating this planet had water 3.5 billion years ago?
(a) Aeolis Dorsa
(b) Tharsis
(c) Olympus Mons
(d) Hellas
Back2Basics:
Hope Orbiter
- The Hope Probe, the Arab world’s first mission to Mars, took off from Earth in July last year, and has been orbiting the Red Planet since February.
- The primary objective of the mission is to study Martian weather dynamics.
- By correlating the lower atmosphere and upper atmosphere conditions, the probe will look into how weather changes the escape of hydrogen and oxygen into space.
- By measuring how much hydrogen and oxygen is spilling into space, scientists will be able to look into why Mars lost so much of its early atmosphere and liquid water.
- It is expected to create the first complete portrait of the planet’s atmosphere.
- With the information gathered during the mission, scientists will have a better understanding of the climate dynamics of different layers of Mars’ atmosphere.
Mars
- Mars is the fourth planet from the Sun and the second-smallest planet in the Solar System, being larger than only Mercury.
- In English, Mars carries the name of the Roman god of war and is often referred to as the “Red Planet”.
- The latter refers to the effect of the iron oxide prevalent on Mars’s surface, which gives it a reddish appearance distinctive among the astronomical bodies visible to the naked eye.
- Mars is a terrestrial planet with a thin atmosphere, with surface features reminiscent of the impact craters of the Moon and the valleys, deserts and polar ice caps of Earth.
- The days and seasons are comparable to those of Earth, because the rotational period, as well as the tilt of the rotational axis relative to the ecliptic plane, is similar.
- Mars is the site of Olympus Mons, the largest volcano and highest known mountain on any planet in the Solar System, and of Valles Marineris, one of the largest canyons in the Solar System.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
New Shephard rocket system for cost-effective access to space
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : New Shephard
Mains level : Space tourism
Last week, Amazon founder and billionaire Jeff Bezos’s space company called Blue Origin concluded the online auction for the first seat on New Shephard, a rocket system meant to take tourists to space.
What is New Shephard?
- New Shephard has been named after astronaut Alan Shephard – the first American to go to space – and offers flights to space over 100 km above the Earth and accommodation for payloads.
- Essentially, it is a rocket system that has been designed to take astronauts and research payloads past the Karman line – the internationally recognized boundary of space.
- The idea is to provide easier and more cost-effective access to space meant for purposes such as academic research, corporate technology development, and entrepreneurial ventures among others.
- Apart from its academic and research-oriented goal, New Shephard will also allow space tourists to experience microgravity by taking them 100 km above the Earth.
Its components
- The rocket system consists of two parts, the cabin or capsule, and the rocket or the booster.
- The cabin can accommodate experiments from small Mini Payloads up to 100 kg.
- As per Blue Origin, the Mini Payloads provide easier space access to students, who are part of educational institutions that are developing their own space programs.
- Further, the cabin is designed for six people and sits atop a 60 feet tall rocket and separates from it before crossing the Karman line, after which both vehicles fall back to the Earth.
- All the six seats in the capsule are meant for passengers, each of whom gets their own window seat. The capsule is fully autonomous and does not require a pilot.
How does it work?
- The system is a fully reusable, vertical takeoff and vertical landing space vehicle that accelerates for about 2.5 minutes before the engine cuts off.
- After separating from the booster, the capsule free falls in space, while the booster performs an autonomously controlled vertical landing back to Earth.
- The capsule, on the other hand, lands back with the help of parachutes.
A boost for space tourism
- Space tourism seeks to give laypeople the ability to go to space for recreational, leisure, or business purposes.
- The idea is to make space more accessible to those individuals who are not astronauts and want to go to space for non-scientific purposes.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Polar-Areas Stellar-Imaging in Polarisation High-Accuracy Experiment (PASIPHAE)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : PASIPHAE
Mains level : Theory of expansion of the universe
The development of a vital instrument PASIPHAE, which will be used in upcoming sky surveys to study stars, is being led by an Indian astronomer.
What is PASIPHAE?
- PASIPHAE stands for Polar-Areas Stellar-Imaging in Polarisation High-Accuracy Experiment.
- It is an international collaborative sky surveying project. Scientists aim to study the polarisation in the light coming from millions of stars.
- The name is inspired by Pasiphae, the daughter of Greek Sun God Helios.
- The survey will use two high-tech optical polarimeters to observe the northern and southern skies, simultaneously.
- It will focus on capturing starlight polarisation of very faint stars that are so far away that polarisation signals from there have not been systematically studied.
- By combining the data, astronomers will perform a maiden magnetic field tomography mapping of the interstellar medium of very large areas of the sky using a novel polarimeter instrument known as WALOP.
Why is PASIPHAE important?
- Since its birth about 14 billion years ago, the universe has been constantly expanding, as evidenced by the presence of Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) radiation which fills the universe.
- Immediately after its birth, the universe went through a short inflationary phase during which it expanded at a very high rate before it slowed down and reached the current rate.
- However, so far, there have only been theories and indirect evidence of expansion associated with the early universe.
- A definitive consequence of the inflationary phase is that a tiny fraction of the CMB radiation should have its imprints in the form of a specific kind of polarisation (known scientifically as a B-mode signal).
- All previous attempts to detect this signal met with failure mainly due to the difficulty posed by our galaxy, the Milky Way, which emits copious amounts of polarized radiation.
- Besides, it contains a lot of dust clouds that are present in the form of clusters. When starlight passes through these dust clouds, they get scattered and polarized.
What will PASIPHAE do?
- The PASIPHAE survey will measure starlight polarisation over large areas of the sky.
- This data along with distances to the stars will help create a 3-Dimensional model of the distribution of the dust and magnetic field structure of the galaxy.
- Such data can help remove the galactic polarized foreground light and enable astronomers to look for the elusive B-mode signal.
What is WALOP?
- Wide Area Linear Optical Polarimeter (WALOP) is an instrument when mounted on two small optical telescopes, that will be used to detect polarized light signals emerging from the stars along high galactic latitudes.
- The images will simultaneously have the finest of details of a star along with its panoramic background.
- WALOP will operate on the principle that at any given time, the data from a portion of the sky under observation will be split into four different channels.
- Depending on the manner in which light passes through the four channels, the polarisation value from the star is obtained.
- That is, each star will have four corresponding images which when stitched together will help calculate the desired polarisation value of a star.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
EnVision Mission to Venus
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : EnVision Mission
Mains level : Interplanetary missions
Following NASA’s footsteps, the European Space Agency (ESA) announced that it has selected EnVision as its next orbiter that will visit Venus sometime in the 2030s.
Last week, NASA selected two missions to the planet Venus, Earth’s nearest neighbour. The missions called DAVINCI+ and VERITAS have been selected based on their potential for scientific value and the feasibility of their development plans.
What is EnVision?
- EnVision is an ESA-led mission with contributions from NASA. It is likely to be launched sometime in the 2030s.
- The earliest launch opportunity for EnVision is 2031, followed by 2032 and 2033.
- Once launched on an Ariane 6 rocket, the spacecraft will take about 15 months to reach Venus and will take 16 more months to achieve orbit circularization.
- The spacecraft will carry a range of instruments to study the planet’s atmosphere and surface, monitor trace gases in the atmosphere and analyses its surface composition.
What are other such missions?
- EnVision will follow another ESA-led mission to Venus called ‘Venus Express’ (2005-2014) that focused on atmospheric research and pointed to volcanic hotspots on the planet’s surface.
- Other than this, Japan’s Akatsuki spacecraft has also been studying the planet’s atmosphere since 2015.
Why are scientists interested in studying Venus?
- At the core of the ESA’s mission is the question of how Earth and Venus evolved so differently from each other considering that they are roughly of the same size and composition.
- Venus is the hottest planet in the solar system because of the heat that is trapped by its thick cloud cover.
- Last year, a team of scientists reported that they had found phosphine gas (a chemical produced only through biological processes) in the atmosphere of Venus.
- This triggered excitement in the scientific community that some life forms might be supported by the planet.
- But the existence of life on the planet is nearly impossible given the high temperatures of Venus and its acidic atmosphere.
Back2Basics: Venus Planet
- For those on Earth, Venus is the second-brightest object in the sky after the moon.
- It appears bright because of its thick cloud cover that reflects and scatters light.
- But while Venus, which is the second closest planet to the Sun, is called the Earth’s twin because of their similar sizes, the two planets have significant differences between them.
- For one, the planet’s thick atmosphere traps heat and is the reason that it is the hottest planet in the solar system, despite coming after Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun.
- Surface temperatures on Venus can go up to 471 degrees Celsius, which is hot enough to melt lead.
- Further, Venus moves forward on its orbit around the Sun but spins backwards around its axis slowly.
- This means on Venus the Sun rises in the west and sets in the East.
- One day on Venus is equivalent to 243 Earth days because of its backward spinning, opposite to that of the Earth’s and most other planets.
- Venus also does not have a moon and no rings.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
CHIME Telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : CHIME Telescope, Fast Radio Bursts
Mains level : NA
Scientists with the Canadian Hydrogen Intensity Mapping Experiment (CHIME) Collaboration have assembled the largest collection of fast radio bursts (FRBs) in the telescope’s first FRB catalog.
CHIME Telescope
- CHIME is an interferometric radio telescope at the Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory in British Columbia, Canada.
- It consists of four antennas consisting of 100 x 20-meter cylindrical parabolic reflectors with 1024 dual-polarization radio receivers suspended on support above them.
- The telescope receives radio signals each day from half of the sky as the Earth rotates.
- While most radio astronomy is done by swiveling a large dish to focus light from different parts of the sky, CHIME stares, motionless, at the sky, and focuses incoming signals using a correlator.
- This is a powerful digital signal processor that can work through huge amounts of data, at a rate of about seven terrabytes per second, equivalent to a few percent of the world’s Internet traffic.
What are FRBs?
- FRBs are oddly bright flashes of light, registering in the radio band of the electromagnetic spectrum, which blaze for a few milliseconds before vanishing without a trace.
- These brief and mysterious beacons have been spotted in various and distant parts of the universe, as well as in our own galaxy.
- Their origins are unknown and their appearance is highly unpredictable.
- But the advent of the CHIME project has nearly quadrupled the number of fast radio bursts discovered to date.
- With more observations, astronomers hope soon to pin down the extreme origins of these curiously bright signals.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
CIBER-2 Mission to count the stars in the Universe
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : CIBER 2 Mission
Mains level : NA
A NASA-funded rocket’s launch window will open at the White Sands Missile Range in New Mexico, USA. The aim of this mission is to count the number of stars that exist in the Universe.
Answer this PYQ from CSP 2020 in the comment box:
Q.“The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometers long, with lasers shining between the craft.” The experiment in question refers to
(a) Voyager-2
(b) New horizons
(c) Lisa Pathfinder
(d) Evolved LISA
What is CIBER-2?
- In order to roughly estimate the number of stars in the Universe, scientists have estimated that on average each galaxy consists of about 100 million stars, but this figure is not exact.
- The figure of 100 million could easily be an underestimation, probably by a factor of 10 or more.
- To put this into perspective, an average of 100 million stars in each galaxy (there an estimated 2 trillion of them as per NASA), would give a total figure of one hundred quintillion stars or 1 with 21 zeroes after it.
- NASA notes that if this figure is accurate, it would mean that for every grain of sand on Earth, there are more than ten stars.
- But this calculation assumes that all stars are inside galaxies, which might not be true and this is what the CIBER-2 instrument will try to find out.
How will CIBER-2 count stars?
- NASA notes that the instrument will not actually count individual stars but it will instead detect the extragalactic background light
- It is all of the light that has been emitted throughout the history of the Universe.
- From all of this extragalactic background light, the CIBER-2 will focus on a portion of this called cosmic infrared background, which is emitted by some of the most common stars.
- Essentially, this approach is aiming to look at how bright this light is to give scientists an estimate of how many of these stars are out there.
- The ESA infrared space observatory Herschel also counted the number of galaxies in infrared and measured their luminosity previously.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
DAVINCI+ and VERITAS missions for exploration of Venus
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Missions on Venus
Mains level : Planetory exploration
NASA has selected two missions to the planet Venus, Earth’s nearest neighbor. The missions are called DAVINCI+ and VERITAS.
DAVINCI+ and VERITAS
(1) DAVINCI+
- DAVINCI+ is short for ‘Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging’ and is the first US-led mission to the planet’s atmosphere since 1978.
- It will try to understand Venus’ composition to see how the planet formed and evolved.
- This mission also consists of a decent sphere that will pass through the planet’s thick atmosphere and make observations and take measurements of noble gases and other elements.
- Significantly, this mission will also try to return the first high-resolution photographs of a geological feature that is unique to Venus.
- This feature, which is called “tesserae” may be comparable to Earth’s continents.
- The presence of tesseraes may suggest that Venus has tectonic plates like Earth.
(2) VERITAS
- The second mission called VERITAS is short for ‘Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy’.
- It will map the planet’s surface to determine its geologic history and understand the reasons why it developed so differently from Earth.
- VERITAS will orbit Venus with a radar that will help to create a 3D reconstruction of its topography which might be able to tell scientists if processes such as plate tectonics and volcanism are still active there.
- This mission will also map the emissions from Venus’s surface that may help in determining the type of rocks that exist on Venus–a piece of information that is not exactly known yet.
- It will also determine if active volcanoes are releasing water vapor into the atmosphere.
Why study Venus?
- The results from DAVINCI+ are expected to reshape the understanding of terrestrial planet formation in the solar system and beyond.
- Taken together, both missions are expected to tell scientists more about the planet’s thick cloud cover and the volcanoes on its surface.
- Further, scientists speculate about the existence of life on Venus in its distant past and the possibility that life may exist in the top layers of its clouds where temperatures are less extreme.
Have humans visited Venus?
- Because of the planet’s harsh environment, no humans have visited it and even the spacecraft that have been sent to the planet have not survived for a very long time.
- Venus’ high surface temperatures overheat electronics in spacecraft in a short time, so it seems unlikely that a person could survive for long on the Venusian surface.
- So far, spacecraft from several nations have visited the planet.
- The first such spacecraft was the Soviet Union’s Venera series (the spacecraft, however, could not survive for long because of the planet’s harsh conditions).
- It was followed by NASA’s Magellan Mission that studied Venus from 1990-1994. As of now, Japan’s Akatsuki mission is studying the planet from Orbit.
Back2Basics: Venus
- For those on Earth, Venus is the second-brightest object in the sky after the moon.
- It appears bright because of its thick cloud cover that reflects and scatters light.
- Surface temperatures on Venus can go up to 471 degrees Celsius, which is hot enough to melt lead, NASA notes. Surface temperatures on Venus can go up to 471 degrees Celsius, which is hot enough to melt lead, NASA notes.
Some unknown facts
- While Venus, which is the second closest planet to the Sun, is called the Earth’s twin because of their similar sizes, the two planets have significant differences between them.
- For one, the planet’s thick atmosphere traps heat and is the reason that it is the hottest planet in the solar system, despite coming after Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun.
- Further, Venus moves forward on its orbit around the Sun but spins backwards around its axis slowly.
- This means on Venus the Sun rises in the west and sets in the East.
- One day on Venus is equivalent to 243 Earth days because of its backward spinning, opposite to that of the Earth’s and most other planets.
- Venus also does not have a moon and no rings.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
OneWeb constellation for Internet from the Skies
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : OneWeb, LEO
Mains level : Space internet concept
Following the successful launch of 36 satellites, OneWeb’s Low Earth Orbit (LEO) constellation reached 218 in-orbit satellites.
What is OneWeb?
- OneWeb is a global communications company that aims to deliver broadband satellite Internet around the world through its fleet of LEO satellites.
- OneWeb satellites are built at a OneWeb and Airbus joint venture facility in Florida that can produce up to two satellites a day.
- The launch roll-out of the satellites is facilitated by French company Arianespace using Russian-made Soyuz rockets.
- The company has announced plans to enter the Indian market by 2022.
About its constellation
- The company has one more launch to complete before it obtains the capacity to enable its ‘Five to 50’ service of offering internet connectivity to all regions north of 50 degrees latitude.
- The Five to 50 service is expected to be switched on by June 2021 with global services powered by 648 satellites available in 2022.
What are LEO satellites?
- LEO satellites have been orbiting the planet since the 1990s, providing companies and individuals with various communication services.
- They are positioned around 500km-2000km from earth, compared to stationary orbit satellites which are approximately 36,000km away.
- Latency, or the time needed for data to be sent and received, is contingent on proximity.
- As LEO satellites orbit closer to the earth, they are able to provide stronger signals and faster speeds than traditional fixed-satellite systems.
- Additionally, because signals travel faster through space than through fiber-optic cables, they also have the potential to rival if not exceed existing ground-based networks.
- However, LEO satellites travel at a speed of 27,000 kph and complete a full circuit of the planet in 90-120 minutes.
- As a result, individual satellites can only make direct contact with a land transmitter for a short period of time thus requiring massive LEO satellite fleets and consequently, a significant capital investment.
Criticisms of LEO satellites
- During the days of the Sputnik and Apollo missions, governments dominated and regulated space-based activities.
- There are logistical challenges with launching thousands of satellites into space as well.
- Satellites can sometimes be seen in the night skies which creates difficulties for astronomers as the satellites reflect sunlight to earth, leaving streaks across images.
- Satellites traveling at a lower orbit can also interrupt the frequency of those orbiting above them, an accusation that has been leveled against Starlink satellites already.
- Another worry is that there are already almost 1 million objects larger than 1cm in diameter in orbit, a byproduct of decades of space activities.
- Those objects, colloquially referred to as ‘space junk,’ have the potential to damage spacecraft or collide with other satellites.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
[pib] Magnetospheric Multiscale Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Magnetosphere
Mains level : Not Much
Indian Scientists have developed a theory that helps understand the complicated nature of Sun-Earth interaction’s happening in the magnetosphere
Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) Mission
- The Magnetospheric Multiscale (MMS) Mission is a NASA robotic space mission to study the Earth’s magnetosphere, using four identical spacecraft flying in a tetrahedral formation.
- The mission is designed to gather information about the microphysics of magnetic reconnection, energetic particle acceleration, and turbulence—processes that occur in many astrophysical plasma.
- Indian researchers have developed a theory that solves every bit of uncertainty regarding the conflict between the observations from MMS Mission.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.Consider the following statements:
- The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.
- When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.
- When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct? (CSP 2018)
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
What is the Magnetosphere?
- The magnetosphere is the region of space surrounding Earth where the dominant magnetic field is the magnetic field of Earth, rather than the magnetic field of interplanetary space.
- It is formed by the interaction of the solar wind with Earth’s magnetic field.
Findings of the Indian Researchers
- The MMS spacecraft observed negative monopolar potential (electric field potentials which can be visualized in the form of single-humped pulse-type structures).
- The scientific community suddenly recognized its importance, and publications were presented.
- However, none of the available theories could explain the characteristics of these structures due to the exotic background conditions.
- Indian theory provides a better understanding of their characteristics and sheds light on the generation of these structures.
- This has lead to the unraveling of nature’s greatest mystery that causes phenomena -plasma transport and heating of plasma- the fourth state of matter after solid, liquid, and gas.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Tianwen-1 lands successfully on Mars
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Tianwen 1 and various Mars missions
Mains level : Mars mission worldwide and their success
China landed a spacecraft on Mars carrying its first Mars rover in a big boost to its space ambitions.
UPSC may ask an MCQ asking: Which of the following is/are the space missions related to Mars? It may throw up 4-5 options (which we all get confused at after few months) like Cassini , InSight , Messanger, Voyager etc.
Tianwen-1 Mission
- The mission is named after the ancient Chinese poem ‘Questions to Heaven’, the Tianwen-1.
- It is an all-in-one orbiter; lander and rover will search the Martian surface for water, ice, investigate soil characteristics, and study the atmosphere, among completing other objectives.
- It will be the first to place ground-penetrating radar on the Martian surface, which will be able to study local geology, as well as rock, ice, and dirt distribution.
- The lander descended successfully onto the surface of the red planet carrying a rover named Zhurong, named after a god of fire for a planet known in Chinese as the planet of fire.
- Only the Soviet Union and the United States had previously carried out a successful landing on Mars.
Back2Basics: Various missions on Mars
- The USSR in 1971 became the first country to carry out a Mars landing– its ‘Mars 3’ lander being able to transmit data for 20 seconds from the Martian surface before failing.
- The country made it’s second and Mars landing two years later in 1973.
- The second country to reach Mars’s surface, the US, holds the record for the most number of Mars landings.
- Since 1976, it has achieved 8 successful Mars landings, the latest being the ‘InSight’ in 2019 (launched in 2018).
- India and the European Space Agency have been able to place their spacecraft in Mars’s orbit.
- India’s Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or ‘Mangalyaan’ was able to do so in September 2014, almost a year after its launch from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Andhra Pradesh.
- The Chinese mission now is expected to take off around the same time when NASA is launching its own Mars mission– the ambitious ‘Perseverance’ which aims to collect Martian samples and bring them back.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Space weather preparedness is in our national interest
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Not much
Mains level : Paper 3- Space weather preparedness
The article suggests the need for space weather preparedness to protect the satellite constellations in the future.
Satellite constellations
- By 2030, the global space industry could add almost 50,000 new commercial satellites to the existing 5,000.
- These would include earth-observation satellites selling commercial imagery, telecom orbiters providing 5G and next-in-line 6G data services, and meteorological ones selling weather-forecasts and datasets.
- The increasing dependence of the digital economy on satellite constellations is spurring investment in this area.
Risks involved
- The most important threat to the constellation of satellites will be the collisions between satellites.
- Such collision could result in massive free-floating space debris.
- A 2020 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development report estimates that protecting satellites from space debris could cost 5-10% more per space mission.
- Another threat to satellite constellations is that of extreme space weather events, and this cannot be addressed by space and digital players alone.
- It demands the attention of governments.
Improving space weather forecasting ability
- Last October, the US Congress passed an Act that directs civilian and military agencies to reinforce national space weather forecasting abilities.
- China transferred its meteorological, hydrological and space weather command from the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) general staff department to the PLA strategic support force, the latter being its new branch for cyber, space and e-warfare.
Lessons for India
- India’s economy is expected to become increasingly dependent on space- and ground-based commercial, civilian and military assets.
- These will be vulnerable to extreme space weather events.
- India is progressing with its capital-intensive planetary exploration and human space-flight projects.
- we must deploy across-the-board space-weather monitoring, forecasting and response systems designed to safeguard deep-space assets and protect our gaganauts.
- Consequently, it is imperative for the government to develop and adopt space weather forecasts before initiating outer space activities.
- India, therefore, needs legislation like America’s to issues cross-ministerial directions.
- The Indian scientific community operates numerous ground-based ‘sun observing’ telescopes across India, and is well connected with its international peers.
- In the coming months India is expected to launch Aditya-L1, a space-based solar observatory, with assistance from the Indian Space Research Organisation.
- The data generated by it will be crucial for India’s space weather monitoring ambitions.
- But without a national policy backed by legislation, the scientific community would find it difficult to meet the strategic demands of the conjoined space and digital economies.
Consider the question “The increasing dependence of the digital economy on satellite constellations is spurring investment in this area. But it is not risk-free. In light of this, examine the risks involved and suggest the measures to deal with the risks.”
Conclusion
The enactment of a space weather law could help the country protect its digital and telecom systems that extend to outer space from destructive solar storms and intense solar and galactic radiation whiplashes.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Martian ‘Blueberries’
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Martian blueberries
Mains level : Mars mission worldwide and their success
In 2004, NASA’s Mars exploration rover ‘Opportunity’ found several small spheres on the planet, informally named Martian blueberries which find a resemblance to the similar formation in India’s Kutch region.
There have been several missions to the red planet this year. Make a note of all of them.
Martian blueberries
- Opportunity’s mini spectrometers studied mineralogy and noted they were made of iron oxide compounds called haematites.
- This caused excitement, as the presence of haematites suggests that there was water present on Mars.
- The widely accepted formation mechanism of hematite concretion [hard solid mass] is precipitation from aqueous fluids.
- Hematite is known to form in oxidizing environments hence it can be inferred that water must have played a crucial role in the formation of grey hematite on Mars.
What makes them so special?
- Indian researchers have been studying hematite concretions in Kutch called the Jhuran formation.
- These formations are 145 and 201 million years old.
- Detailed geochemistry and spectroscopic investigations of the haematite concretions in this area revealed that they resemble the ones on Mars.
- They have similar morphology – spherical, often doublet and triplet – and similar mineralogy – a mixture of haematite and goethite.
- Hence, several types of research have shown that the Kutch area is a potential Martian analogue locality.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s Perseverance rover makes historic Mars landing
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Various missions on Mars
Mains level : Mars mission worldwide and their success
NASA’s rover Perseverance, the most advanced astrobiology laboratory ever sent to another world has landed safely on the floor of Jezero Crater on Mars.
Last week, separate probes launched by the UAE (Hope Mission) and China (Tianwen-1) reached Martian orbit. NASA has three Mars satellites still in orbit, along with two from the European Space Agency.
Perseverance Rover
- The Perseverance rover weighs less than 2,300 pounds and is managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab.
- It is a part of the mission named ‘Mars 2020’.
- The rover’s mission will be to search for signs of past microbial life. It will also collect samples of Martian rocks and dust, according to the release.
- All of NASA’s previous Mars rovers — including the Sojourner (1997), Spirit and Opportunity (2004) and Curiosity (exploring Mars since 2012) — were named in this way.
Objectives of the mission
- Looking for habitability: identify past environments capable of supporting microbial life.
- Seeking bio-signatures: seek signs of possible past microbial life in those habitable environments, particularly in special rocks known to preserve signs over time.
- Caching samples: collect core rock and regolith (“soil”) samples and store them on the Martian surface.
- Preparing for humans: test oxygen production from the Martian atmosphere.
Major components
(a) Looking for underground water
- Perseverance will carry the Radar Imager for Mars’ Subsurface Experiment (RIMFAX).
- The instrument will look for subsurface water on Mars – which, if found, will greatly help the case for a human mission or the cause of a human settlement on Mars.
(b) Testing a helicopter
- The Mars Helicopter is a small drone. It is a technology demonstration experiment: to test whether the helicopter can fly in the sparse atmosphere on Mars.
- The low density of the Martian atmosphere makes the odds of actually flying a helicopter or an aircraft on Mars very low.
(c) Producing oxygen on Mars
- Perseverance will have an instrument – MOXIE, or Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment – that will use 300 watts of power to produce about 10 grams of oxygen using atmospheric carbon dioxide.
- Should this experiment be successful, MOXIE can be scaled up by a factor of 100 to provide the two very critical needs of humans: oxygen for breathing, and rocket fuel for the trip back to Earth.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Hope: UAE’s first mission to Mars
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Hope Mission
Mains level : Mars mission worldwide and their success
The first Arab interplanetary mission is expected to reach Mars’ orbit on February 9 in what is considered the most critical part of the journey to unravel the secrets of weather on the Red Planet.
Try this question from CSP 2014:
Q.Which of the following pair is/are correctly matched?
Spacecraft Purpose 1. Cassini-Huygens Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth 2. Messenger Mapping and investigating the Mercury 3. Voyager 1 and 2 Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Hope Mission
- The Emirates Mars Mission called “Hope” was announced in 2015 with the aim of creating mankind’s first integrated model of the Red planet’s atmosphere.
- Hope weighs over 1500 kg and will carry scientific instruments mounted on one side of the spacecraft, including the Emirates exploration Imager (EXI), which is a high-resolution camera among others.
- The spacecraft will orbit Mars to study the Martian atmosphere and its interaction with outer space and solar winds.
- Hope will collect data on Martian climate dynamics, which should help scientists understand why Mars’ atmosphere is decaying into space.
Objectives of the mission
- Once it launches, Hope will orbit Mars for around 200 days, after which it will enter the Red planet’s orbit by 2021, coinciding with the 50th anniversary of the founding of UAE.
- The mission is being executed by the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre, UAE’s space agency.
- It will help answer key questions about the global Martian atmosphere and the loss of hydrogen and oxygen gases into space over the span of one Martian year.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Square Kilometre Array Observatory
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Square Kilometre Array Observatory, Radio Telescopes
Mains level : Not Much
The Square Kilometre Array Observatory (SKAO) Council held its maiden meeting and approved the establishment of the world’s largest radio telescope.
Note all important telescopes in news and their features. Some of them are – Thirty Meter Telescope, Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, Spitzer, Chandra etc.
SKAO
- It is a new intergovernmental organisation dedicated to radio astronomy and is headquartered in the UK.
- At the moment, organisations from ten countries are a part of the SKAO.
- These include Australia, Canada, China, India, Italy, New Zealand, South Africa, Sweden, the Netherlands and the UK.
What are radio telescopes?
- Unlike optical telescopes, radio telescopes can detect invisible gas and, therefore, they can reveal areas of space that may be obscured by cosmic dust.
- Significantly, since the first radio signals were detected by physicist Karl Jansky in the 1930s, astronomers have used radio telescopes to detect radio waves emitted by different objects in the universe and explore it.
- According to NASA, the field of radio astronomy evolved after World War II and became one of the most important tools for making astronomical observations since.
The Arecibo telescope in Puerto Rico, which was the second-largest single-dish radio telescope in the world, collapsed in December 2020.
Significance of SKA telescope
- The telescope, proposed to be the largest radio telescope in the world, will be located in Africa and Australia whose operation, maintenance and construction will be overseen by SKAO.
- Some of the questions that scientists hope to address using this telescope include the beginning of the universe, how and when the first stars were born and the life-cycle of a galaxy.
- It would explore the possibility of detecting technologically-active civilizations elsewhere in our galaxy and understanding where gravitational waves come from.
- As per NASA, the telescope will accomplish its scientific goals by measuring neutral hydrogen over cosmic time, accurately timing the signals from pulsars in the Milky Way.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Stardust 1.O: the first rocket to run on biofuel
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Stardust-1, Biofuels
Mains level : Not Much
Stardust 1.O was recently launched from Maine, the US has become the first commercial space launch powered by biofuel.
UPSC may puzzle you with the following type of MCQ asking:
Q.Which of the following is the unique feature of the Stardust 1.0 Spacecraft recenlty seen in news?
(a) It is propelled by Bio-fuels.
(b) It has the largest payload capacity.
(c) It is re-usable launch vehicle.
(d) All of the above
What is Stardust 1.O?
- Stardust 1.O is a launch vehicle suited for student and budget payloads.
- The rocket is manufactured by bluShift, an aerospace company based in Maine that is developing rockets that are powered by bio-derived fuels.
- The rocket is 20 feet tall and has a mass of roughly 250 kg.
- The rocket can carry a maximum payload mass of 8 kg and during its first launch carried three payloads.
- The payloads included a cubesat prototype built by high-school students, a metal alloy designed to lessen vibrations.
Why such missions are important?
- Such efforts are a part of a growing number of commercial space companies that are working to provide easier and cheaper access to space to laypeople.
- It also makes access to space cost-effective for purposes of academic research, corporate technology development and entrepreneurial ventures among others.
Back2Basics: Biofuel
- Biofuels are obtained from biomass, which can be converted directly into liquid fuels that can be used as transportation fuels.
- The two most common kinds of biofuels in use today are ethanol and biodiesel and they both represent the first generation of biofuel technology.
- Ethanol, for instance, is renewable and made from different kinds of plant materials.
- Biodiesel on the other hand is produced by combining alcohol with new and used vegetable oils, animal fats or recycled cooking grease.
Categories of biofuels
Biofuels are generally classified into three categories. They are
- First-generation biofuels – First-generation biofuels are made from sugar, starch, vegetable oil, or animal fats using conventional technology. Common first-generation biofuels include Bioalcohols, Biodiesel, Vegetable oil, Bioethers, Biogas.
- Second-generation biofuels – These are produced from non-food crops, such as cellulosic biofuels and waste biomass (stalks of wheat and corn, and wood). Examples include advanced biofuels like biohydrogen, bioethanol.
- Third-generation biofuels – These are produced from micro-organisms like algae.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What caused the tilt to Saturn’s rotation axis?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Saturn's tilt
Mains level : NA
The tilt of the rotation axis of the gas giant Saturn may in fact be caused by its moons, space scientists have reported in the journal Nature Astronomy.
About Saturn
- Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and the second-largest in the Solar System, after Jupiter.
- It is a gas giant with an average radius of about nine times that of Earth.
- It only has one-eighth the average density of Earth; however, with its larger volume, Saturn is over 95 times more massive.
Reasons for Saturn’s tilt
- Saturn’s axis interacted with the path of the planet Neptune and gradually tilted until it reached the inclination of 27 degrees observed today.
- This current tilt of Saturn’s rotation axis is caused by the migration of its satellites, and especially by that of its largest moon, Titan.
- Recent observations have shown that Titan and the other moons are gradually moving away from Saturn much faster than astronomers had previously estimated.
- By incorporating this increased migration rate into their calculations, the researchers concluded that this process affects the inclination of Saturn’s rotation axis.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which phenomenon has Venusian winds rotating 60 times faster than the planet below on the dark side?
(a) Super rotation
(b) Monrotation
(c) Dual rotation
(d) Macrrotation
Continuous tilting
- As its satellites move further away, the planet tilts more and more.
- In fact, Saturn’s axis is still tilting, and what we see today is merely a transitional stage in this shift.
- Over the next few billion years, the inclination of Saturn’s axis could more than double.
Why it matters?
- The decisive event that tilted Saturn is thought to have occurred relatively recently.
- For over three billion years after its formation, Saturn’s rotation axis remained only slightly tilted.
- It was only roughly a billion years ago that the gradual motion of its satellites triggered a resonance phenomenon that continues today.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Dark Matter?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Dark Matter
Mains level : Dark Matter, Black Holes
Space scientists from the University of Sussex have found a new way to know more about dark matter. They have narrowed down the range of masses within which particles that could make up dark matter may lie in.
What is the news about?
- Around 95 % of the Universe is unknown to human beings.
- It is often referred to as dark which has nothing to do with the colour of any substance but to do with the unknown nature of cosmic entities known as dark matter and dark energy.
Trending in news these days is the Quantum Technology. (as it used to be until last year were- the Internet of Things (IoT) CSP 2019, Artificial Intelligence (AI) etc.)
Must read all this news in a loop:
What is Dark Matter?
- Dark matter is composed of particles that do not absorb, reflect, or emit light, so they cannot be detected by observing electromagnetic radiation.
- Dark matter is a form of matter thought to account for approximately 85% of the matter in the universe and about a quarter of its total mass-energy density or about 2.241×10−27 kg/m3.
What does the research say?
- Scientists carried out the research using quantum gravity, a field of study that tries to combine two of Einstein’s concepts — quantum physics and general relativity theory of gravity.
- This is the first time anyone has thought of using what we know about quantum gravity to calculate the mass range for dark matter.
- Their research shows that the dark matter particles can neither be super light nor super heavy unless there is a force acting on it that is yet unknown.
Quantum gravity: The concept
- Quantum gravity is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics.
- Quantum mechanics is a fundamental theory in physics which describes nature at the smallest scales of energy levels of atoms and subatomic particles.
- Here quantum effects cannot be ignored, such as in the vicinity of black holes or similar compact astrophysical objects where the effects of gravity are strong, such as neutron stars.
Significance of the findings
- This might help in finding out more about this mysterious force. There are currently four known forces in the Universe — gravitational, electromagnetic, weak and strong.
- Scientists estimate that roughly 68 per cent of the Universe is made up of dark energy which is responsible for the accelerated expansion of the Universe.
- Another 27 per cent is a dark matter whose existence was inferred from the observation that ordinary matter in galaxies, including the Milky Way, is far less than that required by gravity to hold the galaxies together.
Why does the ‘Dark Matter’ matter?
- Dark matter’s gravitational effects are also necessary to explain the motions of clusters of galaxies and the structure of the entire Universe at the largest scale.
- On smaller scales, dark matter is too diffused to impact the motion of the Solar System, Earth or the origin and evolution of humans in any significant way.
- But the nature of that dark matter is still unclear. It is most likely made of particles that do not couple to light because of which humans cannot see them.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s Curiosity Rover celebrates 3000 days on Mars
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Curiosity rover, Martian Day
Mains level : Quest for extraterrestrial life
The Mars rover ‘Curiosity’ has completed 3,000 Martian days.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which region of Mars has a densely packed river deposit indicating this planet had water 3.5 billion years ago?
(a) Aeolis Dorsa
(b) Tharsis
(c) Olympus Mons
(d) Hellas
Curiosity Rover
- Curiosity is an SUV-sized Mars rover designed to explore the Gale crater on Mars as part of NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission
- The main mission of Curiosity was “to search areas of Mars for past or present conditions favourable for life, and conditions capable of preserving a record of life.”
- It has a suite of instruments:
- A gas chromatograph, a mass spectrometer, a tunable laser spectrometer, X-ray diffraction, fluorescence instrument help study the rocks
- The Mars Hand Lens Imager (for close-up pictures) and a Mast Camera (to take photos of the surroundings)
- An instrument named ChemCam to vaporize thin layers of Martian rocks.
- Radiation Assessment Detector to study the radiation environment at the surface of Mars
- Rover Environmental Monitoring Station to measure atmospheric pressure, temperature, humidity, winds, plus ultraviolet radiation levels
- Dynamic Albedo of Neutrons instrument to measure subsurface hydrogen
Back2Basics: Martian Day/ Sol
- Coincidentally, the duration of a Martian day aka ‘Sol’ is within a few per cent of that of an Earth day, which has led to the use of analogous time units.
- A sol is slightly longer than an Earth day. It is approximately 24 hours, 39 minutes, 35 seconds long.
- A Martian year is approximately 668 sols, equivalent to approximately 687 Earth days.
- Mars has an axial tilt and a rotation period similar to those of Earth.
- Thus, it experiences seasons of spring, summer, autumn and winter much like Earth.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Proxima Centauri: the closest star to the Sun
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Proxima Centauri
Mains level : Not Much
Astronomers running the world’s largest initiative to look for alien life have recently picked up an “intriguing” radio wave emission from the direction of Proxima Centauri, the closest star to our Sun.
Proxima Centauri
- Proxima Centauri is 4.2 light-years away from the Sun – considered a close distance in cosmic terms.
- Its mass is about an eighth of the Sun’s, and it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye from Earth.
- Proxima b, one of the two planets that revolve around the star, is the subject of significant curiosity.
- Sized 1.2 times larger than Earth, and orbits its star every 11 days, Proxima b lies in Proxima Centauri’s “Goldilocks zone”.
Goldilocks zone is the area around a star where it is not too hot and not too cold for liquid water to exist on the surface of surrounding planets. To give an example, the Earth is in the Sun’s Goldilocks zone.
The mystery of radio signals
- Astronomers at the Breakthrough Listen project, started by the legendary physicist Stephen Hawking, regularly spot blasts of radio waves using two powerful telescopes.
- They are Parkes Observatory in Australia or the Green Bank Observatory in the US.
- All of their findings so far, though, have been attributed either to natural sources or interference caused by humans.
- This raises the possibility that the emission could be an alien “techno-signature”, meaning something which provides evidence of alien technology.
- There are also reasons to believe that the signal might not mean ‘aliens’.
- Another possibility could be that the signal could have been caused by something behind Proxima Centauri or by a natural phenomenon whose existence we so far do not know of.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Chang’e 5 returns to Earth carrying moon rocks
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Chang E probe
Mains level : Various lunar missions and their success
A Chinese lunar capsule has returned to Earth with the first fresh samples of rock and debris from the moon in more than 40 years.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What do you understand by the term Aitken basin:
(a) It is a desert in the southern Chile which is known to be the only location on earth where no rainfall takes place
(b) It is an impact crater on the far side of the Moon
(c) It is a Pacific coast basin, which is known to house large amounts of oil and gas
(d) It is a deep hyper saline anoxic basin where no aquatic animals are found
Chang’e-5 Probe
- The Chang’e-5 probe, named after the mythical Chinese moon goddess, aims to shovel up lunar rocks and soil to help scientists learn about the moon’s origins, formation and volcanic activity on its surface.
- The goal of the mission is to land in the Mons Rumker region of the moon, where it will operate for one lunar day, which is two weeks long.
- It will collect 2 kg of surface material from a previously unexplored area known as Oceanus Procellarum — or “Ocean of Storms” — which consist of vast lava plain.
- The original mission, planned for 2017, was delayed due to an engine failure in China’s Long March 5 launch rocket.
A big achievement
- The successful mission was the latest breakthrough for China’s increasingly ambitious space programme that includes a robotic mission to Mars and plans for a permanent orbiting space station.
- This return marked China’s third successful lunar landing but the only one to lift off again from the moon.
- It also marked the first time scientists have obtained fresh samples of lunar rocks since the former Soviet Union’s Luna 24 robot probe in 1976.
Significance of the mission
- Rocks found on the Moon are older than any that have been found on Earth and therefore they are valuable in providing information about the Earth and the Moon’s shared history.
- Lunar samples can help to unravel some important questions in lunar science and astronomy, including the Moon’s age, its formation, the similarities and differences between the Earth and the Moon’s geologic features.
- For instance, the shape, size, arrangement and composition of individual grains and crystals in a rock can tell scientists about its history, while the radioactive clock can tell them the rock’s age.
- Further, tiny cracks in rocks can tell them about the radiation history of the Sun in the last 100,000 years.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Surveyor-2 Spacecraft
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Surveyor-2
Mains level : Not Much
NASA has confirmed that the Near-Earth Object called 2020 SO is the rocket booster that helped lift the space agency’s Surveyor spacecraft toward the Moon in 1966.
Try this PYQ:
Consider the following phenomena:
- Size of the sun at dusk
- Colour of the sun at dawn
- Moon being visible at dawn
- Twinkle of stars in the sky
- Polestar being visible in the sky
Which of the above are optical illusions?
(a) 1, 2 and 3
(b) 3, 4 and 5
(c) 1, 2 and 4
(d) 2, 3 and 5
What is Surveyor-2?
- The Surveyor-2 spacecraft was supposed to make a soft landing on the Moon’s surface in September 1966, during which time one of the three thrusters failed to ignite.
- As a result of this the spacecraft started spinning and crashed on the surface.
- The aim of the mission was to reconnoiter the lunar surface ahead of the Apollo missions that led to the first lunar landing in 1969.
- While the spacecraft crashed into the Moon’s surface, the rocket booster disappeared into an unknown orbit around the Sun.
How was the object determined to be the rocket booster?
- Astronomers track asteroids using telescope to determine if there are potentially hazardous asteroids that pose a threat to the planet.
- Therefore, it is also important for them to be able to distinguish between natural and artificial objects that orbit around the Sun.
- The rocket booster has come “somewhat close” to the Earth in the past few decades.
- One approach to the Earth in late 1966 was so close that the object was thought to have originated from Earth.
- In September, the NASA-funded telescope detected it.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Arecibo Radio Telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Arecibo Radio Telescope
Mains level : Not Much
A massive radio telescope at Puerto Rico’s Arecibo Observatory — one of the world’s largest — collapsed on after sustaining severe damage, following 57 years of astronomical discoveries.
Try this PYQ:
Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidence for the continued expansion of the universe?
- Detection of microwaves in space
- Observation of redshirt phenomenon in space
- Movement of asteroids in space
- Occurrence of supernova explosions in space
Codes:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) None of the above can be cited as evidence.
Arecibo Telescope
- The Arecibo Observatory, also known as the National Astronomy and Ionosphere Center (NAIC), was an observatory in Arecibo, Puerto Rico owned by the US National Science Foundation (NSF).
- It was the world’s largest single-aperture telescope for 53 years, surpassed in July 2016 by the Five-hundred-meter Aperture Spherical Telescope (FAST) in China.
- The second-largest single-dish radio telescope in the world, it had withstood many hurricanes and earthquakes since it was first built in 1963.
Its contributions
- Being the most powerful radar, scientists employed Arecibo to observe planets, asteroids and the ionosphere.
- It made several discoveries over the decades, including finding prebiotic molecules in distant galaxies, the first exoplanets, and the first millisecond pulsar.
- In 1967, Arecibo was able to discover that the planet Mercury rotates in 59 days and not 88 days as had been originally thought.
- In the following decades, it also served as a hub in the search for extraterrestrial life, and would look for radio signals from alien civilizations.
- In 1993, scientists Russell Hulse and Joseph Taylor were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on the observatory in monitoring a binary pulsar.
- It provided a strict test of Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity and the first evidence for the existence of gravitational waves.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Australian Square Kilometre Array Pathfinder (ASKAP)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : ASKAP telescope
Mains level : Not Much
A powerful new telescope ASKAP, in Australia has mapped vast areas of the universe in record-breaking time, revealing a million new galaxies and opening the way to new discoveries.
Note all important telescopes in news and their features. Some of them are – Thirty Meter Telescope, Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, Spitzer, Chandra etc.
What is ASKAP?
- ASKAP is a telescope designed over a decade ago and located about 800 km north of Perth.
- It became fully operational in February 2019 and is currently conducting pilot surveys of the sky before it can begin large-scale projects from 2021 onward.
- ASKAP surveys are designed to map the structure and evolution of the Universe, which it does by observing galaxies and the hydrogen gas that they contain.
- One of its most important features is its wide field of view, because of which it has been able to take panoramic pictures of the sky in great detail.
- The telescope uses novel technology developed by CSIRO- the Australian space agency, which is a kind of a “radio camera” to achieve high survey speeds and consists of 36 dish antennas, which are each 12m in diameter.
- The survey team has been able to observe over 83 per cent of the sky visible from ASKAP’s site in Western Australia.
Significance of the results
- The present Rapid ASKAP Continuum Survey (RACS) taken by the ASKAP telescope is like a “Google map” of the Universe.
- Mapping the Universe on such a scale enables astronomers to study the formation of stars and how galaxies and their supermassive black holes evolve and interact with each other.
- Significantly, the images the telescope has taken are on average deeper and have better spatial resolution compared to those taken during other surveys of the sky.
- The aim of the RACS survey is to generate images that will aid future surveys undertaken using the telescope.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Japan’s Hayabusa2 Probe
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Hayabusa2 Probe
Mains level : Not Much
A Japanese spacecraft is nearing Earth after a yearlong journey home from a distant asteroid with soil samples. It is set to land in Australia.
Try this PYQ:
Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidence for the continued expansion of the universe?
- Detection of microwaves in space
- Observation of redshirt phenomenon in space
- Movement of asteroids in space
- Occurrence of supernova explosions in space
Codes:
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1, 3 and 4
(d) None of the above can be cited as evidence.
Hayabusa2 Probe
- Hayabusa2is an asteroid sample-return mission operated by the Japanese space agency, JAXA.
- It follows on from the Hayabusa mission which returned asteroid samples in 2010.
- It was launched on 3 December 2014 and rendezvoused with near-Earth asteroid 162173 Ryugu on 27 June 2018.
- It surveyed the asteroid for a year and a half and took samples. It left the asteroid in November 2019.
- It carries multiple science payloads for remote sensing, sampling, and four small rovers that investigated the asteroid surface to inform the environmental and geological context of the samples collected.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Chang’e-5 Lunar Probe
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Chang E probe
Mains level : Various lunar missions and their success
China is preparing to launch an unmanned spacecraft to bring back lunar rocks, the first attempt by any nation to retrieve samples from the moon in four decades.
Try this PYQ:
Q.What do you understand by the term Aitken basin:
(a) It is a desert in the southern Chile which is known to be the only location on earth where no rainfall takes place
(b) It is an impact crater on the far side of the Moon
(c) It is a Pacific coast basin, which is known to house large amounts of oil and gas
(d) It is a deep hyper saline anoxic basin where no aquatic animals are found
Chang’e-5 Probe
- The Chang’e-5 probe, named after the mythical Chinese moon goddess, aims to shovel up lunar rocks and soil to help scientists learn about the moon’s origins, formation and volcanic activity on its surface.
- The goal of the mission is to land in the Mons Rumker region of the moon, where it will operate for one lunar day, which is two weeks long.
- It will collect 2 kg of surface material from a previously unexplored area known as Oceanus Procellarum — or “Ocean of Storms” — which consist of vast lava plain.
- The original mission, planned for 2017, was delayed due to an engine failure in China’s Long March 5 launch rocket.
- If successful, China will be only the third country to have retrieved samples from the moon, following the U.S. and the Soviet Union in the 1960s and 1970s.
Significance of the mission
- As per the Lunar and Planetary Institute, rocks found on the Moon are older than any that have been found on Earth and therefore they are valuable in providing information about the Earth and the Moon’s shared history.
- Lunar samples can help to unravel some important questions in lunar science and astronomy, including the Moon’s age, its formation, the similarities and differences between the Earth and the Moon’s geologic features.
- For instance, the shape, size, arrangement and composition of individual grains and crystals in a rock can tell scientists about its history, while the radioactive clock can tell them the rock’s age.
- Further, tiny cracks in rocks can tell them about the radiation history of the Sun in the last 100,000 years.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Sentinel-6 Satellite
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Sentinel 6
Mains level : Sea level rise and climate change
The Copernicus Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich satellite, designed to monitor oceans, was launched from the in California.
Try this MCQ:
The Jason Continuity of Service (Jason-CS) Mission recently seen in news is aimed at observing:
(a)Microgravity changes
(b)Sea level rise
(c)Cosmic radiation
(d)Space debris
Sentinel-6 Satellite
- This is a part of the next mission dedicated to measuring changes in the global sea level.
- It has been named after Dr Michael Freilich, who was the Director of NASA’s Earth Science Division from 2006-2019 and passed away in August this year.
What is the mission?
- The mission, called the Jason Continuity of Service (Jason-CS) mission, is designed to measure the height of the ocean, which is a key component in understanding how the Earth’s climate is changing.
- The spacecraft consists of two satellites, the other, called Sentinel-6B, to be launched in 2025.
- It has been developed jointly by the European Space Agency (ESA), NASA, and France’s National Centre for Space Studies (CNES).
What will the satellite do?
- The satellite will ensure the continuity of sea-level observations into the fourth decade and will provide measurements of global sea-level rise.
- Since 1992, high-precision satellite altimeters have helped scientists understand how the ocean stores and distributes heat, water and carbon in the climate system.
- Essentially, the satellite will send pulses to the Earth’s surface and measure how long they take to return to it, which will help scientists measure the sea surface height.
- It will also measure water vapour along this path and find its position using GPS and ground-based lasers.
Significance of the mission
- As per NASA, it is possible to observe the height of the oceans on a global scale and monitor critical changes in ocean currents and heat storage only from space.
- Data from satellites such as Sentinel-6 help scientists foresee the effects of the changing oceans on the climate.
- Further, in order to measure and track changes in the oceanic heat budget, scientists need to know the ocean currents and heat storage of the oceans, which can be determined from the height of the sea surface.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SpaceX-NASA’s Crew-1 Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Crew-1 Mission
Mains level : Manned mission to space
SpaceX’s Crew Dragon spacecraft will lift off carrying a crew of four people to the International Space Station (ISS) on a six-month-long mission.
What is the Crew-1 Mission?
- The mission is part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program, whose objective is to make access to space easier in terms of its cost.
- This will carry four astronauts on NASA missions, maintaining a space station crew of seven to maximize time dedicated to scientific research on the orbiting laboratory.
- With this, the cargo and crew can be easily transported to and from the ISS, enabling greater scientific research.
- At the ISS, the crew will join the members of Expedition 64, the space station crew currently in residence at the ISS.
Mission goals
- The goals of the mission are the same as that of Expedition 1 that lifted off 20 years ago.
- NASA has called both of these ISS missions “historic”.
- At the ISS, the Crew-1 team will join members of Expedition 64 and conduct microgravity studies and deliver new science hardware to ISS.
- Once in orbit, NASA astronauts will collect samples to provide data to scientists back on Earth so that they can continue to study how dietary changes affect his body.
- The crew will also study the effects of dietary improvements on immune function and the gut microbiome and how those improvements can help crews adapt to spaceflight.
The term micro-g environment is more or less synonymous with the terms weightlessness and zero-g, but with an emphasis on the fact that g-forces are never exactly zero—just very small.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Thirty Metre Telescope (TMT)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Thirty Metre Telescope
Mains level : Not Much
With regime change in the US, hopes have been raised for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) in Hawaii. India is one of the partners in the ambitious next-generation observatory project along with the US, Canada, China and Japan.
Try this PYQ:
Q.“Event Horizon” is related to:
(a) Telescope
(b) Black hole
(c) Solar glares
(d) None of the above
Thirty Metre Telescope
- The TMT is a proposed astronomical observatory with an extremely large telescope (ELT) that has become the source of controversy over its planned location on Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii.
- It is being built by an international collaboration of government organisations and educational institutions, at a cost of $1.4 billion.
- “Thirty Metre” refers to the 30-metre diameter of the mirror, with 492 segments of glass pieced together, which makes it three times as wide as the world’s largest existing visible-light telescope.
- The larger the mirror, the more light a telescope can collect, which means, in turn, that it can “see” farther, fainter objects.
- It would be more than 200 times more sensitive than current telescopes and would be able to resolve objects 12 times better than the Hubble Space Telescope.
Utility of the telescope
- One of its key uses will be the study of exoplanets, many of which have been detected in the last few years, and whether their atmospheres contain water vapour or methane — the signatures of possible life.
- For the first time in history, this telescope will be capable of detecting extraterrestrial life.
- The study of black holes is another objective.
- While these have been observed in detail within the Milky Way, the next galaxy is 100 times farther away; the Thirty Metre Telescope will help bring them closer.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
GRACE-FO Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : GRACE FO mission
Mains level : Impact of climate changes on Cryosphere
The GRACE-FO mission has mapped deviation in Earth’s surface mass and spatial variations in the rate of sea-level rise between 1993 and 2018 using altimetric and gravimetric analysis.
Try this MCQ:
Q.NASA’s VIPER mission sometimes seen in news is related to the study of-
a)Moon
b)Venus
c)Sun
d)None of these
GRACE-FO Mission
- The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) mission launched in 2018 is a partnership between NASA and the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ).
- It is a successor to the original GRACE mission, which orbited Earth from 2002-2017.
- It carries on the extremely successful work of its predecessor while testing a new technology designed to dramatically improve the already remarkable precision of its measurement system.
How did NASA measure this?
(1) Altimetric Study
- Altimetry missions are used to know the ocean surface topography — the shape and height of the ocean’s peaks and valleys.
- Radar altimeters continually send out pulses of radio waves (microwaves) that bounce off the surface of the ocean and reflect back toward the satellite.
- The instrument calculates the time it takes for the signal to return, while also tracking the precise location of the satellite in space. From this, scientists can derive the height of the sea surface directly underneath the satellite.
(2) Gravimetric Study
- Gravimetry is a process of using ice’s gravitational pull on a pair of satellites. It helps estimate ice loss and its contribution to sea-level rise.
- The twin satellites in each mission detect subtle shifts in Earth’s gravity field.
- The strength of gravitational forces is determined by mass, so changes in Earth’s gravity field indicate a change or redistribution in mass.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is a Fast Radio Burst (FRB)?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Fast Radio Burst (FRB)
Mains level : Hunt for extra-terrestrial life
NASA has reported that it observed a mix of X-ray and radio signals never observed before in the Milky Way.
Such news makes us think about alien and extraterrestrial life at the first. Do not get carried away with such thoughts. Its simply a space based phenomena.
What is an FRB?
- The first FRB was discovered in 2007, since when scientists have been working towards finding the source of their origin.
- Essentially, FRBs are bright bursts of radio waves (radio waves can be produced by astronomical objects with changing magnetic fields).
- Its durations lie in the millisecond-scale, because of which it is difficult to detect them and determine their position in the sky.
Who discovered it?
- The X-ray portion of the simultaneous bursts was detected by several satellites, including NASA’s Wind mission.
- Further, a NASA-funded project called Survey for Transient Astronomical Radio Emission 2 (STARE2) also detected the radio burst.
Why are they significant?
- First noticed in 2018 by the Canadian observatory the waves have created ripples across the globe for one reason — they arrive in a pattern.
- This gave birth to theories that they could be from an alien civilization.
- Initially, it was believed that the collision of black holes or neutron stars triggers them.
- But the discovery of repeating FRBs debunked the theory of colliding objects.
What is the origin of the FRB detected in April?
- The source of the FRB detected in April in the Milky Way is a very powerful magnetic neutron star, referred to as a magnetar.
- Magnetar is located in the constellation Vulpecula and is estimated to be between 14,000-41,000 light-years away.
- The FRB was part of one of the magnetar’s most prolific flare-ups, with the X-ray bursts lasting less than a second.
What is a magnetar?
- A magnetar is a neutron star, “the crushed, city-size remains of a star many times more massive than our Sun.”
- The magnetic field of such a star is very powerful, which can be over 10 trillion times stronger than a refrigerator magnet and up to a thousand times stronger than typical neutron stars.
- Neutron stars are formed when the core of a massive star undergoes gravitational collapse when it reaches the end of its life.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Asteroid 16 Psyche
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Asteroids, Bennu, Psyche
Mains level : Not Much
A recent study has found that asteroid 16 Psyche, which orbits between Mars and Jupiter, could be made entirely of metal and is worth an estimated $10,000 quadrillion.
A NASA mission has recently landed on and collected samples from an asteroid. Do you remember that? Yes. Its the Asteroid Bennu
16 Psyche
- Located around 370 million km away from Earth, asteroid 16 Psyche is one of the most massive objects in the asteroid belt in our solar system.
- The somewhat potato-shaped asteroid has a diameter of around 140 miles.
- It was first discovered on March 17, 1853, by the Italian astronomer Annibale de Gasparis and was named after the ancient Greek goddess of the soul, Psyche.
- Unlike most asteroids that are made up of rocks or ice, scientists believe that Psyche is a dense and largely metallic object thought to be the core of an earlier planet that failed in formation.
- Its surface may mostly comprise iron and nickel, similar to the Earth’s core, according to a study.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Water on the Moon
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Artemis, SOPHIA, VIPER
Mains level : Study of water on moon
The Moon has water at places where none had been detected before and has potentially more water than previously believed in regions where it was already understood to exist.
Try this MCQ:
Q.NASA’s VIPER mission sometimes seen in news is related to the study of-
a)Moon
b)Venus
c)Sun
d)None of these
Water on the moon
- In two separate studies in Nature Astronomy, scientists have reported findings with potentially huge implications for sustaining humans on the Moon in the future.
- One study reports the detection of water on the Moon’s sunlit surface for the first time.
- The other estimates that the Moon’s dark, shadowy regions, which potentially contain ice, are more widespread than thought.
Why is the discovery of water important?
- Apart from being a marker of potential life, water is a precious resource in deep space.
- For astronauts landing on the Moon, water is necessary not only to sustain life but also for purposes such as generating rocket fuel.
- NASA’s Artemis programme plans to send the first woman and the next man to the Moon in 2024 and hopes to establish a “sustainable human presence” there by the end of the decade.
What was known about water on the Moon?
- Previous Moon studies, including by the ISRO Chandrayaan-1 mission, have provided evidence for the existence of water.
- In 2009, the Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) instrument aboard Chandrayaan-1 found water molecules in the Polar Regions.
What is different in the new discovery?
- This time, it is confirmed H20 molecules, discovered in Clavius Crater in the Moon’s southern hemisphere.
- And it is the first time water has been detected on the sunlit side, showing it is not restricted to the shadowy regions.
- SOFIA, which is a modified Boeing 747SP jetliner that flies at altitudes up to 45,000 feet, has an infrared camera that picked up the wavelength unique to water molecules.
- The data showed water in concentrations of 100-412 parts per million trapped in 1 cubic metre of soil.
How could the water have formed?
- Space rocks carrying small amounts of water could have bombarded the Moon.
- Alternatively, the Sun’s solar wind could have carried hydrogen, which then reacted with minerals in the lunar soil to create hydroxyl, which later transformed into water.
- The sunlit surface retaining the water presents a puzzle since the Moon does not have a thick atmosphere.
- One possibility is that the water gets trapped into tiny bead-like structures that were created in the soil by impacts from space rocks.
- Alternatively, the water could be hidden between grains of lunar soil and sheltered from the sunlight, NASA said.
So, how widespread is water on the Moon?
- On the sunlit side, it is not yet known whether the water SOFIA found is easily accessible.
- On the other hand, the hidden, shadowy pockets on the lunar surface called “cold traps” are spread across a combined 40,000 sq km, the other study has reported.
- The cold traps have gone without sunlight for potentially billions of years. If they do contain ice, it means water is going to be more accessible than previously assumed.
What next?
- SOFIA will look for water in additional sunlit locations to learn more about how the water is produced, stored, and moved across the Moon.
- Meanwhile, NASA’s Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover (VIPER) will carry out a mission to create the first water resource maps of the Moon.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s OSIRIS-REx lands on Asteroid Bennu
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Asteroids, Bennu
Mains level : NASA's feat of landing on an asteroid
NASA’s OSIRIS-REx spacecraft briefly touched asteroid Bennu, from where it is meant to collect samples of dust and pebbles and deliver them back to Earth in 2023.
The OSIRIS-REx mission
- OSIRIS-REx stands for Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security, Regolith Explorer. This is NASA’s first mission meant to return a sample from the ancient asteroid.
- The mission is essentially a seven-year-long voyage and will conclude when at least 60 grams of samples are delivered back to the Earth.
- As per NASA, the mission promises to bring the largest amount of extraterrestrial material back to our planet since the Apollo era.
- The mission was launched in 2016, it reached its target in 2018 and since then, the spacecraft has been trying to match the velocity of the asteroid using small rocket thrusters to rendezvous it.
- This week, the spacecraft’s robotic arm called the Touch-And-Go Sample Acquisition Mechanism (TAGSAM), made an attempt to “TAG” the asteroid and collected a sample.
About Bennu
- Bennu is a B-type asteroid, implying that it contains significant amounts of carbon and various other minerals.
- It was discovered by a team from the NASA-funded Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research team in 1999.
- Because of its high carbon content, the asteroid reflects about four per cent of the light that hits it, which is very low when compared with a planet like Venus, which reflects about 65 per cent of the light. Earth reflects about 30 per cent.
- Around 20-40 per cent of Bennu’s interior is empty space and scientists believe that it was formed in the first 10 million years of the solar system’s formation, implying that it is roughly 4.5 billion years old.
Why are scientists studying asteroid Bennu?
- Bennu is an asteroid about as tall as the Empire State Building and located at a distance of about 200 million miles away from the Earth.
- Scientists study asteroids to look for information about the formation and history of planets and the sun since asteroids were formed at the same time as other objects in the solar system.
- Another reason for tracking them is to look for asteroids that might be potentially hazardous. It is also relatively close to the Earth.
- It is for these reasons that scientists are interested in gathering information about this particular asteroid.
- Significantly, Bennu hasn’t undergone drastic changes since its formation over billions of years ago and therefore it contains chemicals and rocks dating back to the birth of the solar system.
How do chemicals and rocks offer scientists clues about the solar system?
- Because of Bennu’s age, it is likely to contain material that contains molecules that were present when life first formed on Earth, where life forms are based on carbon atom chains.
- Even so organic material like the kind scientists hope to find in a sample from Bennu doesn’t necessarily always come from biology.
- It would, though, further scientists’ search to uncover the role asteroids rich in organics played in catalyzing life on Earth.
Back2Basics: Asteroid
- Asteroids are rocky objects that orbit the Sun, much smaller than planets. They are also called minor planets.
- According to NASA, 994,383 is the count of known asteroids, the remnants from the formation of the solar system over 4.6 billion years ago.
- Asteroids are divided into three classes. First, those found in the main asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter, which is estimated to contain somewhere between 1.1-1.9 million asteroids.
- The second group is that of Trojans, which are asteroids that share an orbit with a larger planet.
- The third classification is Near-Earth Asteroids (NEA), which have orbits that pass close by the Earth. Those that cross the Earth’s orbit are called Earth-crossers.
- More than 10,000 such asteroids are known, out of which over 1,400 are classified as potentially hazardous asteroids (PHAs).
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Mars ‘Opposition’ Event
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Opposition event
Mains level : Not Much
Due to an event referred to as “opposition”, which takes place every two years and two months, Mars will shine the brightest.
Try this question from CSP 2017:
Q.Which region of Mars has a densely packed river deposit indicating this planet had water 3.5 billion years ago?
(a) Aeolis Dorsa (b) Tharsis (c) Olympus Mons (d) Hellas
What is the Opposition Event?
- ‘Opposition’ is the event when the sun, Earth and an outer planet (Mars in this case) are lined up, with the Earth in the middle.
- The time of opposition is the point when the outer planet is typically also at its closest distance to the Earth for a given year, and because it is close, the planet appears brighter in the sky.
- An opposition can occur anywhere along Mars’ orbit, but when it happens when the planet is also closest to the sun, it is also particularly close to the Earth.
- It will outshine Jupiter, becoming the third brightest object (moon and Venus are first and second, respectively) in the night sky during the month of October.
When does opposition happen?
- Earth and Mars orbit the sun at different distances (Mars is farther apart from the sun than Earth and therefore takes longer to complete one lap around the sun).
- In fact, the opposition can happen only for planets that are farther away from the sun than the Earth.
- In the case of Mars, roughly every two years, the Earth passes between sun and Mars, this is when the three are arranged in a straight line.
- Further, as the Earth and Mars orbit the sun, there comes a point when they are on the opposite sides of it, and hence very far apart. At its farthest, Mars is about 400 million km from the Earth.
- In case of opposition, however, Mars and Sun are on directly opposite sides of the Earth. In other words, the Earth, sun and Mars all lie in a straight line, with the Earth in the middle.
Logic behind the name
- As per NASA, from an individual’s perspective on the Earth, Mars rises in the east and after staying up all night, it sets in the west just as the sun rises in the east and sets in the west.
- Because from the perspective on Earth, the sun and Mars appear to be on the opposite sides of the sky, Mars is said to be in “opposition”.
- Essentially, the opposition is a reference to “opposing the sun” in the sky.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s Sonification Project
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Data Sonification
Mains level : Data Sonification and its applications
While telescopes offer glimpses of outer space by translating digital data into stunning images, NASA’s Chandra X-Ray Center (CXC) has gone a step further by unveiling a new ‘sonification’ project that transforms data from astronomical images into audio.
Don’t get confused with the ‘Chandra‘ considering it as an ISRO Project.
What is the project?
- Users can now ‘listen’ to images of the Galactic Centre, the remains of a supernova called Cassiopeia A, as well as the Pillars of Creation Nebula, which are all located in a region around 26,000 light-years away from Earth.
- The data has been collected by NASA’s Chandra X-Ray Observatory, Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope — each of which is represented by a different musical ‘instrument’.
What is data sonification?
- Data sonification refers to the use of sound values to represent real data. Simply put, it is the auditory version of data visualization.
- In NASA’s recent Chandra project, for instance, data is represented using a number of musical notes.
- With this data sonification project, users can now experience different phenomena captured in astronomical images as an aural experience.
- The birth of a star, a cloud of dust or even a black hole can now be ‘heard’ as a high or low pitched sound.
How did NASA translate astronomical images into sound?
- NASA’s distant telescopes in space collect inherently digital data, in the form of ones and zeroes, before converting them into images.
- The images are essentially visual representations of light and radiation of different wavelengths in space, that can’t be seen by the human eye.
- The Chandra project has created a celestial concert of sorts by translating the same data into sound. Pitch and volume are used to denote the brightness and position of a celestial object or phenomenon.
- So far, the astronomers behind Project Chandra have released three examples made using data collected from some of the most distinct features in the sky — the Galactic Centre, Cassiopeia A, and Pillars of Creation Nebula.
(1) The Galactic Centre
- The first example is that of the Galactic Centre, which the rotational centre of the Milky Way galaxy is.
- It comprises a collection of celestial objects — neutron and white dwarf stars, clouds of dust and gas, and most notably, a supermassive black hole called Sagittarius A*, that weighs four million times the mass of the sun.
- Based on data gathered by the Chandra X-ray Observatory, and the Hubble and Spitzer Space Telescopes, an image is rendered using X-ray, visible and infrared light before being translated into sound.
- The translation begins on the left side of the image and then moves to the right.
- Stars and other compact sources are represented using individual short notes, while a longer humming sound is used to denote clouds of gas and dust.
(2) Cassiopeia A
- Located around 11,000 light-years away from Earth in the northern Cassiopeia constellation, Cassiopeia A is one of the most well-known remnants of a once-massive star that was destroyed by a supernova explosion around 325 years ago.
- The image shows the supernova remnant as a ball of different coloured filaments.
- Each colour represents a particular element — red is used for silicon, yellow for sulfur, purple denotes iron, while green is used for calcium. Each of these filaments is also assigned its own unique sound.
- Unlike with the sonification of the Galactic Centre, where the translation plays from left to right, here the sounds move outwards from the centre of the circular structure.
(3) The Pillars of Creation
- The iconic Pillars of Creation is located in the centre of the Eagle Nebula, which is also known as Messier 16.
- The Hubble Star Telescope was used for images of the celestial structure, which comprises wispy towers of cosmic dust and gas.
- Here too, different colours are used to represent elements — blue for oxygen, red for sulphur and green for both nitrogen and hydrogen.
- Like with the Galactic Centre, this sound translation also plays from left to right. However, the sound has an eerie effect, with sharp whistles representing stars and low howls indicating the presence of gas clouds.
Significance of the project
- The sonification project aims to “incorporate NASA science content into the learning environment effectively and efficiently for learners of all ages”.
- Over the years, NASA has been working towards making data about space accessible for a larger audience.
- The projects like this allow audiences — including visually-impaired communities — to experience space through data.
Back2Basics: Chandra X-Ray Observatory
- The Chandra X-ray Observatory (CXO) is a Flagship-class space telescope launched aboard the Space Shuttle Columbia during STS-93 by NASA on July 23, 1999.
- Chandra is sensitive to X-ray sources 100 times fainter than any previous X-ray telescope, enabled by the high angular resolution of its mirrors.
- Since the Earth’s atmosphere absorbs the vast majority of X-rays, they are not detectable from Earth-based telescopes; therefore space-based telescopes are required to make these observations.
- Chandra is an Earth satellite in a 64-hour orbit, and its mission is ongoing as of 2020.
- The telescope is named after the Nobel Prize-winning Indian astrophysicist Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Explained: Solar Cycle 25
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Solar Cycle, solar maxima and minima
Mains level : Solar Cycle and its impact
NASA and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has announced the commencement of solar cycle 25.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Which one of the following reflects back more sunlight as compared to the other three?
(a) Sand desert
(b) Paddy cropland
(c) Land covered with fresh snow
(d) Prairie land
What is the Solar Cycle?
- Like seasons on Earth, the Sun follows a cycle of 11 years, during which solar activities fluctuate between solar minima and maxima.
- Depending on the number of sunspots detected on the Sun, scientists term it is as solar maxima (highest number of sunspots) or solar minima (lowest number of sunspots).
- Sunspots are small and dark, yet cooler areas formed on the solar surface, where there are strong magnetic forces.
- They start appearing at Sun’s higher latitudes and later shift towards the equator as a cycle progresses.
- In short, when the Sun is active, there are more sunspots in comparison to fewer sunspots during the lesser active phase.
- Maxima or minima is not a specific time in the 11-year cycle but is a period that can last for a few years.
How are solar cycles determined?
- One of the important elements researchers look out for on the Sun’s surface is the number of sunspots.
- A new cycle commences when the Sun has reached its lowest possible minima phase.
- Every time the cycle changes, the Sun’s magnetic poles reverse.
Monitoring solar cycles
- Since the Sun is a highly variable star, data of sunspot formation and its progress need close monitoring.
- Data of six to eight months are required to confirm whether the star has undergone a minima phase.
- Traditionally, telescopes were used to record sunspots and recorded data since 1755 is available.
- With the advance in technology in recent decades, satellites are also used to make real-time sunspot observations.
- On this basis, scientists announced the completion of solar cycle 24, which lasted between December 2008 and December 2019.
- With the Sun’s activities having reached its lowest minima between the two cycles, the new solar cycle 25 has now commenced.
How has the transition between solar cycles 24 and 25 been?
- The Sun’s activities were notably lesser during 2019 and early 2020. There were no sunspots for 281 days in 2019 and 181 days in 2020.
- Since December 2019, the solar activities have slowly picked up, corroborating the beginning of the news cycle.
- The panel termed solar cycle 25 to be a weak one, with the intensity similar to that of Solar cycle 24.
What solar activities affect us on Earth?
- Solar activities include solar flares, solar energetic particles, high-speed solar wind and Coronal Mass Ejections (CME).
- These influence the space weather which originates from the Sun.
- Solar storms or flares can typically affect space-dependent operations like GPS, radio and satellite communications, besides hampering flight operations, power grids and space exploration programmes.
- CMEs pose danger to space weather. Ejections travelling at a speed of 500km/second are common during solar peaks and create disturbances in Earth’s magnetosphere, the protective shield surrounding the planet.
- At the time of spacewalks, astronauts face a great health risk posed by exposure to solar radiation outside Earth’s protective atmosphere.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Life signature on Venus
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Phosphine, Venus
Mains level : Quest for extraterrestrial life
Scientists have detected in the harshly acidic clouds of Venus a gas called phosphine that indicates microbes may inhabit Earth’s inhospitable neighbour, a sign of potential life beyond Earth.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which phenomenon has Venusian winds rotating 60 times faster than the planet below on the dark side?
(a) Super rotation
(b) Monrotation
(c) Dual rotation
(d) Macrrotation
Phosphine
- Phosphine – a phosphorus atom with three hydrogen atoms attached – is highly toxic to people.
- It is known to be produced only through a biological process, and not through any naturally occurring chemical process.
- Phosphine was seen at 20 parts-per-billion in the Venusian atmosphere, a trace concentration.
- Researchers examined potential non-biological sources such as volcanism, meteorites, lightning and various types of chemical reactions, but none appeared viable.
- There are some other ways in which this chemical might be produced, for example, in the underbelly of volcanoes or meteorite activity, but that would have shown in much lower concentrations.
Why study Venus?
- Venus is Earth’s closest planetary neighbour. Similar in structure but slightly smaller than Earth, it is the second planet from the sun. Earth is the third.
- Venus is wrapped in a thick, toxic atmosphere that traps in heat. Surface temperatures reach a scorching 880 degrees Fahrenheit (471 degrees Celsius), hot enough to melt lead.
- Existence of phosphine is the most credible evidence yet for the possibility of life away from Earth.
Hosting life on Venus
- There are several things that we know about Venus that make life, as we know it, unsustainable on that planet.
- The temperature of Venus is too high, and its atmosphere is highly acidic, just two of the things that would make life impossible.
- It is too early to consider this as evidence for extraterrestrial life.
Paving way for future mission
- Missions to Venus are not new. The finding can further ignite interest in space missions to Venus.
- Spacecraft have been going near the planet since the 1960s, and some of them have even made a landing.
- In fact, the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) is also planning a mission to Venus, tentatively called Shukrayaan, in the near future.
- As of now, the plan is still on the drawing board. All future missions to Venus would now be attuned to investigating further evidence of the presence of life.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Dwarf Planet Ceres
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Ceres and other dwarf planets
Mains level : Not Much
The dwarf planet Ceres, which lies in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter now, has the status of an “ocean world”.
Note various dwarf planets and the criteria making a planet dwarf, as mentioned in the B2b section.
Ceres exploration
- The dwarf planet was first spotted by Giuseppe Piazzi in 1801, who assumed that Ceres was the missing planet between Mars and Jupiter.
- It was classified as a dwarf planet in 2006 and is the first dwarf planet to be orbited by a spacecraft.
- In 2015, NASA’s Dawn reached it to study its surface, composition and history.
What does it mean to be an “ocean world”?
- With a crust that mixes ice, salts, rock-forming minerals and other materials, Ceres looks to be a remnant “ocean world,” wearing the chemistry of its Old Ocean and records of the interaction on its surface.
- The observations from Dawn suggest the presence of briny liquid (saltwater) water under Ceres’s surface.
- Scientists have determined that Ceres has a brine reservoir located about 40 km deep and which is hundreds of miles wide, making the dwarf planet, “water-rich”.
Why do researchers study Ceres?
- Scientists are interested in this dwarf planet because it hosts the possibility of having water, something that many other planets do not have.
- Therefore, scientists look for signs of life on Ceres, a possibility that has also maintained scientists’ interest in the planet Mars, whose atmosphere was once warm enough to allow water to flow through it.
- Another reason why scientists are interested in that studying it can give insights about the formation of the Solar System since it is considered to be a fossil from that time.
Back2Basics: Dwarf Planets
- As of today, there are officially five dwarf planets in our Solar System.
- The most famous is Pluto, downgraded from the status of a planet in 2006.
- The other four, in order of size, are Eris, Makemake, Haumea and Ceres. The sixth claimant for a dwarf planet is Hygiea, which so far has been taken to be an asteroid.
- These four criteria are – that the body orbits around the Sun, it is not a moon, has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit and has enough mass for its gravity to pull it into a roughly spherical shape.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SPT0418-47: The Baby Milky Way
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Galaxies, Milky Way
Mains level : Not Much
SPT0418-47, a golden halo glinting 12 billion light-years away is the farthest galaxy resembling our Milky Way was recently spotted by astronomers.
Try this PYQ:
Which of the statements about black holes in space is/are correct? (CSP 2016)
- It is a region in space where the pulling force of gravity is so strong that light is not able to escape.
- It can result from the dying stars.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither 1 nor 2
SPT0418-47
- The galaxy, called SPT0418-47, is so far away that it took billions of years for its light to reach Earth and so our image of it is from deep in the past.
- It was picked up by the powerful Alma radio telescope in Chile using a technique called gravitational lensing, where a nearby galaxy acts as a powerful magnifying glass.
- This was when the Universe was 1.4 billion years old — just 10% of its current age — and galaxies were still forming.
- It has features similar to our Milky Way — a rotating disc and a bulge, which is the high density of stars packed tightly around the galactic centre.
What makes it special?
- This is the first time a bulge has been seen this early in the history of the Universe, making SPT0418-47 the most distant Milky Way look-alike.
- Thus the infant star system challenges our understanding of the early years of the Universe.
- Researchers expect these young star systems to be chaotic and without the distinct structures typical of mature galaxies like our Galaxy.
- This unexpected discovery suggests the early Universe may not be as chaotic as once believed and raises many questions on how a well-ordered galaxy could have formed so soon after the Big Bang.
Back2Basics: Milky Way
- The Milky Way is the galaxy that contains our Solar System, with the name describing the galaxy’s appearance from Earth.
- It appears like a hazy band of light seen in the night sky formed from stars that cannot be individually distinguished by the naked eye.
- From Earth, the Milky Way appears as a band because its disk-shaped structure is viewed from within.
- Galileo Galilei first resolved the band of light into individual stars with his telescope in 1610.
- Until the early 1920s, most astronomers thought that the Milky Way contained all the stars in the Universe.
- Following the 1920 Great Debate between the astronomers Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, observations by Edwin Hubble showed that the Milky Way is just one of many galaxies.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Magnetoseismology of Sun’s Corona
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : MHG, CoMP, Corona
Mains level : Study of solar atmosphere
A group of researchers has measured the global magnetic field of the Sun’s corona for the very first time.
Try this PYQ:
The terms ‘Event Horizon’, ‘Singularity’, `String Theory’ and ‘Standard Model’ are sometimes seen in the news in the context of (CSP 2017)-
(a) Observation and understanding of the Universe
(b) Study of the solar and the lunar eclipses
(c) Placing satellites in the orbit of the Earth
(d) Origin and evolution of living organisms on the Earth
Basis of the research
- The properties of waves depend on the medium in which they travel.
- By measuring certain wave properties and doing a reverse calculation, some of the properties of the medium through which they have travelled can be obtained.
- Waves can be longitudinal waves (for example, sound waves) or transverse waves (for example, ripples on a lake surface).
- The waves that propagate through magnetic plasma are called magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves.
- From the theoretical calculation, it can be shown that the properties of the transverse MHD wave are directly related to the strength of magnetic fields and the density of the corona.
How was the Magnetic Field measured?
- The team used a technique known as coronal seismology or magnetoseismology to measure the coronal magnetic field which has been known for a few decades.
- This method requires the measurement of the properties of magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) waves and the density of the corona simultaneously.
- In the past, these techniques were occasionally used in small regions of the corona, or some coronal loops due to limitations of our instruments/and proper data analysis techniques.
The CoMP instrument
- The team used the improved measurements of the Coronal Multi-channel Polarimeter (CoMP) and advanced data analysis to measure the coronal magnetic field.
- CoMP is an instrument operated by High Altitude Observatory, of the U.S.
- It is located at Mauna Loa Solar Observatory, near the summit of that volcano on the big island of Hawaii.
Why measure the solar magnetic field?
- It is very important to measure the corneal magnetic fields regularly since the solar corona is highly dynamic and varies within seconds to a minute time scale. There are two main puzzles about the Sun which this advancement will help address:
(1) Coronal heating problem
- Though the core of the Sun is at a temperature of about 15 million degrees, its outer layer, the photosphere is a mere 5700 degrees hot.
- However, its corona or outer atmosphere, which stretches up to several million kilometres beyond its surface, is much, much hotter than the surface.
- It is at a temperature of one million degrees or more.
- What causes the atmosphere of the Sun (corona) to heat up again, though the surface (photosphere) is cooler than the interior? That is the question which has baffled solar physicists.
- Popular attempts to explain this puzzle invoke the magnetic field of the corona. Hence the present work will help understand and verify these theories better.
(2) Mechanisms of eruptions of the Sun
- The eruptions on the Sun include solar flares and coronal mass ejections.
- These are driven by magnetic reconnections happening in the Sun’s corona.
- Magnetic reconnection is a process where oppositely polarity magnetic field lines connect and some of the magnetic energy is converted to heat energy and also kinetic energy which leads to the generation of heating, solar flares, solar jets, etc.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SN5 Starship by SpaceX
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : SN5 Starship
Mains level : Commercial crew programme by SpaceX
SpaceX has successfully test-launched its “Mars ship”, a stainless steel test vehicle called SN5, and which is a part of the Starship spacecraft.
Elon Musk’s aerospace company has been putting continuous wins on the board ever since it became the first privately funded group to put a payload in Earth orbit.
What is Starship?
- Designed by SpaceX, Starship is a spacecraft and super-heavy booster rocket meant to act as a reusable transportation system for crew and cargo to the Earth’s orbit, Moon and Mars.
- SpaceX has described Starship as “the world’s most powerful launch vehicle” with an ability to carry over 100 metric tonnes to the Earth’s orbit.
- Starship has been under development since 2012 and is a part of Space X’s central mission to make interplanetary travel accessible and affordable and to become the first private company to do so.
So what all can Starship do?
- SpaceX is planning its first cargo mission to the red planet by 2022 and by 2024, the company wants to fly four ships including two cargo and two crewed ones to Mars.
- Once functional, the Starship spacecraft will enter Mars’ atmosphere at a speed of 7.5 km per second and will be designed to withstand multiple entries.
- Starship is also expected to help carry large amounts of cargo to the Moon, for human spaceflight development and research.
- Beyond the Moon, the spacecraft is being designed for carrying crew and cargo for interplanetary missions as well.
A quest for reusability
- Therefore, the company is working on building a fleet of reusable launch vehicles, capable of carrying humans to Mars and other destinations in the solar system.
- Reusability is at the heart of making interplanetary travel accessible.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SpaceX’s Crew Dragon capsule ‘Endeavour’
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Demo 2 Mission
Mains level : Commercial space flights
Two NASA astronauts returned to Earth from the International Space Station (ISS) in a dramatic, retro-style splashdown, their capsule parachuting into the Gulf of Mexico to finish an unprecedented test flight.
We can get a match the pair type question in prelims asking various space missions and their purposes. Make note of similar space missions from here.
Crew Dragon
- Crew Dragon is a part of the Dragon 2, a class of reusable spacecraft developed and manufactured by American aerospace manufacturer SpaceX.
- It is the fifth class of US spacecraft to take human beings into orbit, after the Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Space Shuttle programs.
- The rocket, named Falcon 9, which carried the spaceship into the orbit, was also built by SpaceX.
- It is done under the Demo-2 Mission of NASA and SpaceX.
Demo-2: What is the mission?
- The Demo-2 mission is part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program with the aim of developing reliable and cost-effective access to and from the ISS.
- Essentially, the lift-off is a flight test to certify if SpaceX’s crew transportation system can be used to ferry crew to and from the space station regularly.
What makes it a special event?
- It was the first splashdown by U.S. astronauts in 45 years, with the first commercially built and operated spacecraft to carry people to and from orbit.
- The last time NASA astronauts returned from space to water was on July 24, 1975, in the Pacific to end a joint U.S.-Soviet mission known as Apollo-Soyuz.
- The return clears the way for possible tourist flights in the near future.
Back2Basics: SpaceX
- Space Exploration Technologies Corp., trading as SpaceX, is a private American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation Services Company headquartered in Hawthorne, California.
- It was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs to enable the colonization of Mars.
- It has developed several launch vehicles and the Dragon spacecraft.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is Interplanetary Contamination?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Interplanetary Contamination
Mains level : Interplanetary Contamination
As ambitious space missions are proliferating, along with advances in commercial space flight, astrobiologists have expressed concerns about possible ‘interplanetary contamination’.
A statements based question can be expected from the two types of interplanetary contamination.
What is Interplanetary Contamination?
- Interplanetary contamination refers to biological contamination of a planetary body by a space probe or spacecraft, either deliberate or unintentional.
- There are two types of interplanetary contamination:
- Forward contamination is the transfer of life and other forms of contamination from Earth to another celestial body.
- Back contamination is the introduction of extraterrestrial organisms and other forms of contamination into Earth’s biosphere. It also covers infection of humans and human habitats in space and on other celestial bodies by extraterrestrial organisms, if such habitats exist.
- The main focus is on microbial life and on potentially invasive species.
- Non-biological forms of contamination have also been considered, including contamination of sensitive deposits (such as lunar polar ice deposits) of scientific interest.
Are there any mechanisms to prevent such contaminations?
- Current space missions are governed by the Outer Space Treaty and the COSPAR (Committee on Space Research) guidelines for planetary protection.
- Forward contamination is prevented primarily by sterilizing the spacecraft.
- According to NASA, the guidelines have had far-reaching implications on human spacecraft design, operational procedures, and overall mission structure.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
[pib] Asteroid 2020 ND
NASA has issued a warning that a huge “Asteroid 2020 ND” will move past Earth on July 24.
Try this question from CSP 2014:
Q.What is a coma, in the content of astronomy?
(a) Bright half of material on the comet
(b) Long tail of dust
(c) Two asteroids orbiting each other
(d) Two planets orbiting each other
What are Asteroids?
- Asteroids are small, rocky objects that orbit the Sun. They are leftover from the formation of our solar system.
- Although asteroids orbit the Sun like planets, they are much smaller than planets.
- There are lots of asteroids in our solar system. Most of them live in the main asteroid belt—a region between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
- Some asteroids go in front of and behind Jupiter. They are called Trojans.
- Asteroids that come close to Earth are called Near-Earth Objects, NEOs for short. NASA keeps a close watch on these asteroids.
Asteroid 2020 ND
- The 2020 ND is about 170 metres-long.
- It will be as close as 0.034 astronomical units (5,086,328 kilometres) to our planet and is travelling at a speed of 48,000 kilometres per hour.
- Its distance from Earth has placed it in the “Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs)” category.
How are PHAs defined?
- PHAs are currently defined based on parameters that measure the asteroid’s potential to make threatening close approaches to the Earth.
- NASA classifies objects like these as ‘near-Earth objects’ (NEOs) as they get nudged by other planets’ gravitational attraction resulting in their proximity to our solar system.
- It is not necessary that asteroids classified as PHAs will impact the Earth. It only means there is a possibility for such a threat.
Can they be deflected?
- Over the years, scientists have suggested different ways to ward off such threats, such as blowing up the asteroid before it reaches Earth or deflecting it off its Earth-bound course by hitting it with a spacecraft.
- The most drastic measure undertaken so far is the Asteroid Impact and Deflection Assessment (AIDA), which includes NASA’s Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) mission and the ESA’s Hera.
- Both mission’s target is Didymos, a binary near-Earth asteroid, one of whose bodies is of the size that could pose the most likely significant threat to Earth.
- In 2018, NASA announced that it had started the construction of DART, which is scheduled to launch in 2021 with an aim to slam into the smaller asteroid of the Didymos system at around 6 km per second in 2022.
- Hera, which is scheduled to launch in 2024, will arrive at the Didymos system in 2027 to measure the impact crater produced by the DART collision and study the change in the asteroid’s orbital trajectory.
Back2Basics: Near-Earth objects (NEOs)
- NEOs are comets and asteroids nudged by the gravitational attraction of nearby planets into orbits which allows them to enter the Earth’s neighbourhood.
- These objects are composed mostly of water ice with embedded dust particles, and occasionally approach close to the Earth as they orbit the Sun.
- NASA’s Center for Near-Earth Object Study (CNEOS) determines the times and distances of these objects as and when their approach to the Earth is close.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Hope: UAE’s first mission to Mars
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Hope Mission
Mains level : Quest for Mars and its possibility to host life
The launch of the United Arab Emirates’ (UAE) first mission to Mars has been delayed by two days due to bad weather conditions which were scheduled to take off from its launch site, Tanegashima Space Center, in Japan.
Try this question from CSP 2014:
Q.Which of the following pair is/are correctly matched?
Spacecraft Purpose 1. Cassini-Huygens Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth 2. Messenger Mapping and investigating the Mercury 3. Voyager 1 and 2 Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Hope Mission
- The Emirates Mars Mission called “Hope” was announced in 2015 with the aim of creating mankind’s first integrated model of the Red planet’s atmosphere.
- Hope weighs over 1500 kg and will carry scientific instruments mounted on one side of the spacecraft, including the Emirates exploration Imager (EXI), which is a high-resolution camera among others.
- The spacecraft will orbit Mars to study the Martian atmosphere and its interaction with outer space and solar winds.
- Hope will collect data on Martian climate dynamics, which should help scientists understand why Mars’ atmosphere is decaying into space.
Objectives of the mission
- Once it launches, Hope will orbit Mars for around 200 days, after which it will enter the Red planet’s orbit by 2021, coinciding with the 50th anniversary of the founding of UAE.
- The mission is being executed by the Mohammed bin Rashid Space Centre, UAE’s space agency.
- It will help answer key questions about the global Martian atmosphere and the loss of hydrogen and oxygen gases into space over the span of one Martian year.
Back2Basics: Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM)
- The MOM also called Mangalyaan is a space probe orbiting Mars since 24 September 2014. It was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
- It aims at studying the Martian surface and mineral composition as well as scans its atmosphere for methane (an indicator of life on Mars).
- It is India’s first interplanetary mission and it made it the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after Roscosmos, NASA, and the European Space Agency.
- It made India the first Asian nation to reach Martian orbit and the first nation in the world to do so on its maiden attempt.
- It was initially meant to last six months, but subsequently, ISRO had said it had enough fuel for it to last “many years.”
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Kuaizhou-11 Rocket
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : KZ-11
Mains level : Not Much
China’s 19th launch of 2020, the Kuaizhou-11 rocket, failed in its mission.
Try this question from CSP 2014:
Q.Which of the following pair is/are correctly matched?
Spacecraft Purpose 1. Cassini-Huygens Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth 2. Messenger Mapping and investigating the Mercury 3. Voyager 1 and 2 Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
The Kuaizhou-11
- Kuaizhou, meaning “fast ship” in Chinese, was operated by the commercial launch firm Expace and was originally scheduled for 2018 after being developed three years earlier.
- Also known as KZ-11, it had a lift-off mass of 70.8 tonnes, and was designed to launch low-Earth and Sun-synchronous orbit satellites.
- It was carrying two satellites — the first being a remote sensing satellite that would provide data to clients on a commercial basis for forecasting and managing geological disasters.
- It would also provide the information required for natural resource exploration. The second was part of a series of satellites for low-Earth orbit navigation.
- Both satellites were built by Changguang Satellite Co. Ltd., a commercial entity born out of the state-owned firms.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Rare Comet ‘C/2020 F3 Neowise’
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Various terminologies mentioned
Mains level : Not Much
The C/2020 F3 comet also dubbed NEOWISE will be visible with the naked eye for around 20 minutes every day for 20 days across India.
Try this question from CSP 2014:
Q.What is a coma, in the content of astronomy?
(a) Bright half of material on the comet
(b) Long tail of dust
(c) Two asteroids orbiting each other
(d) Two planets orbiting each other
What are Comets?
- Comets or “dirty snowballs” are mostly made of dust, rocks and ice, the remnants from the time the solar system was formed over 4.6 billion years ago.
- The word comet comes from the Latin word “Cometa” which means “long-haired” and the earliest known record of a comet sighting was made by an astrologer in 1059 BC.
- Comets can range in their width from a few miles to tens of miles wide.
- While there are millions of comets orbiting the sun, there are more than 3,650 known comets as of now, according to NASA.
How do they illuminate?
- Comets do not have the light of their own and what humans are able to see from Earth is the reflection of the sun’s light off the comet as well as the energy released by the gas molecules after it is absorbed from the sun.
- The visibility cannot be precisely predicted since a lot depends on the way the “outbursts” of gas and dust play out determining how much of a “good show” the comet will put out for observers.
- As they orbit closer to the sun, they heat up and release debris of dust and gases that form into a “glowing head” that can often be larger than a planet.
Why do they get close to the sun?
- Comets may be occasionally pushed into orbits closer to the sun and the Earth’s neighbourhood due to forces of gravity of other planets.
- The appearance of some comets, like those that take less than 200 years to orbit around the sun is predictable since they have passed by before.
- These may be referred to as short-period comets and can be found in the Kuiper belt, where many comets orbit the sun in the realm of Pluto, occasionally getting pushed into orbits that bring them closer to the sun.
- One of the most famous short-period comets is called Halley’s Comet that reappears every 76 years. Halley’s will be sighted next in 2062.
- Comets in this cloud can take as long as 30 million years to complete one rotation around the sun.
Significance of the comets
- NASA tracks all Near Earth Objects (NEOs) that includes comets and asteroids using telescopes placed all around the Earth, as part of its NEO Observation Program.
- Comets hold important clues about the formation of the solar system and it is possible that comets brought water and other organic compounds, which are the building blocks of life to Earth.
Back2Basics
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Carbon enrichment of the Universe
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Carbon enrichment of the Universe
Mains level : Formation of the universe and the Big Bang
A recent study has provided new insights on the origins of the carbon in our galaxy.
Try this question from CSP 2016:
Q.Consider the following:
- Photosynthesis
- Respiration
- Decay of organic matter
- Volcanic action
Which of the above add carbon dioxide to the carbon cycle on earth?
(a) 1 and 4 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Why study Carbon?
- Carbon is essential for life: It is the simple building block of all the complex organic molecules that organisms need.
- It is known that all the carbon in the Milky Way came from dying stars that ejected the element into their surroundings.
- What has remained debated, however, is what kind of stars made the major contribution.
- The study shows the analysis of white dwarfs — the dense remnants of a star after its death.
How does carbon come from stars?
- Most stars — except the most massive ones — are doomed to turn into white dwarfs.
- When the massive ones die, they go with a spectacular bang known as the supernova.
- Both low-mass and massive stars eject their ashes into the surroundings before they end their lives.
- And these ashes contain many different chemical elements, including carbon.
How is it synthesized?
- Both in low-mass stars and in massive stars carbon is synthesized in their deep and hot interiors through the triple-alpha reaction that is the fusion of three helium nuclei.
- In low-mass stars, the newly synthesized carbon is transported to the surface [from the interiors] via gigantic bubbles of gas and from there injected into the cosmos through stellar winds.
- Massive stars enrich the interstellar medium with carbon mostly before the supernova explosion, when they also experience powerful stellar winds.
Findings of the news research
- It was earlier debated that whether the carbon in the Milky Way originated from low-mass stars before they became white dwarfs or from the winds of massive stars before they exploded as supernovae.
- The new research suggests that white dwarfs may shed more light on carbon’s origin in the Milky Way.
- The researchers measured the masses of the white dwarfs, derived their masses at birth, and from there calculated the “initial-final mass relation”.
- The IFMR is a key astrophysical measure that integrates information of the entire life cycles of stars.
- They found that the relationship bucked a trend — that the more massive the star at birth, the more massive the white dwarf left at its death.
- So far, stars born roughly 1.5 billion years ago in our galaxy were thought to have produced white dwarfs about 60-65% the mass of our Sun.
What explains this?
- From an analysis of the initial-final mass relation around the little kink, the researchers drew their conclusions about the size range for the stars that contributed carbon to the Milky Way.
- Stars more massive than 2 solar masses, too, contributed to the galactic enrichment of carbon.
- Stars less massive than 1.65 solar masses did not. In other words 1.65-Msun [1.65 times the mass of the Sun] represents the minimum mass for a star to spread its carbon-rich ashes upon death.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s Gateway Lunar Orbiting Outpost
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Lunar Gateway, ISS
Mains level : Read the attached story
NASA recently finalised the contract for the initial crew module of the agency’s Gateway lunar orbiting outpost.
Note the following things about the Lunar Gateway:
-
Parent Agency and other agencies involved
-
Missions and celestial bodies to be studied
-
Difference between Gateway and ISS
What is NASA’s Gateway Lunar Orbit Outpost?
- Essentially, the Gateway is a small spaceship that will orbit the Moon, meant for astronaut missions to the Moon and later, for expeditions to Mars.
- While the project is led by NASA, the Gateway is meant to be developed, serviced, and utilized in collaboration with commercial and international partners: Canada (CSA), Europe (ESA), and Japan (JAXA).
- The spaceship will have living quarters, laboratories for science and research and docking ports for visiting spacecraft.
- Once docked to the Gateway, astronauts will be able to stay there for three months at a time, conduct science experiments and take trips to the surface of the Moon.
Features of the Gateway
- One of the most unique features of the Gateway is that it can be moved to other orbits around the Moon to conduct more research.
- The Gateway will act as an airport, where spacecraft bound for the lunar surface of Mars can refuel or replace parts and resupply things like food and oxygen, allowing astronauts to take multiple trips to the Lunar surface and exploration of new locations across the Moon.
How is it different from ISS?
- Astronauts will use the Gateway at least once per year and not stay around the year as they do on the International Space Station (ISS).
- Compared to the ISS, the Gateway is much smaller (the size of a studio apartment), while the ISS is about the size of a six-bedroom house.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is the Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC)?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : BECs
Mains level : Various properties of BECs
Scientists have observed the fifth state of matter in space for the first time, offering unprecedented insight that could help solve some of the quantum universe’s most intractable conundrums.
Try this question from CSP 2018
Q. Consider the following phenomena:
- Light is affected by gravity.
- The Universe is constantly expanding.
- Matter warps its surrounding space-time.
Which of the above is/are the prediction/predictions of Albert Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity, often discussed in media?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs)
- Bose-Einstein condensates (BECs) — the existence of which was predicted by Albert Einstein and Indian mathematician Satyendra Nath Bose almost a century ago — are formed when atoms of certain elements are cooled to near absolute zero (0 Kelvin, minus 273.15 Celsius).
- At this point, the atoms become a single entity with quantum properties, wherein each particle also functions as a wave of matter.
- BECs straddle the line between the macroscopic world governed by forces such as gravity and the microscopic plane, ruled by quantum mechanics.
Why are BECs important?
- Scientists believe BECs contain vital clues to mysterious phenomena such as dark energy — the unknown energy thought to be behind the Universe’s accelerating expansion.
- But BECs are extremely fragile. The slightest interaction with the external world is enough to warm them past their condensation threshold.
- This makes them nearly impossible for scientists to study on Earth, where gravity interferes with the magnetic fields required to hold them in place for observation.
Studying BECs
- NASA scientists unveiled the first results from BEC experiments aboard the International Space Station (ISS), where particles can be manipulated free from Earthly constraints.
- The microgravity onboard the ISS allowed them to create BECs from rubidium — a soft metal similar to potassium — on a far shallower trap than on Earth.
- Microgravity at ISS allows confining atoms with much weaker forces. Microgravity also allowed the atoms to be manipulated by weaker magnetic fields, speeding their cooling and allowing clearer imaging.
- Creating the fifth state of matter, especially within the physical confines of a space station, is no mean feat for NASA.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Near-Earth Object (NEO) 163348
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : NEOs
Mains level : Not Much
NASA announced that a giant asteroid is expected to pass Earth at a safe distance, today.
Do you remember Osiris-Rex spacecraft of NASA? It is the only spacecraft to touch an asteroid called ‘Bennu’. NASA has brought back comet dust and solar wind particles before, but never asteroid samples.
This makes it a landmark feat and thus a hotspot for UPSC prelims.
What are NEOs?
- NASA defines NEOs as comets and asteroids nudged by the gravitational attraction of nearby planets into orbits which allows them to enter the Earth’s neighbourhood.
- These objects are composed mostly of water ice with embedded dust particles.
- NEOs occasionally approach close to the Earth as they orbit the Sun.
- NASA’s Center for Near-Earth Object Study (CNEOS) determines the times and distances of these objects as and when their approach to the Earth is close.
Significances of NEOs
- The scientific interest in comets and asteroids is largely due to their status as relatively unchanged remnant debris from the solar system formation process over 4.6 billion years ago.
- Therefore, these NEOs offer scientists clues about the chemical mixture from the planets formed.
- Significantly, among all the causes that will eventually cause the extinction of life on Earth, an asteroid hit is widely acknowledged as one of the likeliest.
- Over the years, scientists have suggested different ways to ward off such a hit, such as blowing up the asteroid before it reaches Earth, or deflecting it off its Earth-bound course by hitting it with a spacecraft.
About 163348 (2002 NN4)
- A Near-Earth Object (NEO), the asteroid is called 163348 (2002 NN4) and is classified as a Potentially Hazardous Asteroid (PHA).
- Asteroids with a minimum orbit intersection distance (MOID) of about 0.05 (AU is the distance between the Earth and the Sun and is roughly 150 million km) or less are considered PHAs.
- This distance is about 7,480,000 km or less and an absolute magnitude (H) of 22 (smaller than about 150 m or 500 feet in diameter).
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Radio lights from Sun’s Corona
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Murchison Widefield Array (MWA), Nanoflares
Mains level : Coronal heating of Sun
A group of India scientists have recently discovered tiny flashes of radio light emanating from all over the Sun, which they say could help in explaining the long-pending coronal heating problem.
Possible prelim question:
The Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) Telescope recently seen in news is a landmark in observing: Gravitational Waves/Black Holes/Sun’s Corona/ etc..
What is Sun’s Corona?
- The corona is the outermost part of the Sun’s atmosphere. It is the aura of plasma that surrounds the Sun and other stars.
- The Sun’s corona extends millions of kilometres into outer space and is most easily seen during a total solar eclipse, but it is also observable with a coronagraph.
- Spectroscopy measurements indicate strong ionization in the corona and a plasma temperature in excess of 1000000 Kelvin much hotter than the surface of the Sun.
Radio lights observed
- These radio lights or signals result from beams of electrons accelerated in the aftermath of a magnetic explosion on the Sun.
- While the magnetic explosions are not yet observable, these weak radio flashes are ‘smoking guns’ or the evidence for the same.
- Hence it brought the researchers closer to explaining the coronal heating problem.
Their significance
- These observations are the strongest evidence till date that the tiny magnetic explosions originally referred to as ‘nanoflares’ by eminent American solar astrophysicist Eugene Parker.
- It is the possible phenomena that could be heating up the corona (the aura of plasma that surrounds the sun and other stars).
The Murchison Widefield Array (MWA)
- The phenomenon of coronal heating has been known for the last 70 years, the availability of cutting edge data from the Murchison Widefield Array (MWA) radio telescope proved to be a game-changer.
- The MWA is a low-frequency radio telescope, located at the Murchison Radio-astronomy Observatory (MRO) in Western Australia.
- The MWA has been developed by an international collaboration, including partners from Australia, New Zealand, Japan, China, India, Canada and the United States.
Solving the mystery
- The strength of the magnetic fields varies a lot from one place on the surface of the Sun to another, by more than a factor of 1,000.
- But the corona is hot everywhere. So, this heating process has to work all over the corona, even in regions of weak magnetic fields.
- Until now, the process of how this magnetic energy is deposited in the corona had remained a mystery.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Starman Suits in Demo-2 Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Demo 2 Mission
Mains level : Not Much
NASA’s SpaceX Demo-2 test flight has now been rescheduled for May 31, due to weather conditions. Apart from the test flight itself, what’s getting attention are the spacesuits that the astronauts will wear while travelling in the SpaceX capsule, called Crew Dragon.
Try this question from CSP 2014:
Q. Which of the following pair is/are correctly matched?
Spacecraft Purpose 1. Cassini-Huygens Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth 2. Messenger Mapping and investigating the Mercury 3. Voyager 1 and 2 Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
The SpaceX spacesuit
- The so-called “Starman suits” the astronauts will wear on the Demo-2 mission have been designed by a famous Hollywood costume designer.
- The SpaceX spacesuits are different from other spacesuits typically worn by astronauts because of their sleek design and are being described as resembling a tuxedo.
- These spacesuits are meant to be lighter and more flexible, are equipped with touchscreen gloves, have vents that allow astronauts to be cooler while maintaining pressure inside the suit, and have an incorporated helmet and visor.
- The helmets of these suits are 3D printed with touchscreen-sensitive gloves and the suit is all in one piece, customised for the wearer.
How are launch-and-entry spacesuits different from EMUs?
- The SpaceX suits are only meant to be worn inside the space shuttle and are not suitable for carrying out spacewalks.
- Spacesuits for spacewalks, called Extravehicular Mobility Units (EMUs), are heavier than launch-entry suits (LES) and are already present aboard the ISS.
- While inside the spacecraft, the atmosphere can be controlled, to explore and work in space, humans require that they take their environment with them because there are atmospheric pressure and no oxygen to sustain life.
- Such spacesuits – EMUs — are worn for spacewalks or extravehicular activities (EVA) conducted outside a space shuttle.
- These provide astronauts with oxygen supply and protect them against extreme temperatures, radiation and space dust.
Back2Basics
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
China’s Mars Mission: Tianwen-1
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Various missions mentioned in the newscard
Mains level : Quest for Mars and its possibility to host life
China’s space program is now slated to achieve a new milestone. In July, the country will launch its first Mars mission, the ‘Tianwen-1’, which is expected to land on the Red Planet’s surface in the first quarter of 2021.
UPSC may ask an MCQ asking: Which of the following is/are the space missions related to Mars? It may throw up 4-5 options (which we all get confused at after few months) like Cassini , InSight , Messanger, Voyager etc.
Tianwen-1 Mission
- The mission is named after the ancient Chinese poem ‘Questions to Heaven’, the Tianwen-1.
- It is an all-in-one orbiter; lander and rover will search the Martian surface for water, ice, investigate soil characteristics, and study the atmosphere, among completing other objectives.
- It will carry 13 payloads (seven orbiters and six rovers) that will explore the planet.
- It will be the first to place ground-penetrating radar on the Martian surface, which will be able to study local geology, as well as rock, ice, and dirt distribution.
- China’s previous ‘Yinghuo-1’ Mars mission, which had piggybacked on a Russian spacecraft, had failed after it could not leave the Earth’s orbit and disintegrated over the Pacific Ocean in 2012.
Why all are curious about Mars exploration?
- After the Moon, the most number of space missions in the Solar System has been to Mars.
- Despite being starkly different in many ways, the Red Planet has several Earth-like features– such as clouds, polar ice caps, canyons, volcanoes, and seasonal weather patterns.
- For ages, scientists have wondered whether Mars can support life.
- In the past few years, Mars missions have been able to discover the possible presence of liquid water on the planet, either in the subsurface today or at some point in its past.
- This has made space explorers more curious about whether the planet can sustain life.
- Newer NASA missions have since transitioned from their earlier strategy of “Follow the Water” to “Seek Signs of Life”.
Back2Basics: Various missions on Mars
- The USSR in 1971 became the first country to carry out a Mars landing– its ‘Mars 3’ lander being able to transmit data for 20 seconds from the Martian surface before failing.
- The country made it’s second and Mars landing two years later in 1973.
- The second country to reach Mars’s surface, the US, holds the record for the most number of Mars landings.
- Since 1976, it has achieved 8 successful Mars landings, the latest being the ‘InSight’ in 2019 (launched in 2018).
- India and the European Space Agency have been able to place their spacecraft in Mars’s orbit.
- India’s Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or ‘Mangalyaan’ was able to do so in September 2014, almost a year after its launch from the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Andhra Pradesh.
- The Chinese mission now is expected to take off around the same time when NASA is launching its own Mars mission– the ambitious ‘Perseverance’ which aims to collect Martian samples and bring them back.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
What is a Parallel Universe?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Parallel Universe, ANITA experiment
Mains level : Parallel Universe and the validity of such concepts
Twitter and other social media platforms are abuzz with the so-called ‘parallel universe’ that NASA has discovered. According to the claims, NASA has detected a parallel universe in Antarctica, where time runs backwards.
ANITA experiment is significant for prelims. It can be asked in prelims in such match the pair questions-
Q. Consider the following pairs :
Terms sometimes seen in news Context / Topic
1. Belle 2 experiment – Artificial Intelligence
2. Blockchain technology – Digital Cryptocurrency
3. CRISPR – Cas9 – Particle Physics
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? (CSP 2018)
(a) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
What is a Parallel Universe?
- In quantum mechanics, a parallel universe is theorized as existing alongside our own, although undetectable.
- The recent reports claiming that there is evidence of a parallel universe appear to be based on ANITA findings that are at least a couple of years old.
- A science magazine had published a feature, discussing some anomalous results coming from neutrino detection experiments in Antarctica.
- It discussed a speculative cosmological model that posits there’s an antimatter universe extending backwards from the BigBang.
- This theorem was also proposed by famous scientist Stephens Hawking.
What were the anomalous detections in Antarctica?
The ANITA experiment
- Four years ago an experiment had spotted a handful of instances of what seemed to be highly energetic neutrinos coming through the Earth.
- It was named Antarctic Impulsive Transient Antenna (ANITA) experiment — a high-altitude helium balloon with an array of radio antennas, partially funded by NASA.
- The telescope could spot these neutrinos coming from the space and hitting the ice sheet in Antarctica.
- ANITA detected these particles, but instead of coming from the space, the neutrinos were found to be coming from the Earth’s surface without any source.
- These detections happened in 2016, then again in 2018, but there was no credible explanation.
- Physicists have been working to figure out if these results can be explained with our current models of physics or have something to do with the experimental set-up itself, or if something like the parallel universe does exist.
Back2Basics: Neutrinos
- A neutrino is a subatomic particle very similar to an electron.
- But it has no electrical charge and a very small mass, which might even be zero.
- Neutrinos are one of the most abundant particles in the universe.
- Because they have very little interaction with matter, they are incredibly difficult to detect.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Demo-2 Mission by SpaceX
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Demo 2 Mission
Mains level : Commercial crew programme by NASA
NASA’s SpaceX Demo-2 test flight will lift off for International Space Station (ISS) becoming the first crewed flight to launch from American soil since the conclusion of the space shuttle era in 2011.
We can get a match the pair type question in prelims asking various space missions and their purposes. Make note of similar space missions from here.
Try this:
Q. Which of the following pair is/are correctly matched? (CSP 2014)
Spacecraft Purpose 1. Cassini-Huygens Orbiting the Venus and transmitting data to the Earth 2. Messenger Mapping and investigating the Mercury 3. Voyager 1 and 2 Exploring the outer solar system Select the correct answer using the code given below.
a) 1 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Demo-2: What is the mission?
- The Demo-2 mission is part of NASA’s Commercial Crew Program with the aim of developing reliable and cost-effective access to and from the ISS.
- Essentially, the lift-off is a flight test to certify if SpaceX’s crew transportation system can be used to ferry crew to and from the space station regularly.
- After its launch, the Crew Dragon will perform a series of phasing manoeuvres to gradually approach and autonomously dock with the ISS.
- After docking, the two astronauts will go aboard the ISS. They will perform tests of the Crew Dragon and conduct research with Expedition 63, the space station crew currently in residence at ISS.
About the Commercial Crew Program
- The main objective of this program is to make access to space easier in terms of its cost, so that cargo and crew can be easily transported to and from the ISS, enabling greater scientific research.
- Secondly, by encouraging private companies such as Boeing and SpaceX to provide crew transportation NASA wants to focus on building spacecraft and rockets meant for deep space exploration missions.
- Boeing and SpaceX were selected by NASA in September 2014 to develop transportation systems meant to transfer crew from the US to the ISS.
Back2Basics: SpaceX
- Space Exploration Technologies Corp., trading as SpaceX, is a private American aerospace manufacturer and space transportation Services Company headquartered in Hawthorne, California.
- It was founded in 2002 by Elon Musk with the goal of reducing space transportation costs to enable the colonization of Mars.
- SpaceX has developed several launch vehicles and the Dragon spacecraft.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Luhman 16A: A binary brown-dwarf system
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Luhman 16A, Binary star system
Mains level : Not Much
A group of international astrophysicists have identified cloud bands on the surface of Luhman 16A, one of a pair of binary brown dwarfs in the Vela constellation.
Space terminology has gained importance in prelims. The Luhman 16A coupled with few more examples of space concepts like binary star and dwarf star are discussed in this newscard.
Luhman 16A
- Luhman 16 is a binary star system, the third closest system to the Sun after Alpha Centauri and Barnard’s star.
- At a distance of about 6.5 light-years from the Sun, this pair of brown dwarfs referred to as Luhman 16A and Luhman 16B orbit each other, casting a dim light.
- Brown dwarfs are also called failed stars because their masses are intermediate to the largest planets and the smallest main sequence stars.
- Their masses being too small, they are unable to sustain fusion of their hydrogen to produce energy.
- It is believed that some of the more massive brown dwarfs fuse deuterium or lithium and glow faintly.
The cloud band over Luhman
- The group, by using the Very Large Telescope at European Southern Observatory, Chile, found that Luhman 16A had band-like clouds in its atmosphere, whereas the same was not true of Luhman 16B.
- Many astronomers detected polarization of brown dwarfs.
- But what is special in the newest study of Luhman 16 is that the researchers have found the actual structure of the clouds — that they form bands over one of the pair.
- Understanding the cloud system over a brown dwarf can shed light on the pressure, temperature and climate on the surface of the celestial body.
Why it has made into a headline?
- The researchers have used an idea put forth nearly two decades ago by Indian astrophysicist Sujan Sengupta, who works at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, Bengaluru.
- Sengupta had propounded the light emitted by a cloudy brown dwarf, or reflected off an extrasolar planet, will be polarized.
- He then suggested that a polarimetric technique could serve as a potential tool to probe the environment of these objects.
Back2Basics: Binary Star System
- A binary star is a star system consisting of two stars orbiting around their common barycenter.
- Systems of two or more stars are called multiple star systems.
- These systems, especially when more distant, often appear to the unaided eye as a single point of light, and are then revealed as multiple by other means.
- Binary star systems are very important in astrophysics because calculations of their orbits allow the masses of their component stars to be directly determined.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
‘The Long March 5B’ rocket
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : The Long March 5B
Mains level : Not Much
China has successfully launched a new rocket and prototype spacecraft in a major test of the country’s ambitions to operate a permanent space station and send astronauts to the Moon.
Can you recall the historical link between the name “The Long March” and China’s History.
The Long March 5B
- Long March 5 or Chang Zheng 5 is a Chinese heavy-lift launch system developed by the China Academy of Launch Vehicle Technology (CALT).
- It is the first Chinese launch vehicle designed from the ground up to focus on non-hypergolic liquid rocket propellants.
- The maximum payload capacities of the base variant are ~25,000 kilograms to Low Earth Orbit and ~14,000 kilograms to Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit.
- The spaceship is expected to transport astronauts to a space station that China plans to complete by 2022 — and eventually to the Moon. It will have a capacity for a crew of six.
Back2Basics: Geosynchronous Transfer Orbit
- About 35,786 kilometers above the Earth’s surface, satellites are in geostationary orbit. From the center of the Earth, this is approximately 42,164 kilometers. This distance puts it in the high Earth orbit category.
- At any inclination, a geosynchronous orbit synchronizes with the rotation of the Earth.
- While geosynchronous satellites can have any inclination, the key difference to geostationary orbit is the fact that they lie on the same plane as the equator.
- GTO is a an elliptical orbit used to transfer between two circular orbits of different radiuses in the same plane—used to reach geosynchronous or geostationary orbit using high-thrust chemical engines.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Unified Geologic Map of the Moon
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Unified Geologic Map of the Moon
Mains level : Studying topography of the moon
The first-ever digital, unified, global, geological map of the moon was released virtually by the United States Geological Survey (USGS), NASA and the Lunar Planetary Institute.
Unified Geologic Map of the Moon
- The UGM will serve as a blueprint for future human missions and a source of research and analysis for the educators and the general public interested in lunar geology.
- The map is a ‘seamless, globally consistent, 1:5,000,000-scale geologic map’.
- The mapped surface features of the moon included crater rim crests, buried crater rim crests, fissures, grabens, scarps, mare wrinkle ridges, faults, troughs, rilles, and lineaments.
How it was prepared?
- The researchers built on the original digital renovation of the six maps comprising of the near, central far, east, west, north and south sides that was released in 2013.
- The final map consists of 43 geologic units across the entire lunar surface, broken down into groups based on characteristics like materials of craters, basins, terra, plains and volcanic units.
- Data from NASA’s Apollo Missions were used to come up with the map.
Its’ significance
- The moon’s South Pole is especially interesting because the area is much larger than the North Pole and there could be a possibility of the presence of water in these permanently shadowed areas.
- Further, the South Pole region also contains the fossil record of the early Solar System.
- These present and future moon missions’ success can be further helped by the digital map of the moon.
- The Chandrayaan 2, an active mission also targets the Lunar South Pole for exploration.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
GRACE-FO Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : GRACE-FO Mission
Mains level : Groundwater recharge and conservation efforts
NASA releases new global maps mapping groundwater, soil wetness using GRACE-FO satellites.
GRACE-FO Mission
- The Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-On (GRACE-FO) mission is a partnership between NASA and the German Research Centre for Geosciences (GFZ).
- GRACE-FO is a successor to the original GRACE mission, which orbited Earth from 2002-2017.
- It carries on the extremely successful work of its predecessor while testing a new technology designed to dramatically improve the already remarkable precision of its measurement system.
Why need such data on groundwater and soil moisture?
- Groundwater and soil moisture — which depicts wetness in soil — are crucial for irrigation and crop growth.
- The need to constantly monitor groundwater and soil moisture is important since both act as useful indicators for predicting drought conditions.
- One of the goals of the new global maps is to make the same consistent product available in all parts of the world, especially in countries that do not have any groundwater-monitoring infrastructure.
- The data would help in managing the selection of appropriate agricultural crops and predicting yields.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs)
Mains level : Not Much
Researchers from a Canadian space observatory have been recording the periodic radio waves hitting Earth from a neighbouring galaxy from past few years. These radio waves are called Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs).
Fast Radio Bursts (FRBs)
- FRBs are super intense, millisecond-long bursts of radio waves produced by unidentified sources in the space.
- Their discovery in 2007 by American astronomer Duncan Lorimer led to the term ‘Lorimer Bursts’.
- Since then, just a few dozen similar events have been observed in data collected by radio telescopes around the world, building evidence that points to a variety of potential causes.
- Only a handful of emissions have been traced to specific areas of the sky, indicating sources in other galaxies.
- The flash of radio waves is incredibly bright if distant, comparable to the power released by hundreds of millions of suns in just a few milliseconds.
- This intensity suggests powerful objects like black holes and neutron stars could be involved.
- The events were once considered to be largely transient – they seemed to happen once, without obvious signs of a repeat emission. However, a number of such bursts have been identified since then.
Why are they significant?
- First noticed in 2018 by the Canadian observatory the waves have created ripples across the globe for one reason — they arrive in a pattern.
- This gave birth to theories that they could be from an alien civilization.
- Initially, it was believed that the collision of black holes or neutron stars triggers them.
- But the discovery of repeating FRBs debunked the theory of colliding objects.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s new Mars rover: Perseverance
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Perseverance rover
Mains level : Not Much
NASA has named its next Mars rover ‘Perseverence’.
About Perseverance
- The Perseverance rover weighs less than 2,300 pounds and is managed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Lab.
- The rover’s mission will be to search for signs of past microbial life. It will also collect samples of Martian rocks and dust, according to the release.
- The rover will also be tasked with studying the red planet’s geology and climate.
- All of NASA’s previous Mars rovers — including the Sojourner (1997), Spirit and Opportunity (2004) and Curiosity (exploring Mars since 2012) — were named in this way.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
New forces in orbit
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Not much.
Mains level : Paper 3- What reforms are needed in space sector to leverage it for commercial purposes.
Context
As it looks at the growing role of the private sector and the effort by nations like the UAE and Luxembourg, Delhi needs to move quickly towards a new model for India’s space activity.
Growing presence in the outer space
- Outer space no longer a preserve of a few: When you think of outer space, you think of big powers like the United States, Russia and China.
- You might also note the collective European effort under the European Space Agency as well as the impressive national space programmes of India and Japan.
- Strategic or symbol of national pursuit: Space programmes have for long been viewed as either strategic or symbols of national prestige for big countries that are prepared to invest significant resources in the pursuit of a credible presence in outer space.
- Two small countries challenging the narrative: Two small countries, the United Arab Emirates in the Gulf and the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg in Europe have begun to demonstrate that the outer space need not be the playing ground for big powers alone.
- Sceptics might think it is pretentious for the UAE with its native population of barely one million and Luxembourg with 600,000 people to think of a place for themselves in space.
UAE’s presence in the space
- Reminder for India: The interesting path these two countries have set for themselves in outer space is a reminder that Delhi needs to adapt to the rapidly changing dynamic in outer space.
- Hope Mars Mission: That size is not a constraint is reflected in the UAE’s plan to launch its Mars mission, “Hope”, later this year in partnership with a range of organisations across the world — including three universities in the US.
- Japan is scheduled to launch the UAE Mars probe this year.
- India’s own ISRO is also working with the UAE on its Mars mission.
- Last year, the first Emirati Astronaut, Hazza al-Mansouri spent more than a week in the US-Russian space station.
- What are the reasons for the UAE’s space strategy? It is about cornering a slice of the rapidly growing commercial space industry — part of a major effort to diversify the UAE economy away from its reliance on hydrocarbons.
How Luxembourg is increasing its presence in the outer space
- Commercial space as a major opportunity: Over the years, Luxembourg moved away from its past reliance on the steel industry to become a centre of European banking and finance.
- It is now looking at commercial space as a major opportunity.
- Regulatory steps: Luxembourg has taken a number of regulatory steps to create a vibrant ecosystem for space companies ranging from satellite operations to future extraction of resources from asteroids and other space objects.
- Expansion of the space sector: At the moment, the space sector accounts for nearly 2 per cent of Luxembourg’s GDP.
- There are more than 50 companies and two public research organisations that are driving the expansion of space sector in Luxembourg.
- It entered the space sector only in the middle of the last decade. It is also driven by the need for economic diversification.
- Leveraging new ideas: UAE and Luxembourg do have a reputation for leveraging new ideas to transcend the limitations of their size in the world.
- But their space adventure was not possible without the structural changes that are reshaping the global space activity.
How space industry underwent a change over the years
- Preserve of national programs: Through the second half of the 20th century, outer space was the sole preserve of national space programmes driven by government-funding, direction and management.
- The emergence of the private sector: As military uses of space and prestige projects like Moon-landing emerged, major private sector entities already in the aviation industry like Boeing and Lockheed won space contracts in the US.
- Collaboration with government: The Pentagon and the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) told these companies what to do.
- Expansion: The last decades of the 20th century saw significant expansion of satellite-based telecommunication, navigation, broadcasting and mapping, and lent a significant commercial dimension to the space sector.
- As the digital revolution in the 21st century transformed the world economy, the commercial space sector has begun to grow in leaps and bounds.
- The global space business is now estimated to be around $ 400 billion and is expected to easily rise to at least trillion dollars by 2040.
- Rise of SpaceX: One example of the rise of private sector companies in the space sector is SpaceX run by the US entrepreneur Elon Musk.
- Hired for a resupply mission for the space station, it now launches more rockets every year than NASA.
- The entry of the private sector has begun to drive down the cost-per-launch through innovations such as reusable rockets.
Scope of the expansion of the space industry
- Decrease in launch cost and rise in ambition: As launch costs came down, the private sector has become more ambitious.
- Internet through space: SpaceX plans to launch hundreds of satellites into the low-earth orbit to provide internet services. Amazon has plans to build a network of more than 3,000 satellites in the low-earth orbit.
- Space tourism: Musk and Amazon’s Jeff Bezos have plans to develop space tourism and build human settlements on the Moon and on Mars.
- Small private companies in the fray: It is not just big companies that are aiming for the Moon. Last year, a private company in Israel sent a lunar lander to the Moon. Although the lander crashed, much like India’s Vikram, the private sector has begun to do things that were once the monopoly of national agencies.
India not in synch with the global changes
- Not adapting to the change: India, however, is quite some distance away from adapting to the unfolding changes in the global space business.
- In its early years, India’s space programme that was constrained by lack of resources found innovative ways of getting ahead in space.
- Space sector dominated by the government: Although the ISRO encourages private sector participation in the national space programme, its model is still very 20th century — in terms of governmental domination.
Conclusion
As it looks at the growing role of the private sector and the effort by nations like the UAE and Luxembourg, India needs to move quickly towards a new model for India’s space activity. It needs a regulatory environment that encourages a more dynamic role for the private sector and promotes innovation.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
2020 CD3: A mini-moon
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : 2020 CD3, Temporarily Captured Object (TCO)
Mains level : Not Much
Astronomers have observed a small object orbiting Earth, which they have dubbed a “mini-moon” or the planet’s “second moon”.
2020 CD3
- The mini-moon was discovered by some astronomers at NASA-funded Catalina Sky Survey (CSS) in Arizona.
- It is actually an asteroid, about the size of a car; its diameter is about 1.9-3.5 m.
- And unlike our permanent Moon, the mini-moon is temporary; it will eventually break free of Earth’s orbit and go off on its own way.
- Orbit integrations indicate that this object is temporarily bound to the Earth.
- 2020 CD3 was captured into Earth’s orbit over three years ago.
- For CSS, it is only the second such discovery. It previously discovered 2006 RH120, which orbited Earth for some time that year, before it escaped in 2007.
Where do such moons come from?
- When an asteroid’s orbit crosses Earth’s orbit, it can sometimes be captured into the latter orbit. This is what happened with 2020 CD3.
- It is now orbiting at a distance farther from Earth. Such an asteroid is called a Temporarily Captured Object (TCO).
- The orbit of such objects is unstable. They have to contend with the gravitational influence of our permanent Moon as well as that of the Sun.
- Once caught in Earth’s orbit, such objects usually remain for a few years before they break free and go into independent orbit around the Sun.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
NASA’s InSight Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : InSight Mission
Mains level : Key findings of the InSight Mission
It’s now more than a year since NASA’s InSight lander mission touched down on Mars on November 26, 2018. This week, NASA published a report regarding findings on the Mars.
About InSight Mission
- The Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport mission is a robotic lander designed to study the deep interior of the planet Mars.
- It is the first mission dedicated to looking deep beneath the Martian surface.
- Among its science tools are a seismometer for detecting quakes, sensors for gauging wind and air pressure, a magnetometer, and a heat flow probe designed to take the planet’s temperature.
- The InSight mission is part of NASA’s Discovery Program.
- It is being supported by a number of European partners, which include France’s Centre National d’Études Spatiales (CNES), the German Aerospace Center (DLR) and the United Kingdom Space Agency (UKSA).
Key findings of the Mission
Underground: rumbles
- Mars trembles more often than expected, but also more mildly.
- This emerged from readings of the ultra-sensitive seismometer, called the Seismic Experiment for Interior Structure (SEIS).
- The instrument enables scientists to “hear” multiple trembling events from hundreds to thousands of miles away.
- Mars doesn’t have tectonic plates like Earth, but it does have volcanically active regions that can cause rumbles.
The surface: Magnetism
- Billions of years ago, Mars had a magnetic field.
- Although it is no longer present, it left behind what NASA describes as “ghosts” – magnetized rocks that are now between 61 m to several km below ground.
- InSight is equipped with a magnetometer, which has detected magnetic signals.
- At a Martian site called Homestead hollow, the magnetic signals are 10 times stronger than what was predicted earlier (based on data from orbiting spacecraft).
In the wind: dust devils
- InSight measures wind speed, direction and air pressure nearly continuously.
- Weather sensors have detected thousands of passing whirlwinds, which are called dust devils when they pick up grit and become visible.
- The site has more whirlwinds than any other place where a landing has been made on Mars while carrying weather sensors.
- Despite all that activity in the wind and frequent imaging, InSight’s cameras have yet to see dust devils. But SEIS can feel these whirlwinds pulling on the surface.
The core: still to come
- InSight has two radios. One is for regularly sending and receiving data. The other radio, which is more powerful, is designed to measure the “wobble” of Mars as it spins.
- This X-band radio, also known as the Rotation and Interior Structure Experiment (RISE), can eventually reveal whether the planet’s core is solid or liquid.
- A solid core would cause Mars to wobble less than a liquid one would.
- This first year of data is just a start, NASA said in the statement. When it is two years on Earth, Mars will have completed one year.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Habitable-zone Planet Finder (HPF)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Habitable-zone Planet Finder (HPF), Spectrograph
Mains level : HPF and its applications
At 100 light-years from Earth, a low-mass star was sending signals in a pattern that suggested that an exoplanet was orbiting the star confirmed the Habitable-zone Planet Finder (HPF).
Habitable-zone Planet Finder
- NASA’s Kepler mission observed a dip in the host star’s light, suggesting that the planet was crossing in front of the star during its orbit.
- To confirm, researchers turned to an instrument called Habitable-zone Planet Finder (HPF). It has confirmed that there is indeed an exoplanet.
- HPF is an astronomical spectrograph, built by Penn State University scientists, and recently installed on the 10m Hobby-Eberly Telescope at McDonald Observatory in Texas.
- The instrument is designed to detect and characterize planets in the habitable zone — the region around the star where a planet could sustain liquid water on its surface — around nearby low-mass stars.
- The newly confirmed planet, called G 9-40b, is the first one validated by HPF. It is about twice the size of Earth and orbits its star once every six Earth-days.
How it works
- A spectrograph is an instrument that splits light into its component wavelengths.
- Scientists then measure the properties of light over a specific portion of the spectrum and draw conclusions on what is responsible for the trends they observe.
Why need HPF?
- Kepler’s observations alone were not enough to confirm a planet. It was possible that a close stellar companion was responsible for the dip in the star’s light.
- Precision spectroscopic observations from HPF ruled out this possibility.
- Shooting a high-power laser into the air, researchers generated a “laser guide star”, and subsequent observations found no evidence of blending of light or other stellar companions.
- Finally, using HPF, an analysis of a set of radial velocities helped provide estimates for the planet’s mass.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Supergiant star ‘Betelgeuse’
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Supergiant star ‘Betelgeuse’
Mains level : Big Bang Theory
Using the European Space Organization’s (ESO) Very Large Telescope (VLT), astronomers have noticed the unprecedented dimming of Betelgeuse.
Betelgeuse
- It is a red supergiant star (over 20 times bigger than the Sun) in the constellation Orion.
- Along with the dimming, the star’s shape has been changing as well, as per recent photographs of the star taken using the VISIR instrument on the VLT.
- Instead of appearing round, the star now appears to be “squashed into an ova”.
Why is it significant?
- Betelgeuse was born as a supermassive star millions of years ago and has been “dramatically” and “mysteriously” dimming for the last six months.
- While Betelgeuse’s behaviour is out of the ordinary, it doesn’t mean that an eruption is imminent since astronomers predict the star to blast sometime (supernova explosion, which is the largest explosion to take place in space) in the next 100,000 years or so.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Discovery Program investigations by NASA
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Various missions mentioned in the newscard
Mains level : Discovery Program investigations
NASA announced it has selected four Discovery Program investigations to develop concept studies for possible new missions.
What are the new missions?
- Two proposals are for trips to Venus, and one each is for Jupiter’s moon Io and Neptune’s moon Triton.
- After the concept studies are completed in nine months, some missions ultimately may not be chosen to move forward.
DAVINCI+
- DAVINCI+ stands for Deep Atmosphere Venus Investigation of Noble gases, Chemistry, and Imaging Plus.
- This will analyse Venus’s atmosphere to understand how it was formed and evolved, and if it ever had an ocean.
- This will advance understanding of the formation of terrestrial planets.
IVO
- Io Volcano Observer is a proposal to explore Jupiter’s moon Io, which is extremely volcanically active.
- This will try to find out how tidal forces shape planetary bodies.
- The findings could further knowledge about the formation and evolution of rocky, terrestrial bodies and icy ocean worlds in the Solar System.
TRIDENT
This aims to explore Neptune’s icy moon, Triton, so that scientists can understand the development of habitable worlds in the Solar System.
VERITAS
Venus Emissivity, Radio Science, InSAR, Topography, and Spectroscopy will aim to map Venus’s surface to find out why Venus developed so differently from Earth.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
The ‘Pale Blue Dot’
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Pale Blue Dot
Mains level : Voyager 1 mission
The Jet Propulsion Laboratory of the NASA published a new version of the image of Pale Blue Dot.
Pale Blue Dot
- The ‘Pale Blue Dot’ is one of the most iconic images in the history of astronomy.
- It shows Earth as a single bright blue pixel in empty space within a strand of sun rays, some of which are scattering from and enlightening the planet.
- The original image was taken by the Voyager 1 mission spacecraft on February 14, 1990 when it was just beyond Saturn.
- At the behest of astronomer Carl Sagan, the cameras were turned towards Earth one final time to capture the image.
- After this, the cameras and other instruments on the craft were turned off to ensure its longevity.
About Voyager 1
- Voyager 1 is a space probe launched by NASA on September 5, 1977.
- Having operated for more than 42 years, the spacecraft still communicates with the Deep Space Network to receive routine commands and to transmit data to Earth.
- At a distance of 148.67 AU (22.2 billion km) from Earth as of January 19, 2020 it is the most distant man-made object from Earth.
- The probe’s objectives included flybys of Jupiter, Saturn, and Saturn’s largest moon, Titan.
The Family Portrait of the Solar System
- The Pale blue dot image was a part of series of 60 images designed to produce what the mission called the ‘Family Portrait of the Solar System’.
- This sequence of camera-pointing commands returned images of six of the solar system’s planets, as well as the Sun.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
SuperCam on Mars Rover 2020
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : SuperCam
Mains level : Study of life on Mars
In its mission to Mars this summer, NASA is sending a new laser-toting robot called SuperCam as one of seven instruments aboard the Mars 2020 rover.
SuperCam
- Called SuperCam, the robot is used for studying mineralogy and chemistry from up to about 7 metres away.
- It might help scientists find signs of fossilized microbial life on Mars.
- SuperCam packs what would typically require several sizable pieces of equipment into something no bigger than a cereal box.
- It fires a pulsed laser beam out of the rover’s mast to vaporise small portions of rock from a distance, providing information that will be essential to the mission’s success.
NASA lists five things to know
- From more than 7 m away, SuperCam can fire a laser to study rock targets smaller than a pencil point. That lets the rover study spots it can’t reach with its arm.
- SuperCam looks at rock textures and chemicals to find those that formed or changed in water on Mars long ago.
- SuperCam looks at different rock and “soil” types to find ones that could preserve signs of past microbial life on Mars — if any ever existed.
- For the benefit of future explorers, SuperCam identifies which elements in the Martian dust may be harmful to humans.
- Scientists can learn about how atmospheric molecules, water ice, and dust absorb or reflect solar radiation. This helps predict Martian weather better.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Solar Orbiter (SolO) Probe
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : SolO Mission
Mains level : Significance of the Mission
Yesterday, the Solar Orbiter, a collaborative mission between the European Space Agency and NASA to study the Sun, took off from Cape Canaveral in Florida.
What is the Solar Orbiter?
- Carrying four in situ instruments and six remote-sensing imagers, the Solar Orbiter (called SolO) will face the sun at approximately 42 million kilometres from its surface.
- Before SolO, all solar imaging instruments have been within the ecliptic plane, in which all planets orbit and which is aligned with the sun’s equator.
- The new spacecraft will use the gravity of Venus and Earth to swing itself out of the ecliptic plane, passing inside the orbit of Mercury, and will be able to get a bird’s eye view of the sun’s poles for the first time.
Objectives of the mission
- The Orbiter will take pictures using telescopes through a heat shield that is partly made of baked animal bones, to help it withstand temperatures of up to 600 degree Celsius.
- By understanding the behaviour of the sun, the Orbiter aims to provide information on how the former would affect technology such as satellites, navigation systems, power grids, and telecommunication services.
- The Orbiter will help scientists understand the sun’s dynamic behaviour, and solve mysteries such as the sunspot cycle, or why the star spews out high velocity charged particles through the solar system.
- With more data on the global magnetic field of the star, scientists would be able to forecast space weather events.
Earlier missions
- In 1990, NASA and ESA had sent the Ulysses mission, which also passed over the sun’s poles but at much farther distances, and did not carry a camera.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Spitzer Space Telescope
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Spitzer Telescope
Mains level : Significant feats of the mission
NASA’s Spitzer Mission, which studied the universe in infrared light for more than 16 years, will come to an end since it is low on fuel and has been drifting away from Earth for a few years now.
Spitzer Space Telescope
- The Spitzer Space Telescope is a space-borne observatory, one of the elements of NASA’s Great Observatories that include the Hubble Space Telescope and the Chandra X-Ray.
- Using different infrared wavelengths, Spitzer was able to see and reveal features of the universe including objects that were too cold to emit visible light.
- Apart from enabling researchers to see distant cold objects, Spitzer could also see through large amounts of gas using infrared wavelengths to find objects that may otherwise have been invisible to human beings.
- These included exoplanets, brown dwarfs and cold matter found in the space between stars.
- Spitzer was originally built to last for a minimum of 2.5 years, but it lasted in the “cold” phase for over 5.5 years. On May 15, 2009 the coolant was finally depleted and the “warm mission” began.
Major discoveries
- Spitzer also studied some of the most distant galaxies ever detected.
- The light from these galaxies reached us after traveling for billions of years, enabling scientists “to see those objects as they were long, long ago”.
- Hubble and Spitzer in 2016 identified and studied the most distant galaxy ever observed.
- Using these two telescopes, scientists were able to see a bright infant galaxy as it was over 13.4 billion years ago, roughly 400 million years after the Big Bang, when the universe was less than 5% of its current age.
- It assisted in the discovery of planets beyond our solar system, including the detection of seven Earth-size exo-planets orbiting the star TRAPPIST-1.
- Three of its seven planets were located in the “habitable zone,” where the temperature might be right for liquid water to exist on the planets’ surfaces.
Other landmarks
- Spitzer has logged over 106,000 hours of observation time.
- Thousands of scientists around the world have utilized Spitzer data in their studies, and Spitzer data is cited in more than 8,000 published papers.
- Spitzer’s primary mission ended up lasting 5.5 years, during which time the spacecraft operated in a “cold phase,” with a supply of liquid helium cooling three onboard instruments to just above absolute zero.
- The cooling system reduced excess heat from the instruments themselves that could contaminate their observations.
- This gave Spitzer very high sensitivity for “cold” objects.
- In July 2009, after Spitzer’s helium supply ran out, the spacecraft entered a so-called “warm phase.”
- Spitzer’s main instrument, called the Infrared Array Camera (IRAC), has four cameras, two of which continue to operate in the warm phase with the same sensitivity they maintained during the cold phase.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Thirty Metre Telescope (TMT) in Hawaii
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : TMT, Mauna Kea
Mains level : India's abroad space missions
India, a partner in the construction of one of the largest telescopes in the world, TMT, has said it wants the project to be moved out of the proposed site at Mauna Kea, a dormant volcano in Hawaii.
Thirty Metre Telescope
- The TMT is a proposed astronomical observatory with an extremely large telescope (ELT) that has become the source of controversy over its planned location on Mauna Kea on the island of Hawaii in the US state of Hawaii.
- It is being built by an international collaboration of government organisations and educational institutions, at a cost of $1.4 billion.
- “Thirty Metre” refers to the 30-metre diameter of the mirror, with 492 segments of glass pieced together, which makes it three times as wide as the world’s largest existing visible-light telescope.
- The larger the mirror, the more light a telescope can collect, which means, in turn, that it can “see” farther, fainter objects.
- It would be more than 200 times more sensitive than current telescopes and would be able to resolve objects 12 times better than the Hubble Space Telescope.
Utility of the telescope
- One of its key uses will be the study of exoplanets, many of which have been detected in the last few years, and whether their atmospheres contain water vapour or methane — the signatures of possible life.
- For the first time in history, this telescope will be capable of detecting extraterrestrial life.
- The study of black holes is another objective.
- While these have been observed in detail within the Milky Way, the next galaxy is 100 times farther away; the TMT will help bring them closer.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Artemis Mission
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Artemis Mission
Mains level : Manned mission on Moon
NASA wants to send the first woman and the next man to the Moon by the year 2024, which it plans on doing through the Artemis lunar exploration program. An Indian American astronaut named Raja Chari is set to accompany the crew in this mission.
Artemis Mission
- In 2011, NASA began the ARTEMIS (Acceleration, Reconnection, Turbulence, and Electrodynamics of the Moon’s Interaction with the Sun) mission using a pair of repurposed spacecraft and in 2012 the Gravity Recovery and Interior Laboratory (GRAIL) spacecraft studied the Moon’s gravity.
- For the program, NASA’s new rocket called the Space Launch System (SLS) will send astronauts aboard the Orion spacecraft a quarter of a million miles away from Earth to the lunar orbit.
- The astronauts going for the Artemis program will wear newly designed spacesuits, called Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit, or xEMU.
- These spacesuits feature advanced mobility and communications and interchangeable parts that can be configured for spacewalks in microgravity or on a planetary surface.
International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries
Goldilocks Zone
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Goldilocks Zone
Mains level : Not Much
NASA has reported the discovery of an Earth-size planet, named TOI 700 d, orbiting its star in the “habitable zone”.
Goldilocks Zone
- A habitable zone, also called the “Goldilocks zone”, is the area around a star where it is not too hot and not too cold for liquid water to exist on the surface of surrounding planets.
- Our Earth is in the Sun’s Goldilocks zone. If Earth were where the dwarf planet Pluto is, all its water would freeze; on the other hand, if Earth were where Mercury is, all its water would boil off.
- Life on Earth started in water, and water is a necessary ingredient for life as we know it.
- So, when scientists search for the possibility of alien life, any rocky exoplanet in the habitable zone of its star is an exciting find.
TOI 700 d
- The newest such planet was found by NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) mission, which it launched in 2018.
- The star, TOI 700, is an “M dwarf” located just over 100 light-years away in the southern constellation Dorado, is roughly 40% of our Sun’s mass and size, and has about half its surface temperature.
- The find was confirmed by the Spitzer Space Telescope, which sharpened the measurements that TESS had made, such as orbital period and size.
- TOI 700 d measures 20% larger than Earth. It orbits its star once every 37 days and receives an amount of energy that is equivalent to 86% of the energy that the Sun provides to Earth.
Why Everyone has interest in Martian System exploration?
- Mars has long been the subject of human fascination. Early telescopic observations revealed color changes on the surface that were originally attributed to seasonal vegetation as well as apparent linear features that were ascribed to intelligent design.
- Telescopic observations found Mars’ two moons, Phobos and Deimos, the polar ice caps, and the feature now known as Olympus Mons, the solar system’s tallest mountain.
- These discoveries piqued further interest in the study and exploration of the red planet.
- Mars is a rocky planet, like Earth, that formed around the same time, yet with only half the diameter of Earth, and a far thinner atmosphere, it has a cold and desert-like surface.
- It is notable, however, that although the planet has only one quarter of the surface area of the Earth, it has about the same land area, since only one quarter of the surface area of the Earth is land.
Then, How Mars Journey has started?
NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter entered Mars orbit in 2001. Odyssey’s Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen on Mars,thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.
The Mars Express mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) reached Mars in 2003. It carried the Beagle 2 lander, which was not heard from after being released and was declared lost in February 2004.
In early 2004 the Mars Express Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced the orbiter had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars.
In January 2004, the NASA twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B) landed on the surface of Mars. Both have met or exceeded all their targets.
On March 10, 2006, the NASA Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a two-year science survey.
The orbiter began mapping the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. The MRO snapped the first image of a series of active avalanches near the planet’s north pole.
The Mars Science Laboratory mission was launched on November 26, 2011 and it delivered the Curiosity rover, on the surface of Mars on August 6, 2012 UTC.
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) on November 5, 2013. It was successfully inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.
Wow, so finally did we find water?
New findings from NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) provide the strongest evidence yet that liquid water flows intermittently on present-day Mars.
Using an imaging spectrometer on MRO, researchers detected signatures of hydrated minerals on slopes where mysterious streaks are seen on the Red Planet.
They darken and appear to flow down steep slopes during warm seasons, and then fade in cooler seasons. They appear in several locations on Mars when temperatures are above min0us 10 degrees Fahrenheit (minus 23 Celsius), and disappear at colder times.
It appears to confirm that water is flowing today on the surface of Mars.These downhill flows, known as recurring slope lineae (RSL), often have been described as possibly related to liquid water.
The new findings of hydrated salts on the slopes point to what that relationship may be to these dark features. The hydrated salts would lower the freezing point of a liquid brine, just as salt on roads here on Earth causes ice and snow to melt more rapidly.
Scientists say it’s likely a shallow subsurface flow, with enough water wicking to the surface to explain the darkening.
What are the Garni crater on Mars?
Dark narrow streaks called recurring slope lineae emanating out of the walls of Garni crater on Mars. The dark streaks here are up to few hundred meters in length.
The spectral signatures as caused by hydrated minerals called perchlorates. The hydrated salts most consistent with the chemical signatures are likely a mixture of magnesium perchlorate, magnesium chlorate and sodium perchlorate.
On Earth, naturally produced perchlorates are concentrated in deserts, and some types of perchlorates can be used as rocket propellant.
What a Contribution by MRO in this enigmatical mission!!
NASA’s Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) has been examining Mars since 2006 with its six science instruments.
The ability of MRO to observe for multiple Mars years with a payload able to see the fine detail of these features has enabled findings such as these:
first identifying the puzzling seasonal streaks and now making a big step towards explaining what they are?
The new findings are more proof that the mysterious lines he first saw darkening Martian slopes five years ago are, indeed, present-day water.
The discovery is the latest of many breakthroughs by NASA’s Mars missions
It took multiple spacecraft over several years to solve this mystery, and now we know there is liquid water on the surface of this cold, desert planet.It seems that the more we study Mars, the more we learn how life could be supported and where there are resources to support life in the future.
Then, Mars is more habitable than previously thought so, Can we go to Mars for living really? Yes probably. Because NASA is planning for it by 2030.
Published with inputs from Arun