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A new study by Columbia University, suggests that the universe may have an alternate mechanism for producing gold — not just in neutron star collisions, as previously believed, but also in magnetar flares.

r-Process in a Magnetar Flare:

• The r-process (rapid neutron-capture process) forms heavy elements like gold, platinum, and uranium by rapidly attaching neutrons to atomic nuclei.
• It was earlier believed to occur mainly in neutron star mergers.
• In a 2024 study, scientists analysed a 2004 magnetar flare followed by delayed gamma-ray emissions, recorded by NASA’s Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.
• The radiation patterns matched those of radioactive decay from r-process elements, suggesting neutron-rich nuclei were produced.
• Around 1.9 septillion kilograms of matter was ejected at near-light speeds, marking the first direct evidence of r-process nucleosynthesis in a magnetar flare.

Implications for Gold Formation:

• The study shows that magnetar flares may also produce gold and other heavy elements, not just neutron star collisions.
• This implies such elements could have formed earlier in the universe than previously believed.
• The findings broaden our understanding of the origins of chemical elements in space.
• It confirms that multiple astrophysical events contribute to the formation of heavy elements.
• It also offers a new perspective on cosmic gamma-ray bursts and ancient stellar compositions.

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NASA’s Hubble Space Telescope recently discovered the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424), which contains 9 rings, an unprecedented number.

This finding offers new insights into galaxy evolution and the possibility of the galaxy evolving into a Giant Low Surface Brightness (GLSB) galaxy.

About the Bullseye Galaxy (LEDA 1313424):

• The Bullseye Galaxy is unique for containing 9 rings, an unprecedented number in the study of ringed galaxies.
• Most ringed galaxies typically have 2 or 3 rings, making this discovery significant.
• The rings are believed to have formed after a collision with a blue dwarf galaxy about 50 million years ago, causing ripples in the gas and creating star-forming regions that became the rings.
• While individual stars’ orbits stayed the same, groups of stars gathered, forming distinct rings over time.
• This discovery offers valuable insights into galaxy interactions and the rare formation of multiple rings.

Bullseye Galaxy and Its Possible Evolution into a GLSB Galaxy:

• It shares traits with GLSB galaxies, such as its extended disk and hydrogen content.
• Researchers suggest that the Bullseye Galaxy might evolve into a GLSB galaxy, providing insights into the formation of such galaxies and the distribution of dark matter in the universe.

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NASA scientists have proposed using quantum technology to study gravitational changes on Earth by deploying a quantum gravity gradiometer (QGG) on a satellite in low-Earth orbit.

About Gravity Gradiometer & Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG):

• A gravity gradiometer measures small variations in gravitational force over short distances.
• How It Works: It detects differences in the acceleration of falling objects, indicating the density of materials below the surface, such as hydrocarbon deposits or geological structures.
• Applications:
  • Oil Exploration: Detects underground hydrocarbon deposits by measuring gravitational differences.
  • Geological Studies: Used to explore subterranean features like minerals and fault lines.

• A Quantum Gravity Gradiometer (QGG) uses quantum technology to achieve much higher precision than traditional gravity gradiometers.

• • How It Works: Atoms are cooled to near absolute zero and manipulated with lasers. The phase shifts of these atoms, proportional to gravitational force, detect tiny changes in gravitational acceleration.
  • It can detect changes as small as 10^-15 m/s² over just 1 meter, offering much finer measurements than traditional instruments.
• Specifications: Weighs 125 kg, has a volume like a 250-liter oil drum, and consumes 350 watts of power (comparable to an older Intel CPU).

Applications of QGG in Space:

• Studying Gravitational Variations: Measures small changes in Earth’s gravitational field, aiding climate change studies, such as melting ice caps and shifting water reserves.
• Earth’s Gravitational Field Mapping: Improves understanding of Earth’s internal structure and seismic activities.
• Dark Matter Research: Provides insights into dark matter by detecting gravitational anomalies.
• Satellite Navigation: Enhances space navigation and satellite positioning.
• Mapping Underground Features: Used to map structures like mineral deposits and fault lines.
• Security: Detects underground structures like military bunkers and natural disasters, offering valuable security information.

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Scientists using the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) have found signs of possible life on exoplanet K2-18 b by detecting gases usually produced by Earth’s biological processes.

Key findings of the Recent Study:

• Scientists detected significant biosignatures in the atmosphere of K2-18 b, including dimethyl sulphide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS).
• These gases, on Earth, are primarily produced by marine phytoplankton.
• High concentrations of these gases suggest the possibility of microbial life, particularly in the planet’s oceans.
• However, researchers caution that this is not definitive proof of life but a potential biosignature indicating biological processes.
• Further studies and observations are needed to confirm whether these gases are biologically produced or the result of other processes.

About James Webb Space Telescope (JWST):

• JWST is a joint venture between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) launched in December 2021.
• It is an orbiting infrared observatory that will complement and extend the discoveries of the Hubble Space Telescope, with longer wavelength coverage and greatly improved sensitivity.
• Webb was formerly known as the “Next Generation Space Telescope” (NGST), and it was renamed in 2002 after a former NASA administrator, James Webb.
• It isa large infrared telescope with an approximately 6.5-meter primary mirror.
• JWST is positioned at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 5 million km away.
• It consists of a mirror, spanning 6.5 meters in diameter compared to Hubble’s 2.4 meters, and its specialised instruments optimised for infrared observations.
• Key Objectives:
  • JWST observes deeper into the universe than Hubble.
  • Observes celestial objects from earlier epochs.
  • Enables the detection of light from the universe’s earliest stars, dating back over 13.5 billion years.

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China has unveiled the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye telescope in Antarctica.

About the Three Gorges Antarctic Eye Telescope

• The Three Gorges Antarctic Eye is a 3.2m wide radio/millimetre-wave telescope located at China’s Zhongshan Station in Antarctica.
• It was developed by China Three Gorges University (CTGU) and Shanghai Normal University (SHNU).
• This telescope can detect radio waves and millimeter waves, types of invisible light, allowing scientists to study phenomena like neutral hydrogen and ammonia molecules, essential for understanding star formation and gas movement in space.
• Unlike most telescopes, it works with both radio and millimeter waves, providing a more comprehensive view of space.
• It is built in one of the harshest environments on Earth, with operating temperatures below -60°C and strong winds, making construction particularly challenging.

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The European Space Agency (ESA) is preparing to launch Biomass Mission to map the world’s forests and enhance our understanding of their crucial role in the global carbon cycle.

About the Biomass Mission by ESA

• The ESA will launch the Biomass mission on April 29, 2025, aboard the Vega C rocket from French Guiana.
• The mission aims to map the world’s forests, gathering data on their role in the carbon cycle and how they change over time.
• It will be placed in a sun-synchronous orbit (SSO) at around 666 km, optimizing sunlight for observations.
• It is the 7th mission in ESA’s Earth Explorer Program, focusing on data related to Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere, and land surface.

Features of the Biomass Mission:

• Biomass uses a P-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) sensor (70 cm frequency), capable of penetrating forest canopies to measure carbon storage in trees and the forest floor.
• It will be the first satellite to use this cutting-edge P-band SAR technology, offering unprecedented forest biomass data.
• Equipped with a 12-meter antenna, the satellite will deploy upon launch to conduct broad Earth observations.
• It will create 3D images of forests, from canopy to roots, providing detailed insights into forest health and carbon storage.

Significance of the Biomass Mission:

• The mission will fill critical gaps in forest biomass and height data, improving understanding of forests’ role in the carbon cycle and climate change.
• Biomass will measure carbon storage in forests and track changes due to deforestation and human activity.
• The mission’s data will aid climate change mitigation strategies by tracking carbon fluxes between forests and the atmosphere.
• It will support environmental monitoring, assist policymakers, and contribute to global climate change strategies.

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SpaceX has launched the Fram2 mission, sending four private astronauts on a groundbreaking journey to orbit Earth from pole to pole, marking a major milestone in space tourism.

About the Fram2 Polar-Orbiting Mission

• The Fram2 mission is a spaceflight undertaken by SpaceX, featuring a crew of four private astronauts.
• The mission is named after the Fram ship, a historical vessel used in early 20th-century polar expeditions.
• Unlike traditional space missions, Fram2 is designed to fly from pole to pole, completing an orbital journey around Earth that no human has attempted before.
• Its goal is to fly over both the North and South Poles, providing an unprecedented opportunity to observe these regions from low-Earth orbit.
• The mission will involve a series of scientific experiments focused on spaceflight and the effects of microgravity on the human body.
• The mission is scheduled to last between three to five days, with the astronauts aboard the Crew Dragon spacecraft completing each orbit in about 46 minutes.

Features and Significance:

• Unique Orbital Path:
  • Unlike traditional orbits closer to the equator, the Fram2 mission follows a polar trajectory, covering Earth’s poles.
  • This approach requires more fuel and presents a unique challenge in terms of mission logistics, making the Fram2 flight one of the most ambitious private space missions to date.
• Scientific Research:
  • The crew will participate in 22 experiments, including studies on microgravity’s impact on the human body, the effects of spaceflight on muscle loss and bone density, and X-ray imaging in space.
  • Additionally, the mission will gather data crucial for climate change research by focusing on Earth’s polar regions, which play a vital role in understanding global environmental changes.
• Climate Change Research:
  • As part of the mission, astronauts will be able to film and observe Earth’s polar regions, contributing valuable data to climate science.

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The Parker Solar Probe made history on December 24, 2024, by coming within 6.1 million kilometers of the Sun’s surface, marking the closest approach ever by a spacecraft.

About Parker Solar Probe

• The Parker Solar Probe, launched in August 2018, is a car-sized robotic spacecraft named after Eugene Newman Parker, an American solar astrophysicist.
• It is the first NASA mission named after a living researcher, and its mission is humanity’s first to explore within 3.8 million miles of the Sun’s corona.
• The spacecraft is equipped with an advanced carbon-composite heat shield capable of withstanding temperatures up to 1,370°C.
• This shield, which weighs only 73 kg, is designed to protect the probe from the Sun’s intense heat.
  • The probe’s instruments remain at a manageable 29°C due to the shield’s protection.
• The primary goals are:
  • Approach the Sun: The probe aims to get as close as 6.5 million kilometers to study the Sun’s energy flow, solar corona heating, and the sources of solar wind.
  • Explore Solar Wind: Investigate the origins and behaviour of solar wind, the high-speed streams of charged particles that impact space weather.
  • Study Solar Corona: Delve into the mystery of why the Sun’s corona is 200 times hotter than its surface.
  • Investigate Plasma and Magnetic Fields: Study the structure and dynamics of plasma and magnetic fields at the sources of solar wind.
• The Parker Solar Probe is equipped with four primary instruments:
  • FIELDS: Measures the electric and magnetic fields of the Sun’s atmosphere.
  • ISoIS: Observes energetic particles that lead to solar storms.
  • SWEAP: Records the properties of solar wind particles.
  • WISPR: Takes images of the solar corona.
  • Faraday Cup: Measures ion and electron density in the solar wind.

Impact of the Mission on Solar Science

• Understanding Solar Wind: The mission provides crucial data on the origins and behavior of solar wind, enhancing predictions of space weather and its impact on Earth.
• Solving the Solar Corona Mystery: The probe’s findings suggest that Alfvén waves, plasma oscillations, may be the key mechanism responsible for the heating of the Sun’s corona, addressing a long-standing puzzle in solar physics.
• New Discoveries on Space Dust: The probe’s discovery of dust-free pockets near the Sun challenges previous assumptions about the interaction of space dust with solar energy, offering new insights into solar dynamics.
• Space Weather and Solar Flares: By monitoring the Sun’s activity, the probe aids in understanding solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs), helping to mitigate the effects of space weather on Earth’s satellites and infrastructure.
• Advancement in Solar Exploration Technology: The mission’s success in utilizing advanced heat shields and high-speed space travel techniques paves the way for future solar missions and deeper exploration of stellar physics.

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The European Space Agency (ESA) officially shut down its Global Astrometric Interferometer for Astrophysics (GAIA) Mission, which had been operational for over a decade.

About the GAIA Mission

• It was launched in December 2013 with the primary goal to create the most accurate three-dimensional map of the Milky Way galaxy.
• It sought to measure the positions, distances, and movements of stars and other celestial bodies.
• Gaia was designed for astrometry, focusing on precise measurements of celestial object locations and motions.
• Positioned at Lagrange Point 2 (L2), 1.5 million kilometres behind Earth (as viewed from the Sun), Gaia was able to observe the universe without interference from Earth, the Sun, or the Moon.
• Gaia was equipped with two telescopes and a camera with nearly 1 billion pixels, the largest camera ever sent to space. Key instruments include:

1. Astrometer: Measured the location and motion of stars.
2. Photometer: Measured brightness of celestial objects.
3. Spectrometer: Analyzed the composition and movement of stars.

• Discoveries and Achievements:
  • Gaia mapped the Milky Way in 3D, uncovering its shape, structure, and movement. It also detected warping and wobbling in the galaxy.
  • Gaia identified new types of black holes by observing their gravitational effects and tracked over 150,000 asteroids, contributing insights on their orbits and future impacts on Earth.
  • Additionally, it provided new understanding of stellar evolution and the formation of stars, including the Sun.
• Gaia accumulated over 3 trillion observations, contributing to more than 13,000 scientific papers, revolutionizing knowledge about the Milky Way, the solar system, and galactic dynamics.

Why is Gaia being Decommissioned?

• After more than a decade of operations, the Gaia mission reached the end of its operational lifespan, making it unsustainable to continue its activities.
• After over 10 years in space, Gaia’s technology showed signs of wear, and continuing operations became unfeasible.
• On March 27, 2025, Gaia was successfully passivated, draining all internal energy sources. This means it can no longer be restarted or resumed for future operations.

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A recent study published by Johns Hopkins University (USA) and Northumbria University (UK) reveals how Collisionless Shock Waves act as cosmic accelerators, helping subatomic particles gain ultra-high energy and travel vast distances in space.

What are Collisionless Shock Waves?

• Collisionless shock waves are disturbances in plasma (ionized gas) where energy transfer occurs without direct particle collisions, relying instead on electromagnetic forces.
• They are found in supernova remnants, black hole disks, pulsars, magnetars, and planetary magnetospheres.
• They act as natural cosmic accelerators, boosting electrons and other charged particles to ultra-high speeds.

Key Findings from the Study

• NASA’s MMS, THEMIS, and ARTEMIS missions observed an electron acceleration event near Earth’s bow shock on December 17, 2017.
• Electrons in Earth’s foreshock region gained 500 keV of energy, reaching 86% of the speed of light, a huge increase from their usual 1 keV.
• Diffusive shock acceleration (known for producing high-energy cosmic rays) requires electrons to already be moving at 50% of light speed before further acceleration can occur.
• The study identifies how electrons receive this initial boost, a long-standing astrophysical mystery.
• Scientists have long assumed that supernova explosions are the primary source of cosmic rays.
• The recent study suggests that planetary magnetospheres interacting with stellar winds could also contribute to high-energy cosmic rays.

How Shock Waves accelerate Particles without Collisions?

• Unlike in solids, liquids, or gases, where energy is transferred via molecular collisions, plasma particles interact through electromagnetic fields.
• This allows shock waves to accelerate electrons without direct contact.
• Multi-Stage Acceleration Process:
  1. Plasma waves interact with electrons, imparting initial energy.
  2. Magnetic turbulence in the shock front causes electrons to spiral, further increasing their speed.
  3. Repeated interactions with plasma waves push electrons to relativistic speeds.
• Role of Earth’s Bow Shock & Foreshock:

• • When the solar wind collides with Earth’s magnetosphere, it forms a shock wave.
  • The foreshock region ahead of this wave is highly turbulent, enabling efficient electron acceleration.

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In December 2024, a 500 kg metal object crashed in Makueni County, Kenya, highlighting the growing concern over uncontrolled satellite re-entries, for which the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) remains accountable.

It has yet to implement binding regulations on space debris disposal and re-entry control.

About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

• The COPUOS was established in 1958 to promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of outer space and address legal issues related to space exploration.
• The committee currently has 102 member states (as of 2022) and meets annually in Vienna, Austria.
• COPUOS plays a key role in preventing the militarization of space and ensuring responsible space activity.
• Historical Context:
  • Established following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, COPUOS was instrumental in preventing space from becoming a new conflict zone.
  • Resolution 1721 (1961) declared that international law applies in outer space and directed states to report all space launches to the UN public registry.
• Subcommittees:
  • Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (meets in February).
  • Legal Subcommittee (meets in April).

Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:

• COPUOS oversees five key UN treaties and agreements related to space activities:

1. Outer Space Treaty (1967):  Establishes principles for space exploration and prohibits national sovereignty over celestial bodies.
2. Rescue Agreement (1968): Governs the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
3. Liability Convention (1972): Defines responsibility for damage caused by space objects, introducing absolute liability for damages on Earth.
4. Registration Convention (1976): Requires states to register launched space objects with the UN.
5. Moon Treaty (1984): Regulates activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies.

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On February 29, 2024, skywatchers worldwide witnessed a rare planetary alignment (parade) with seven planets—Mars, Jupiter, Uranus, Neptune, Mercury, Saturn, and Venus—lining up in the night sky.

What is Planetary Alignment?

• A planetary alignment occurs when multiple planets in the Solar System appear to line up in the sky as seen from Earth.
• This phenomenon happens because planets orbit the Sun in a flat, disc-shaped plane called the ecliptic.
• Although planets remain millions of kilometers apart, they seem to form a straight line from Earth’s perspective due to optical illusion and perspective.
• The term “planet parade” is also used to describe this occurrence when multiple planets become visible in the sky at the same time.

• Types of Planetary Alignments:

1. Conjunction: Two or more planets appear close to each other in the sky.
2. Small Alignment: Three planets align in a visible line.
3. Large Alignment: Four or more planets appear aligned from Earth’s perspective.
4. Full Alignment: All eight planets of the Solar System appear in a single line (very rare).

How often do Planetary Alignments occur?

• Planetary alignments are not uncommon, but their rarity depends on the number of planets involved.
  • Two- or Three-Planet Alignments: Occur multiple times a year.
  • Four- or Five-Planet Alignments: Visible every few years.
  • Six- or Seven-Planet Alignments: Appear every few decades.
  • Full Alignment (All Eight Planets): Extremely rare, occurs once every 170–200 years.

• Recent & Upcoming Alignments:

• • August 2025: Expected four-planet alignment.
  • May 2492: The next predicted full planetary alignment of all eight planets.

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US’s Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission 1 successfully landed on the Moon, becoming the second private mission to do so and the first to land upright.

What is ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1?

• Blue Ghost Mission 1 is a private lunar landing mission by Firefly Aerospace under NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program.
• It was launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9.
• It successfully landed on the Moon, at Mons Latreille, Mare Crisium.
• The mission is designed to operate for 14 Earth days (one lunar day).

Key Features of Blue Ghost Mission 1:

• Carries 10 scientific instruments, including a lunar soil analyzer, a radiation-tolerant computer, and a GPS-based navigation experiment to test satellite navigation on the Moon.
• Equipped with a high-definition imaging system to capture a lunar eclipse (March 14, 2024) and lunar sunset (March 16, 2024).
• Successfully navigated a rocky and cratered surface using hazard-avoidance technology, slowing from thousands of miles per hour to just two mph before touchdown.
• The lander is golden in color and about the size of a hippopotamus.
• It supports Artemis missions by testing lunar technologies and reducing costs for future human exploration.

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A new study has challenged previous assumptions, suggesting that Saturn’s rings could be as old as the Solar System (~4.5 billion years old).

About Saturn and Its Rings

• Saturn, the sixth planet from the Sun, is famous for its iconic ring system, made up of billions of ice and rock particles ranging in size from tiny grains to massive chunks.
• It is primarily composed of water ice (95%), with some dust and rocky debris.
• The rings are divided into seven main sections (A to G), with gaps like the Cassini Division.
• Scientists have debated whether the rings formed with Saturn (~4.5 billion years ago) or if they are only 100-400 million years old.
• Over time, tiny space rocks should darken the rings, yet they remain surprisingly bright.

Key Findings of the Study:

• Earlier estimates, based on Cassini data, suggested the rings were 100-400 million years old because they looked clean and bright.
• The new study suggests that micrometeoroid collisions remove dust efficiently, preventing the rings from darkening over time.
• High-speed micrometeoroid impacts (~108,000 km/h) cause dust to vaporize, rather than accumulate.
• The vaporized dust either escapes Saturn’s gravity, falls into the planet’s atmosphere, or gets ejected into space, keeping the rings pristine.
• 100 million years ago, the Solar System was stable, making ring formation unlikely.
• 4 billion years ago, the Solar System was chaotic, increasing the chances of violent planetary collisions that could have formed Saturn’s rings.

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The European Space Agency’s (ESA) Euclid Space Telescope has captured a rare Einstein Ring around a galaxy nearly 590 million light-years away from Earth.

What is an Einstein Ring?

• An Einstein Ring is a circular ring of light caused by gravitational lensing, a phenomenon predicted by Einstein’s General Theory of Relativity.
• It occurs when a massive celestial object (like a galaxy) bends and magnifies light from a more distant background galaxy that lies directly behind it.
• The recent discovery by ESA’s Euclid telescope identified an Einstein Ring around NGC 6505, located 590 million light-years away, acting as a lens for a distant galaxy 4.42 billion light-years away.
• Features of an Einstein Ring:
  • Perfect circular shape (only if source, lens, and observer align precisely).
  • Example of strong gravitational lensing, distorting background light.
  • Extremely rare (found in less than 1% of galaxies).
  • Not visible to the naked eye, observed only with advanced space telescopes like Euclid or Hubble.

Significance of the Discovery:

• Reveals Dark Matter: Helps indirectly map dark matter, which makes up 85% of the universe.
• Magnifies Hidden Galaxies: Makes faint, distant galaxies visible for study.
• Measures Universe’s Expansion: Tracks how light stretches over time, refining cosmological models.
• Confirms Einstein’s Theory: Proves light bends in curved space-time, supporting gravitational lensing theory.
• Demonstrates Euclid’s Capabilities: Shows Euclid’s high-resolution potential, promising more discoveries.

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NASA’s OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security–Regolith Explorer) mission has delivered samples from asteroid Bennu, revealing amino acids, nucleobases, and signs of ancient saltwater, key components in the origins of life.

About Asteroid Bennu  

• Asteroid Bennu is a carbon-rich asteroid that orbits between Earth and Mars.
• It is believed to be a primitive remnant of the early solar system, holding clues to the origins of life.
• The asteroid is porous, with up to 60% empty space, affecting its collision potential with Earth in the distant future.
• It periodically ejects material, classifying it as an active asteroid.
• OSIRIS-REx was NASA’s first asteroid sample-return mission, launched in 2016 to study and collect material from Bennu’s surface.
  • The spacecraft arrived at Bennu in 2018, mapped its surface for two years, and collected samples in 2020.
  • It successfully returned the material to Earth in 2023.
• The mission aimed to analyze Bennu’s composition, understand its water history, and study the organic molecules that may have played a role in the origin of life.

Significance of the Study:

• It strengthens the theory that asteroids contributed to life’s origins by delivering organic molecules and water to early Earth.
• It confirms that essential ingredients for life were widespread in the early solar system, increasing the possibility of life beyond Earth.
• It helps refine planetary defense strategies, as Bennu has a small chance of impacting Earth in the future.

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Scientists are deploying two advanced telescopes under the Mediterranean Sea as part of the Cubic Kilometre Neutrino Telescope (KM3NeT) project.

What is KM3NeT Project?

• The KM3NeT is a European research initiative launched in 2012 and located in the Mediterranean Sea.
• It uses advanced water Cherenkov detectors to study high-energy neutrinos and their origins, as well as fundamental neutrino properties.

• Key Components:

1. ARCA (Astroparticle Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Sicily, Italy, at 3,400 meters depth, studying high-energy cosmic neutrinos.
2. ORCA (Oscillation Research with Cosmics in the Abyss): Offshore Toulon, France, at 2,475 meters depth, focusing on neutrino oscillations and mass hierarchy.

• It detects Cherenkov radiation, faint light produced when neutrinos interact with water molecules, using 6,210 optical modules.
• Design:
  • Modular construction with plans to deploy 12,000 optical modules on 600 vertical strings, anchored to the seabed.
  • Connected via electro-optical networks to shore stations for power and data processing.

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The Parker Solar Probe has reached 6.1 million km from the Sun’s surface — the closest any human-made object has ever been. At this distance, if the Earth and Sun were 1 meter apart, the probe would be 4 cm from the Sun.

What is the Parker Solar Probe?

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Elon Musk, founder of SpaceX, denied claims that militants in Manipur (India) were using his Starlink satellite internet technology after the Indian Army and police seized Starlink devices alongside weapons.

What is Starlink?

• Starlink is a satellite internet service developed by SpaceX, designed to provide broadband internet via a network of low Earth orbit satellites.
• Satellites are launched ensuring low latency and high-speed connections compared to traditional satellite internet.
• Starlink uses a large constellation of satellites, each equipped with phased array antennas and parabolic antennas to boost capacity.
• SpaceX has plans to launch 42,000 satellites, which will create a mega-constellation to provide global coverage.

Does Starlink have regulatory approval in India?

• Starlink does not yet have regulatory approval in India.
• India’s regulatory framework restricts the use of foreign satellite communication services, especially for non-commercial purposes.
• Starlink is however operational in more than 60 countries, including neighboring countries like Bangladesh and Bhutan (where it plans to start operations in 2025).

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space startups from Japan and India announced a joint agreement to explore the use of laser-equipped satellites for removing debris from orbit, addressing the growing issue of orbital congestion.

What are the concerns related to space debris?

• Collision Risks: The increasing amount of space debris raises the likelihood of collisions with active satellites and spacecraft, which can lead to further debris generation in a cascading effect known as the Kessler Syndrome.
• Operational Challenges: Space debris complicates satellite operations and can disrupt services such as telecommunications, weather forecasting, and global positioning systems.
• Environmental Impact: The accumulation of debris in low Earth orbit (LEO) threatens the sustainability of space activities and could hinder future space exploration efforts.

What are the initiatives to tackle space debris globally?

• International Collaboration: Organizations like the United Nations have called for urgent action to track and manage space debris, emphasizing the need for global cooperation.
• Technological Innovations: Companies like Orbital Lasers are exploring innovative solutions such as using laser-equipped satellites to de-orbit defunct satellites and mitigate debris by vaporizing parts of their surfaces.
• Regulatory Frameworks: Various countries are developing regulations to ensure responsible satellite launches and operations, including guidelines for end-of-life satellite disposal to minimize future debris creation.

What are the measures should be taken by Satellite? (Way forward)

• Tracking and Monitoring: Satellites use onboard systems and ground-based tracking data to monitor the position of space debris and predict potential collision risks.
• Avoidance Maneuvers: Satellites perform preemptive orbital adjustments or “collision avoidance manoeuvres” to shift their trajectory away from debris.
• Shielding and Resilience: Some satellites are equipped with protective shielding to withstand minor debris impacts, minimizing potential damage in low-risk scenarios.

Mains PYQ:

Q What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (UPSC IAS/2019)

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The European Union has signed a contract for IRIS², a network of 290 satellites aimed at improving resilience, connectivity, and security.

About IRIS²:

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James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has identified a rare galaxy, Firefly Sparkle, offering a unique look into early galaxy formation.

About Galaxy Firefly Sparkle:

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The 14th Asia-Oceania Meteorological Satellite Users’ Conference (AOMSUC-14) will take place from December 4-6, 2024, in New Delhi.

About AOMSUC:

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The world’s first wood-panelled satellite, LignoSat, was recently launched to test the use of timber as a renewable material for future space missions.

About LignoSat Satellite:

LignoSat as a Renewable Solution for Space Construction

• Reduced Environmental Impact: Unlike conventional aluminium-based satellites, LignoSat reduces pollutants like aluminium oxides that damage the ozone layer upon re-entry.
• Sustainable Material: Wood is a renewable, lightweight, and corrosion-resistant material in space, as there is no water or oxygen to accelerate degradation.
• Long-Term Vision: The satellite could pave the way for sustainable space construction, with future plans to use wood in building structures on the Moon and Mars.
• Mitigating Orbital Congestion: As satellite constellations grow, sustainable materials like wood could help reduce space debris and pollution in Earth’s orbit.

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Recent research has revealed a surprising finding about Betelgeuse (which was believed to explode): the star’s unusual brightening and dimming patterns may be influenced by an unseen companion star.

Indicators and Scientific Evidence

• Betelgeuse’s cyclic dimming and brightening patterns indicate it is nearing the end of its life.
• Its massive size and expansion as a red supergiant suggest it is in a late stellar stage.
• Cooling surface temperature and mass loss through stellar winds signal increasing instability.
• Spectral analysis shows heavy elements in Betelgeuse’s layers, typical of late-stage fusion.
• An unseen companion star, or “Betelbuddy,” may be influencing its brightness and internal structure.

Potential Effects of Betelgeuse’s Supernova on Earth and Our Solar System

• Betelgeuse’s supernova will likely be visible in daylight for weeks and brighter than the Moon at night.
• At 650 light-years away, dangerous radiation would dissipate before reaching Earth, posing no harm.
• Space missions and satellites may experience minor interference from increased cosmic rays.
• The explosion will enrich the interstellar medium with heavy elements, contributing to new star formation.
• The supernova will provide valuable scientific insights into stellar life cycles and cosmic element formation.

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• Scientists long believed that volcanic activity on the moon ceased about a billion years ago.
  • However, a study based on China’s Chang’e-5 mission samples has questioned this belief with evidence suggesting the moon had active volcanoes as recently as 120 million years ago.

What are the Beads on the Moon?

• Lunar glass beads are small, spherical or egg-shaped glass particles found on the moon’s surface.
• These beads are formed in two main ways:

• • Volcanic Activity: During volcanic eruptions, molten lava fragments are thrown into the air, where they cool rapidly and form glass beads.
  • Impact Events: When asteroids or meteorites hit the moon’s surface, the intense pressure and heat melt the surface material. The molten material cools quickly, forming glass beads as it lands back on the surface.

• These beads are important because they:

• • Provide clues about the moon’s geological history.
  • Help scientists determine the age of volcanic eruptions.
  • Offer insights into the formation of the moon’s surface and its volcanic and impact events.

Key characteristics of Lunar Glass Beads

• Composition: These beads are primarily made of silicon, magnesium, and iron, with trace amounts of other elements such as potassium, titanium, and uranium.
• Volcanic vs. Impact Beads: Volcanic glass beads tend to be more uniform, while impact beads may show fractures or deformations caused by high-energy impacts. Volcanic beads often contain more volatile elements like sulphur, which are released during eruptions.

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Starlink satellites, operated by Elon Musk’s SpaceX, are causing issues for astronomers by disrupting both optical and radio astronomy due to unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR).

What is a Starlink Satellite?

• Starlink satellites are part of a network created by Elon Musk’s SpaceX to provide high-speed internet to remote areas around the world.
• The network, known as a satellite constellation, currently includes more than 6,300 satellites orbiting Earth at around 550 km altitude.
• These satellites aim to offer internet connectivity to places that would otherwise lack access, especially in rural or underserved regions.

What Starlink does to Space Communications?

• Starlink satellites are designed to improve global internet access, especially in hard-to-reach places, by transmitting signals from space.
• However, these satellites also emit unintended electromagnetic radiation (UEMR), which causes radio noise that disrupts radio astronomy observations.
• The situation may worsen as more satellites are launched — some estimates suggest 100,000 satellites could be orbiting Earth by 2030.
• There are currently no regulations controlling how much radio pollution these satellites can emit, making it harder for astronomers to mitigate the impact on their work.

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The Square Kilometer Array (SKA), the world’s largest radio telescope, has carried out its first observations, marking a major milestone.

About Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project:

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Two NASA astronauts aboard Boeing’s Starliner will remain on the International Space Station (ISS) for an extended period due to issues with a faulty propulsion system, including helium leaks.

About Helium

• Helium is inert, meaning it does not react or combust when exposed to other substances.
• This makes it ideal for pressurization and cooling systems in rockets and spacecraft.
• With an atomic number of 2, Helium is second lightest element after hydrogen, helping to keep the rocket’s weight low, which is crucial for achieving the necessary speeds and altitudes to reach orbit.
• It has an extremely low boiling point (-268.9°C), allowing it to stay in a gaseous state in super-cold environments, where many rocket fuels are stored.
• Though non-toxic, helium cannot be inhaled on its own as it displaces oxygen, which is vital for human respiration.

How is Helium used for space applications?

• Fuel Tank Pressurization: Helium pressurizes fuel tanks, ensuring a consistent flow of fuel to the rocket’s engines, even as the fuel is burned.
• Cooling Systems: It also plays a key role in cooling systems, particularly in environments where rocket fuel and oxidizer need to be stored at extremely low temperatures.
• Maintaining Tank Pressure: As fuel and oxidizer are consumed, helium fills the empty space left behind, ensuring the overall pressure inside the tanks remains stable.

Is Helium prone to leaks?

• Helium’s small atomic size and low molecular weight make it prone to leaking through tiny gaps or seals in storage tanks and fuel systems.
• Since helium is rare in Earth’s atmosphere, even minor leaks are easily detectable, making it a valuable tool for spotting potential faults in spacecraft fuel systems.

• Examples of Leaks:

• • In May, hours before Boeing’s Starliner spacecraft attempted its first astronaut launch, sensors detected a small helium leak in one of its thrusters.
  • After Starliner launched in June, additional leaks were found in space, prompting NASA to return the spacecraft to Earth without its crew.

Alternatives to Helium

• Argon and Nitrogen: Some rocket launches have experimented with other inert gases like argon and nitrogen, which are sometimes cheaper, but helium remains the industry standard.
• Ariane 6’s Novel System: Europe’s new Ariane 6 rocket abandoned helium in favor of a pressurization system that converts small amounts of its liquid oxygen and hydrogen into gas for pressurizing the fuel.
  • However, during Ariane 6’s debut launch, this system failed in space, adding to the global rocket industry’s pressurization challenges.

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• Planetary protection is a crucial principle in space missions that travel from Earth to other planetary bodies, such as the Moon or Mars.
  • The goal is to preserve both Earth’s biosphere and the planetary body’s environment from contamination by alien microbial life.

About Planetary Protection:

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Polaris Dawn is set to be the first privately-funded mission to conduct a spacewalk, aiming to reach an altitude of about 700 kilometers above Earth, the highest altitude for a human space mission to date.

What is Polaris Dawn Mission?

• Polaris Dawn is a privately-funded space mission led by billionaire entrepreneur Jared Isaacman, in collaboration with SpaceX.
• It is set to be the first non-government mission to conduct a spacewalk.
• This 700km altitude will surpass the current record held by NASA’s Gemini 11 mission in 1966.
• The mission will test new spacesuits designed by SpaceX to protect astronauts from high radiation levels encountered in the Van Allen Belts.

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European scientists are preparing to execute a first-of-its-kind ‘Double Slingshot’ orbital maneuver to guide the JUICE probe towards Jupiter using a double slingshot technique.

About JUICE Mission:

What is the Double Slingshot Maneuver?

• The JUICE probe will first use the moon’s gravity to set itself on the correct trajectory towards Earth.
• Immediately after, it will use Earth’s gravity to slow down and redirect towards Venus and, eventually, Jupiter.

Significance of the Gravity Assist

• This technique, used for decades in space exploration, involves using a planet or moon’s gravity to alter the speed or direction of a spacecraft.
• It is unique as it involves back-to-back gravity assists using both the moon and Earth’s gravity, which has never been attempted before.

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• US space agency NASA’s Cassini-Huygens spacecraft launched in October 1997.
  • Using Cassini’s radar data, scientists from Cornell University have discovered new information about the liquid ocean on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon.

About Cassini-Huygens Mission

• The Cassini-Huygens mission was a collaborative project between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA), and the Italian Space Agency (ASI) to explore Saturn and its moons.
• The spacecraft was named after astronomers Giovanni Cassini and Christian Huygens.
• The mission consisted of the Cassini orbiter and the Huygens probe.
• It was launched on October 15, 1997.
• It ended its mission on September 15, 2017 by plunging into Saturn’s atmosphere.

Key Achievements:

• Saturn Exploration:
  • Detailed study of Saturn’s atmosphere, rings, and magnetosphere.
  • Discovered new rings and observed the complex structure of the existing ones.
• Moons of Saturn:
  • Titan Exploration: Huygens probe successfully landed on Titan, Saturn’s largest moon, on January 14, 2005, providing the first direct exploration of Titan’s surface and atmosphere.
  • Enceladus Discoveries: Found water-ice plumes erupting from Enceladus, indicating a subsurface ocean that could potentially harbor life.

• Other Moons: Provided detailed images and data on other moons like Lapetus, Rhea, Dione, and Tethys.

• Technological Milestones:
  • Demonstrated the success of long-duration missions in deep space.
  • Advanced the understanding of spacecraft navigation and operation in complex planetary environments.

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Recently, astronomers have made progress in finding possible candidates as Dyson Sphere, sparking new excitement and debate about extraterrestrial life.

What is a Dyson Sphere? 

• Imagine you are an astronomer looking for extraterrestrial life and you find a star covered by solar panels. This structure, collecting massive amounts of solar energy, is known as a Dyson sphere.
• The concept is named after Freeman Dyson, a theoretical physicist who lived from 1923 to 2020.
• Dyson proposed that advanced civilizations would need to harness a star’s energy, constructing a spherical array of solar collectors around it.
• He suggested that the heat emitted as infrared radiation could indicate the presence of these massive structures and thus intelligent life.

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• Scientists have confirmed the presence of a cave on the Moon, near the site of the first lunar landing 55 years ago.
• This discovery could provide astronauts with a potential habitat on the Moon in the future.

About the Cave on Mare Tranquillitatis

• A study titled “Radar evidence of an accessible cave conduit on the Moon below the Mare Tranquillitatis pit” was published in the journal Nature Astronomy.
• The study established the presence of a moon cave at the Sea of Tranquillity, a large, dark, basaltic plain on the Moon’s surface.
• The cave is located 400 kilometers from where astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed in 1969.
• It is roughly 45 meters wide and up to 80 meters long, with an area equivalent to 14 tennis courts.

Research Method

• Researchers analyzed photos taken in 2010 by NASA’s Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) spacecraft.
• They concluded that the pit was the entry point to a cave created by the collapse of a lava tube, a tunnel formed when molten lava flows beneath a field of cooled lava.

Characteristics of Lunar Caves

• Craters are bowl-shaped and result from asteroid or comet strikes.
• Pits, in contrast, appear as massive steep-walled depressions.
• At least 200 such pits have been discovered, with 16 believed to have formed from collapsed lava tubes due to volcanic activity over a billion years ago.

Benefits for Human Exploration

• The Moon is exposed to solar radiation 150 times stronger than Earth.
• The lunar surface heats to about 127 degrees Celsius during the day and cools to around -173 degrees Celsius at night.
• Caves, however, maintain stable average temperatures of around 17 degrees Celsius.
• They could shield human explorers from radiation and micrometeorites, making them viable for future lunar bases or emergency shelters.

Challenges and Further Research

• The depth of such caves could present challenges for accessibility.
• There are risks of potential avalanches and cave-ins.

Need for Further Research

• Further research is needed to understand and map the structural stability of the caves.
• This could be done using ground-penetrating radar, robots, or cameras.
• To become viable habitats, caves would need systems to monitor movement or seismic activity and safety zones for astronauts in case of a cave collapse.

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A new study has revealed more spiral galaxies in the universe’s youth than astronomers had previously expected.

Universe’s Age and Galaxy Types

• The universe is about 13.8 billion years old and hosts various kinds of galaxies, from spiral to elliptical.
• Astronomers believed spiral galaxies formed about 6 billion years ago, but the new study calls this into question.
• Younger galaxies tend to spiral, while older ones have a variety of shapes, making the study of older galaxies more challenging due to fainter light.

Formation of Galaxies

• As the universe cooled from a dense plasma state, hot gas formed clumps that became galaxies.
• These early galaxies had irregular shapes and lacked disks.
• Spiral Formation Theory:
  • The traditional theory suggested that it took billions of years for hot, thick disks to become thinner and form spiral arms.
  • The new study suggests that cooling and spiral formation occur around the same cosmic time.

How is this verified?

• Astronomers observe star formation in real time but study galaxy evolution through “astronomical archaeology.”

• • Understanding the fraction of spiral galaxies helps astronomers trace the biography of galaxies.
  • Infrared and optical wavelengths are used to detect early galaxies, requiring powerful telescopes due to the faint light of older galaxies.

• James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) launched in 2021 has enabled astronomers to study deeper into the universe’s past.

• Study Methodology:

• • The University of Missouri team used the JWST to study 873 galaxies and identified at least 216 spiral galaxies, some dating to 1.5 billion years after the universe’s birth.
  • Each of the six authors classified the images as spiral or non-spiral, ensuring the result is free of human bias.

Findings and Implications

• The fraction of spiral galaxies increased from about 8% to 48% between 3 billion and 7 billion years after the Big Bang, higher than previously observed.
• The study challenges existing models and suggests that galaxy formation theories need to be more complex.

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• On June 25, Chang’e-6 became the world’s first spacecraft to bring back samples from the far side of the Moon.
  • Chang’e-6 successfully returned with samples from the lunar far side, making China the first country to achieve this feat.

Components of Chang’e-6 

1. Lander: Equipped with drills and scoops for sample collection.
2. Ascender: Transported samples from the lunar surface to lunar orbit.
3. Orbiter: Carried the samples from lunar orbit back to Earth.
4. Returner: Brought the samples safely back to Earth.

Collaboration and Payloads

The mission carried instruments from international partners, including:

• French DORN: Studied lunar dust and volatiles.
• Italian INRRI: Measured distances using a retroreflector.
• Swedish NILS: Detected negative ions on the lunar surface.
• Pakistani ICUBE-Q CubeSat: Imaged the lunar surface and obtained magnetic field data.

Scientific Goals  

• Sample Analysis: Scientists aim to learn more about the Moon’s internal structure and the differences between its near and far sides.

China’s Lunar Exploration Program

• Chang’e-6 follows previous missions under China’s Lunar Exploration Program, marking the next step in incremental technological advancements.
• Phases of Exploration: The program has four phases:

1. First Phase: Reaching lunar orbit, completed by Chang’e 1 (2007) and Chang’e 2 (2010).
2. Second Phase: Landing and roving, achieved by Chang’e 3 (2013) and Chang’e 4 (2019).
3. Third Phase: Sample collection and return, accomplished by Chang’e 5 (2020) and Chang’e 6 (2024).
4. Fourth Phase: Developing a robotic research station near the Moon’s South Pole, aiming for crewed lunar landings in the 2030s.

Previous Lunar Sample Missions

• Apollo 11 Mission (1969): The US mission brought 22 kg of lunar material, including 50 rocks.
• Luna 16 Mission (1970): Soviet robotic mission brought lunar samples to Earth.
• Chang’e-5 Mission (2020): Predecessor to Chang’e-6, returned 2 kg of lunar soil from the near side.

Significance of Sample Return Missions

• Laboratory Analysis: Allows the use of sophisticated instruments to study the chemical, isotopic, mineralogical, structural, and physical properties of samples.
• Long-term Preservation: Samples can be preserved and re-examined by future generations with advanced technology.
• Technological Feat: Recovering samples from the far side is a significant technological achievement.
• Step Towards Human Exploration: Success of Chang’e-6 is seen as a step towards China’s goal of landing astronauts on the Moon by 2030.
• Launch Pad for Deep Space: The Moon could serve as a base for future deep space missions and extraterrestrial exploration.

Outcome: New Lunar Race

• Global Participation: India, China, Japan, the US, and Russia launched lunar missions in 2023.
• Future Missions: Over 100 Moon missions by governments and private companies are expected by 2030.
• Long-term Goals: Unlike the 20th-century space race, today’s missions aim to establish a long-term presence and use lunar resources.

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The Space Variable Objects Monitor (SVOM) satellite jointly developed by China and France was launched from the Xichang Satellite Launch Center.

Importance of Studying Gamma-Ray Bursts (GRBs)

• GRBs are highly energetic bursts of gamma rays, lasting from less than a second to several minutes, occurring in distant parts of the universe.GRBs can erupt with a luminosity a quintillion times that of the Sun.
• Types of GRBs:

1. Short GRBs: Result from collisions of neutron stars or a neutron star with a black hole, lasting less than two seconds, often followed by kilonovas.
2. Long GRBs: Result from the explosive deaths of massive stars, lasting two seconds or longer.

Mission and Objectives of SVOM

• Primary Objective: To search for and study GRBs across the universe.
• Data Collection: Measure and analyze electromagnetic radiation properties of GRBs.
• Scientific Goals: Unlock mysteries about the universe’s evolution and gravitational waves, which are often associated with neutron star collisions.
• Real-time Detection: Transmit GRB data to ground control within about one minute, enabling coordinated observations with ground-based stations globally.

Features and Capabilities of SVOM

• Satellite Specifications: Weighs 930 kg and is equipped with four payloads, two developed by France and two by China.
• French Contributions: ECLAIRs and MXT telescopes to detect and capture GRBs.
• Chinese Contributions:

1. Gamma Ray Burst Monitor (GRM): Measures the spectrum of GRBs.
2. Visible Telescope (VT): Detects and observes visible emissions immediately after a GRB.

• Orbit Details: Placed in a low Earth orbit at an altitude of 625 km, with an orbital period of 96 minutes.

Significance of SVOM’s Findings

• Early Universe Insights: Aim to detect the earliest GRBs, providing information on the universe’s early stages and evolution.
• Kilonova Detection: Capability to search for kilonovas, enhancing understanding of stellar evolution and the origin of heavy elements like gold and silver in the universe.

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On June 16, 1963, Valentina Tereshkova made history as the first woman to venture into space. Her achievement marked a significant milestone in the Space Race between the USA and the USSR during the Cold War.

The Mission – Vostok 6

• On June 16, 1963, Tereshkova piloted Vostok 6, becoming the first woman to orbit the Earth.
• She spent 71 hours in space, completing 48 orbits around the Earth during her mission.

Impact and Legacy

• Tereshkova’s mission boosted Soviet prestige in the Space Race, following earlier successes like launching Sputnik-1 in 1957 and Yuri Gagarin’s historic flight in 1961.
• Despite her pioneering role, the USA would later achieve milestones like the Apollo moon landings, surpassing Soviet achievements in manned space missions.
• Tereshkova continued to advocate for women’s participation in space exploration and held prominent positions in Soviet politics and the Air Force.

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• SpaceX’s Starship rocket completed its first fully successful test flight. This test flight brings SpaceX closer to its goal of creating a fully reusable rocket system, a development that could revolutionize space exploration and travel.

Cost Reduction and Efficiency with Starship

• Starship can carry up to 150 tonnes of payload to low-Earth orbit.
• It can be refuelled in space, thereby promising a significant reduction in the cost of space travel.
• In-orbit refuelling allows Starship to operate like an aeroplane, reducing downtime between missions and maximizing efficiency.
• Starship’s fully reusable design minimizes the need for costly hardware replacement, unlike traditional rocket systems.

Scientific Benefits of Starship

• Enhanced Payload Capability: Starship’s capacity for heavy payloads enables the launch of larger space telescopes and equipment for lunar and Martian missions.
• Exploration Potential: Scientists can deploy larger and more sophisticated instruments, such as drilling rigs, to explore the Moon and Mars in unprecedented detail.
• Sample Return Missions: Starship’s capability to return to Earth facilitates the retrieval of valuable samples from other planets, aiding in scientific research and understanding.

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• NASA predicts the dim star T Coronae Borealis will become visible to the naked eye by September 2024, reaching brightness comparable to Polaris.
  • A dim star known as the “Blaze Star,” officially designated as T Coronae Borealis (T CrB), located 3,000 light-years from our solar system, is set to become visible to the naked eye for the first time since 1946.

Understanding the Blaze Star Phenomenon

• The Blaze Star is a rare recurrent nova, a binary star system comprising a cool, red giant star and a smaller, hotter white dwarf star in orbit around each other.
• Every 80 years, the red giant transfers matter onto the white dwarf, triggering explosive phenomena.
• Historical observations suggest the Blaze Star is on the brink of another explosion, following similar brightness patterns observed before previous eruptions in 1866 and 1946.
  • Precursor Signs: The star has been steadily brightening since 2015, followed by a visible dimming in March 2023, mirroring past eruption precursors.

Implications for Observation

• Peak Visibility: During its brightness peak, the Blaze Star is expected to be visible to the naked eye for several days, extending to just over a week with stargazing binoculars or a small telescope.
• Astronomical Insights: The impending eruption offers a unique opportunity for astronomers to observe and study this celestial event, providing valuable insights into stellar evolution and dynamics.

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The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched by NASA, has unveiled a groundbreaking find It has captured imagery of the universe’s earliest-known galaxy, revealing unexpected brightness and size given its formation during the universe’s infancy.

About JADES-GS-z14-0 Galaxy 

• Named JADES-GS-z14-0, this galaxy was formed approximately 290 million years after the Big Bang.
• Spanning about 1,700 light-years across, it consists of a mass equivalent to 500 million stars akin to our Sun.
• Despite its ancient age, the galaxy is actively generating stars at a rapid pace, producing around 20 new stars annually.

Scientific Insights:

• Historical Context: Previously, the earliest-known galaxy was dated to approximately 320 million years post-Big Bang, indicating the significance of this new discovery.
• Luminosity Theories: While hypotheses suggest various explanations for the galaxy’s luminosity, including supermassive black holes or unusually bright stars, further research is required to validate these theories.

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NASA launched the ” PREFIRE mission”, deploying twin CubeSats to study heat emissions in the Arctic and Antarctic regions, aiming to enhance climate research.

About PREFIRE Mission

• Jointly developed by NASA and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. 
• It aims to investigate and comprehend the intricate dynamics of heat emissions from Earth’s Polar Regions, specifically focusing on the Arctic and Antarctica.

Components:

• CubeSats: PREFIRE employs shoebox-sized CubeSats, each measuring around 6U (6 units), equipped with advanced instrumentation to facilitate data collection.
  • They measure around 90 cm in height and nearly 120 cm in width when the solar panels, which will power the satellite, are deployed.
  • The two satellites will be placed in a near-polar orbit (a type of low Earth orbit) at an altitude of about 525 kilometres.
• Thermal Infrared Spectrometers (TIRS): Each CubeSat is outfitted with a Thermal Infrared Spectrometer, meticulously engineered to measure far-infrared radiation emitted by the Polar Regions.

Mission Objectives:

1. Investigate heat radiated from Earth’s Polar Regions into space and its impact on climate.
2. Employ thermal infrared spectrometers to measure far-infrared energy emitted by Earth’s surface and atmosphere.
3. Improve understanding of the greenhouse effect at the poles and its implications for climate change.
4. Enhance climate and ice models to predict changes in sea level, weather, snow, and ice cover in a warming world.

Significance of PREFIRE

• PREFIRE’s observations will enhance predictions of climate and environmental changes, aiding in mitigating the effects of global warming.
• Data collected will contribute to updating climate models and improving understanding of Earth’s atmospheric dynamics.

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• The Zero Debris Charter was signed by twelve nations and the European Space Agency (ESA) at the ESA/EU Space Council.

Zero Debris Charter

• • The Zero Debris Charter was unveiled at the ESA Space Summit in Seville, Spain, in November 2023.
  • The Charter was facilitated by ESA’s “Protection of Space Assets” Accelerator and developed through extensive collaboration among various space actors.

• Objectives:

• To achieve debris neutrality in space by 2030.
• Long-term sustainability of human activities in Earth orbit.

• Members:

• • The signatory countries are Austria, Belgium, Cyprus, Estonia, Germany, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Sweden, and the United Kingdom.
  • The ESA signed as an International Organization.

Community Support and Leadership

• Over 100 organizations are expected to sign the Charter in the coming months.
• This includes national space agencies, satellite manufacturers, space startups, and astronomical societies.

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NASA has launched its Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) spacecraft that uses sunlight for propulsion from New Zealand into space.

About Advanced Composite Solar Sail System (ACS3) Project

• The spacecraft is slated to orbit 1,000 kilometers above Earth, deploying an 80-square-meter solar sail approximately 25 minutes after liftoff.
• It harnesses sunlight as a renewable propulsion source, marking a novel advancement in space exploration.
• It uses a compact CubeSat, similar in size to an oven, which facilitates propulsion by capturing solar particle energy.
• Operational Phases:
• The initial flight phase spans two months and involves subsystems checkout and solar sail deployment.
• A series of pointing maneuvers will showcase orbit raising and lowering, validating the effectiveness of sunlight pressure on the sail.

The Technology Behind: Solar Sailing

• Solar sails typically consist of lightweight, reflective materials such as Mylar or aluminized Kapton, which are deployed in space to capture sunlight.
• The sail is often configured as a large, thin membrane with a large surface area to maximize the amount of sunlight it can intercept.
• When sunlight reflects off a shiny solar sail, some of its momentum is transferred, giving the sail a small push.

Solar sailing offers several advantages over traditional propulsion methods, including:

1. Efficiency: Solar sailing does not require onboard fuel, making it a highly efficient and sustainable propulsion method for long-duration missions.
2. Continuous thrust: Unlike chemical rockets, which provide brief bursts of acceleration, solar sails can provide continuous thrust as long as they are exposed to sunlight.
3. Maneuverability: Solar sails can change their trajectory by adjusting the orientation of the sail relative to the direction of incoming sunlight. This allows for precise navigation and maneuvering in space.
4. Interstellar travel: Solar sailing has the potential to enable interstellar missions by gradually accelerating spacecraft to very high velocities over time, allowing them to explore distant star systems.

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• The White House directed NASA to establish a time standard for the Moon, named Coordinated Lunar Time (LTC) by the end of 2026.
• This move aims to facilitate coordination among international bodies and private companies operating on the lunar surface.

Timekeeping on the Moon

• The Moon has its own day and night cycle, which lasts about 29.5 Earth days.
• Currently, the time on the Moon is measured using Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), which is the same timekeeping system used on the Earth.
• However, because the Moon’s day is much longer than Earth’s day, it would be difficult to use UTC for day-to-day activities on the Moon.

Need for a Lunar Time Standard

1. Earth’s Time Standard:

• Earth’s time standard is primarily based on Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), set by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France.
• UTC is determined by a weighted average of over 400 atomic clocks worldwide, providing a universally agreed-upon standard for time measurement.

2. Challenges with Earth’s Time Standard on the Moon:

• Time on the Moon differs from Earth due to factors like gravity and the Moon’s rotation.
• Time on the Moon ticks slightly faster due to lower gravity (about 56 microseconds every day) as per Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity.

Establishing a Lunar Time Standard:

1. Technical Considerations:

• LTC cannot be based on UTC due to the time differences between Earth and the Moon.
• Current lunar missions operate on independent timescales linked to UTC, but this approach becomes challenging with multiple space crafts on the Moon.

2. Deployment of Atomic Clocks:

• Like on Earth, atomic clocks can be deployed on the lunar surface to establish a time standard.
• A 2023 report suggests placing at least three atomic clocks on the Moon’s surface, accounting for variations in lunar rotation and local gravity.

3. Synthesizing Time Measurements:

• Atomic clocks placed at different lunar locations will tick at the Moon’s natural pace.
• Output from these clocks will be combined using algorithms to generate a unified time standard for the Moon, tied back to UTC for Earth operations.

Benefits offered by Lunar Time

• Having a lunar time zone would also make it easier for scientists and researchers to conduct experiments and collect data on the Moon.
• It would also help to prevent confusion and errors that could arise from using different timekeeping systems on Earth and the Moon.

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Why in the news?

A Czech citizen has spotted a comet in an image from the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO) spacecraft, which has now been confirmed to be the 5,000th comet discovered using SOHO data.

Solar and Heliospheric Observatory (SOHO)

• The SOHO is a spacecraft jointly operated by the European Space Agency (ESA) and NASA.
• Launched in December 1995, its primary mission is to study the Sun, particularly its outer atmosphere, known as the corona, and the solar wind.
• SOHO observes the Sun in various wavelengths of light, enabling scientists to study phenomena such as sunspots, solar flares, and coronal mass ejections.
• SOHO orbits the Sun at Lagrange Point L1, about 1.5 million kilometers (nearly 1 million miles) from Earth, providing an uninterrupted view of the Sun.
• Its observations have led to discoveries such as-

1. Identifying the source regions of solar wind,
2. Tracking solar eruptions, and
3. Monitoring changes in the Sun’s activity over its 11-year solar cycle.

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In the news

• Recently, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) shared mesmerizing images of Cavum clouds, also known as “hole-punch clouds” or “fallstreak holes,” as observed from space.

What are Cavum Clouds?

• Formation Process: Cavum clouds are formed when airplanes traverse through layers of altocumulus clouds, which are mid-level clouds containing supercooled water droplets (water below freezing temperature but still in liquid form).
• Adiabatic Expansion: As the aircraft moves through, a phenomenon called adiabatic expansion can occur, causing the water droplets to freeze into ice crystals.
• Creation of Holes: These ice crystals eventually become too heavy and fall out of the cloud layer, resulting in the formation of a hole in the clouds.
• Steep Angle Formation: Cavum clouds are typically formed when planes pass through at a relatively steep angle.

About Altocumulus Clouds

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Introduction

• The formation of planets within protostellar discs, swirling reservoirs of gas and dust, remains a captivating field in astrophysics.
• Recent advancements in computer simulations have unveiled the unexpected flattened shapes of nascent gas planets within these discs, providing critical understanding of planetary genesis.

What are Circumstellar Discs?

• Protoplanetary Discs: These discs, comprised of dust, gas, and other celestial objects, orbit newly formed stars and serve as the birthplace of planets.
• Composition and Evolution: Initially predominantly gas, protoplanetary discs evolve, hosting various materials including asteroids, comets, and planets.
• Findings: Hubble Space Telescope offers detailed views of these regions, aiding astronomers in studying planet formation dynamics.

Distinctive Shape of Protoplanets

• Unique Structure: Protoplanets exhibit oblate spheroid shapes, highly flattened, resembling discs with up to 90% flattening.
• Growth Dynamics: Gas accumulation primarily occurs through poles rather than equators, impacting observed properties and interpretation of observations.

Formation Mechanisms

• Core Accretion vs. Disc Instability: These two prominent theories offer models for planet formation, emphasizing diverse mechanisms contributing to planetary systems’ complexity.
• Role of Disc Instability: This mechanism, explaining rapid gas giant formation, aligns with observations of certain exoplanetary systems, highlighting the interplay of formation processes.

Challenges in Observation

• Limited Detection: Observing nascent protoplanets within these discs poses challenges, with only a few detected to date, such as within the PDS 70 system.
• Temporal Constraints: The short duration of planetary formation phases necessitates precise timing for observational opportunities.

Insights from Simulations

• Computational Studies: High-resolution simulations elucidate thermal conditions influencing gas protoplanet properties within the discs, offering invaluable insights into their formation.
• Resolution and Analysis: These simulations, computationally demanding, trace protoplanet evolution from condensation to provide a deeper understanding.

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Introduction

• Astronomers have triumphantly uncovered a rare class of stars, known as helium stars, after a decade-long quest.
• Led by Dr. Maria Drout from the University of Toronto, astronomers embarked on a collaborative mission to decipher the mysteries of these elusive cosmic entities

Helium Stars: An Overview

• Helium stars, also known as helium-burning stars, are a stage in the evolution of certain types of stars.
• These stars are typically more massive than the Sun and have exhausted the hydrogen fuel in their cores, leading to a contraction and subsequent heating of the core.
• As a result, helium fusion begins in the core, where helium nuclei fuse to form heavier elements such as carbon and oxygen.
• This fusion process releases energy, causing the star to expand and become more luminous.
• Helium stars represent an intermediate stage in stellar evolution between main-sequence stars and later stages such as red giants or supernovae.

Key Findings and Insights

• Spectral Analysis: Rigorous spectral analysis conducted from 2017 to 2024 unveiled distinct classes of helium stars based on hydrogen content, providing profound insights into their evolutionary trajectories.
• Computational Modeling: Advanced computational modelling techniques yielded crucial data on surface temperatures and gravitational forces, enriching our understanding of helium stars’ properties.
• Surface Conditions of Class 1 Stars: Further investigations into Class 1 helium stars revealed intriguing surface conditions. The team utilized computer modelling to determine surface temperature and gravity, finding them to be approximately 20 times hotter than the Sun and possessing surface gravity about 1,000 times stronger than Earth’s.

Significance of the Findings

• Hydrogen-Deficient Supernovae: A pivotal breakthrough in the discovery of helium stars was the elucidation of hydrogen-deficient supernovae, perplexing phenomena that puzzled scientists for decades.
• Binary-Star Interactions: Gravitational interactions within binary star systems played a crucial role in unmasking the helium-rich surfaces of these stellar anomalies.

Implications for Astrophysics

• Cosmic Laboratories: Helium stars serve as invaluable cosmic laboratories, offering unprecedented opportunities to explore the intricacies of stellar evolution and binary star dynamics.
• Frontiers of Research: Their discovery opens new frontiers in astrophysical research, unraveling mysteries surrounding heavy element formation and gravitational wave generation.

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Introduction

• Recent findings published in the journal Nature suggest that beneath the icy shell of Mimas, there lies a potential liquid ocean, challenging previous assumptions about the moon’s composition and internal dynamics.

About Mimas

Astronomical Insights

• Potential Liquid Ocean: Scientists analyzed Mimas’s orbital motion using data from NASA’s Cassini spacecraft, concluding that the moon’s oscillations indicate the presence of either an elongated silicate core or a global ocean.
• Librational Model: Calculations based on Mimas’s librations and orbital changes reached a deadlock, prompting consideration of a subsurface ocean. Theoretical models incorporating viscoelastic outer layers and hydrostatic interior interfaces suggested an ice shell thickness of 20-30 km.
• Surface Heat and Eccentricity: Estimates indicate surface heat release of approximately 25 milliwatts per sq. m, expected to reduce Mimas’s eccentricity by half in 4-5 million years. Simulations suggest the ocean may have formed 2-25 million years ago, with potential hydrothermal activity.

Implications and Findings

• Comparative Analysis: Similarities between Mimas and Enceladus, another Saturn moon with a global ocean, hint at potential hydrothermal activity despite surface differences.
• Ice Shell Composition: The viscoelastic nature of Mimas’s outer icy layer and hydrostatic interior interfaces align with observations, supporting the theoretical ice shell thickness determined through calculations.

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Introduction

• Juno, a spacecraft launched by NASA in 2011, embarked on a mission to unravel the secrets of Jupiter and its moons.
• En route to Jupiter, Juno encountered fast-moving dust particles, resulting in significant damage to its solar panels.

About NASA’s Juno Mission

Dusts in Interplanetary Space

• Calculating Dust Flux: Scientists harnessed Juno’s data to estimate the flux of dust particles encountered between 1 and 5 Astronomical Units (AU), shedding light on the density and distribution of interplanetary dust.
• Exploring Dust Sources: Analysis suggested Mars’s moons, Deimos and Phobos, as potential sources of interplanetary dust, offering tantalizing clues to unraveling the enigmatic origins of these celestial particles.

How Martian Moons, Deimos and Phobos produce this Dust?

• Micrometeorite Impacts: Micrometeorites, tiny yet potent dust particles, bombard Mars’s moons, creating ephemeral clouds of dust upon impact due to the absence of atmospheres.
• Escape into Space: Deimos and Phobos, characterized by low gravity, facilitate the escape of dust particles into space, contributing to the formation of a dusty ring around Mars.

Insights from Observations

• Gravitational Dynamics: This models incorporated gravitational effects, lunar shapes, and dust particle velocities, offering a comprehensive understanding of the dust dynamics within the Martian system.
• Validation through Future Missions: Prospective missions to Deimos and Phobos hold the promise of validating the recent findings, shedding further light on the dusty realms of these enigmatic moons.

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Introduction

• In 1967 a group of astronomers at the University of Cambridge stumbled upon a celestial mystery that would unravel the secrets of neutron stars.
• Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish observed periodic signals emanating from the depths of space, eventually discovering the first pulsar, PSR B1919+21.

Pulsars and Neutron Stars

• The Birth of a Pulsar: PSR B1919+21 initially puzzled scientists, who considered various explanations, even the possibility of signals from extraterrestrial life.
• Neutron Stars: Neutron stars are born from the remnants of massive stars that didn’t become black holes. They are incredibly dense and primarily made up of neutrons.

Behind the Radiation: Lighthouse Effect

• Radiation Beams: Pulsars emit focused beams of radio waves, similar to a lighthouse’s rotating light.
• Rotation Slowdown: Neutron stars gradually slow down their rotation, and this process generates the pulsar’s radio signals.

The Mystery of Glitches

• Sudden Speed-Ups: In 1969, scientists noticed unexpected and brief increases in the rotation speed of pulsars, known as “glitches.”
• Unsolved Riddle: Even after more than four decades of study, the cause of these glitches remains a mystery, although scientists have developed some ideas.
• Common Occurrence: Around 700 glitches have been observed in more than 3,000 pulsars.

Clues in the Rotation

• Post-Glitch Behavior: During a glitch, the pulsar’s rotation rate temporarily increases before gradually returning to its previous speed.
• Sign of Internal Changes: The slow post-glitch recovery suggests that the neutrons inside the star behave like a special kind of fluid, called a superfluid, with very low friction.
• Superfluids and Vortices: Superfluids, like the one inside a neutron star, exhibit vortex behavior, which is like tiny whirlpools.

The Glitch Mechanism

• Neutron Star Structure: Neutron stars have a solid outer layer with superfluid patches and a core primarily made of superfluid.
• Vortex Pinning: Vortices within the superfluid like to stick to the crust or solid parts of the star, which keeps the superfluid rotating.
• How Glitches Happen: As the star loses energy over time, the crust slows down, but the pinned vortices stay at their original speed. When the difference becomes too great, the vortices are released, transferring energy from the superfluid to the crust, causing a glitch in the pulsar’s rotation.

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Introduction

• NASA’s Mars helicopter, Ingenuity, recently regained contact with Earth after a brief communication lapse during its 72nd flight on the Red Planet.
• This remarkable solar-powered robotic chopper has accomplished groundbreaking feats in extraterrestrial aviation, making history with its powered, controlled flight on Mars.

About Ingenuity 

• Inaugural Flight: Ingenuity landed on Mars on February 18, 2021, alongside the Perseverance Rover. On April 19 of the same year, it achieved the first powered extraterrestrial flight in human history.
• Launch and Deployment: NASA launched a spacecraft on July 30, 2020, carrying the Perseverance rover with Ingenuity attached. The helicopter was deployed on the Martian surface on April 4, 2021, after reaching a suitable “airfield” location.
• Experimental Purpose: Ingenuity’s primary mission was experimental, aiming to test powered, controlled flight on another celestial body.
• Historic Flight: During its maiden flight, Ingenuity hovered, covered the same spot, and remained airborne for an impressive 39.1 seconds, establishing a historic milestone.

Challenges and Impressive Records

• Vast Distances: Despite the relatively short flight duration, Mars’ distance of over 225 million kilometres from Earth results in signal delays of 5 to 20 minutes.
• Harsh Martian Conditions: Ingenuity must endure Mars’ challenging conditions, including low atmospheric density, “continent-sized” dust storms, and various hazards.

Significance of Mars Flight

• Historical Milestone: On April 19, 2021, Ingenuity’s inaugural flight marked two significant achievements. Firstly, it was the first aircraft to fly on another planet. Secondly, it operated in Mars’ thin atmosphere, unsuitable for conventional flight.
• Challenges of Martian Flight: Ingenuity’s flight on Mars was challenging due to the planet’s lower gravity, one-third that of Earth’s, and its extremely thin atmosphere with just 1% of Earth’s surface pressure.
• Autonomous Operation: Ingenuity is an autonomous aircraft, piloted by onboard guidance, navigation, and control systems, running algorithms developed by NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory. Perseverance serves as a crucial link between the chopper and Earth.

Evolving Mission Role

• Scouting and Exploration: Initially designed for a limited number of flights, Ingenuity’s role evolved as scientists began to use it for scouting. It aided Perseverance in exploring Martian terrain efficiently, avoiding unexceptional rocks and enhancing mission productivity.
• Impressive Flight Record: Before the recent communication lapse, Ingenuity completed 72 flights, accumulating more than 128 minutes of flight time and covering a total distance of 17.7 kilometers, as recorded in the mission’s flight log.

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Introduction

• India’s Department of Science and Technology (DST) has shown a renewed interest in the global scientific endeavor, the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project, as evidenced by their recent visit to Mauna Kea in Hawai’i.
• This visit marks a significant step in addressing the challenges faced by this ambitious astronomical project.

Overview of the TMT Project

• Project Description: The TMT is envisioned as a 30-metre diameter primary-mirror optical and infrared telescope, designed for deep space observations.
• International Collaboration: It is a joint venture involving the U.S., Japan, China, Canada, and India, with India’s participation approved by the Union Cabinet in 2014.

Key facts related to TMT

• Its 30m diameter prime-mirror will allow it to observe wavelengths ranging from ultraviolet to mid-infrared with up to 80 times more sensitivity of today’s largest telescopes.
• It can deliver images at infrared wavelengths more than 12 times sharper than the famed Hubble Space Telescope and 4 times sharper than James Webb Space Telescope (JSWT).

Challenges and Controversies

• Location Issues: Mauna Kea, the proposed site for the TMT, is an inactive volcano considered sacred by local communities. The site has faced opposition due to its cultural and religious significance.
• Legal Hurdles: The Supreme Court of Hawaii invalidated the construction permits in 2015, although they were later restored in 2018. Despite this, local opposition has continued to impede construction.

Alternate Site Consideration

• Plan B: The Observatorio del Roque de los Muchachos (ORM) on La Palma in Spain’s Canary Islands is being considered as an alternative site for the TMT.
• India’s Stance: As per statements made in 2020, India prefers moving the project to an alternate site, subject to the availability of necessary permits and procedures.

India’s Role and Contribution

• Major Contributor: India is expected to play a significant role in the TMT project, contributing hardware, instrumentation, and software worth $200 million.
• Mirror Production: Of the 492 required mirrors, India will contribute 83, showcasing its capabilities in precision engineering and technology.

Current Status and Future Prospects

• Ongoing Discussions: Efforts are being made to reach a consensus that respects the concerns of the local people in Hawai’i.
• Progress in Component Development: Despite the delay in construction, significant advancements have been made in developing essential components for the TMT.
• Decision Timeline: A firm decision on the project’s site is anticipated within the next two years, as per Annapurni Subramaniam, director of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIAP).

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Introduction

• In a significant scientific breakthrough, Japanese scientists discovered an ultra-high-energy cosmic ray in May 2021, which he named ‘Amaterasu’ after the Japanese sun goddess.

Discovery of Amaterasu

• Event Identification: Dr. Toshihiro Fujii, an astronomer at Osaka Metropolitan University, discovered the cosmic ray named Amaterasu.
• Measurement: Amaterasu had an energy of 240 exa-electron-volt (EeV), an extremely high level.
• Comparison with Man-Made Accelerators: This energy is about 40 million times higher than that of protons accelerated by the Large Hadron Collider (LHC).

Mystery of Amaterasu’s Origin

• Unusual Origin: Amaterasu appears to have originated from an empty part of the universe.
• Dr. Fujii’s Theories: Possible explanations include an unidentified source, interaction with a strong magnetic field, or the need for new physics models.
• Previous Records: The “Oh My God” particle, detected in 1991 with an energy of 320 EeV, remains the most energetic cosmic ray recorded.

Nature and Impact of Cosmic Rays

• Composition: Cosmic rays are streams of energetic particles, including protons and alpha particles, originating from outer space and the sun.
• Interaction with Earth: Most cosmic rays lose their energy in Earth’s atmosphere, preventing harmful high-intensity rays from reaching the surface.
• Historical Significance: Studies of cosmic rays since the 1930s have led to the discovery of many subatomic particles, although their sources and high energy remain a mystery.

Types and Origins of Cosmic Rays

• Galactic Cosmic Rays (GCR): Originating from beyond our solar system, possibly from supernovae.
• Solar Cosmic Rays: Emitted by the sun, primarily in solar flares, consisting mainly of protons.
• Composition Analysis: Studies show a helium-to-hydrogen nuclei mass ratio in cosmic rays similar to the early universe’s composition.

Implications of High-Energy Cosmic Rays

• Ultra-high-energy cosmic Rays (UHECRs): These are extragalactic particles with energies exceeding 1 EeV.
• Limitations in Space Travel: UHECRs with more than 60 EeV energy face suppression due to interaction with cosmic microwave background (CMB) radiation, limiting their travel distance to 50-100 megaparsecs.

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Introduction

• A private US company launched a spacecraft carrying NASA instruments, aiming to be the first US spacecraft to land on the Moon in over 50 years.
• This mission is a key component of NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services, integrating private sector capabilities into the Artemis Program.

About Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) Initiative

• NASA’s collaboration with the private sector under the CLPS initiative involves at least 14 companies contracted to deliver payloads to the Moon.
• This partnership aims to develop a market and technology ecosystem in the private space industry for lunar exploration.
• The mission features the Peregrine lander and the Vulcan rocket, both developed by private US space companies.

Objectives and Payloads

• NASA’s Five Payloads: The Peregrine lander carries five NASA payloads designed for various exploratory tasks, including water detection.
• Laser Retroreflector Array: One payload, designed for precision distance measurements, will be permanently deployed on the Moon’s surface.
• Duration of Activity: Other payloads are expected to remain active for ten days post-landing.

Historical Context: Return to the Moon

• Last US Moon Landing: The last US spacecraft landed on the Moon during the Apollo 17 mission in December 1972.
• Renewed Lunar Interest: The US reignited its lunar exploration efforts in the 1990s and formally committed to return in 2018.
• Artemis Program Goals: NASA’s Artemis Program aims to establish a permanent base on the Moon, facilitating longer human and robotic stays for extensive exploration and scientific research.

Back2Basics: NASA’s Artemis Mission

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Introduction

• India will contribute Rs 1,250 crore to the multinational Square Kilometer Array (SKA) project, a significant international astronomical collaboration.

Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project: An Overview

• Construction Phases: The SKA project is being built in two phases, with the first phase (SKA1) having commenced in December 2022.
• Project’s Headquarters: The SKA project is headquartered at the Jodrell Bank Observatory in the UK.
• Site Location: It involves constructing telescope arrays in Australia and South Africa, aiming to map galaxies and explore the universe with unprecedented detail.
• Operational Timeline: SKA1 is expected to begin operations by 2029.

Design and Features of the SKA Telescopes

• Array Composition: The SKA will consist of 197 parabolic radio antennae in South Africa and 131,072 low-frequency antennae in Australia.
• Antennae Design: The design includes parabolic dishes and dipole antennae capable of detecting faint radio signals from vast distances.
• Spatial Arrangement: The dishes and antennae will be strategically placed over large areas to calibrate the origin of observed signals effectively.

Global Collaboration in the SKA Project

• Consortium Members: The SKA Observatory (SKAO) includes 16 member countries, such as Australia, South Africa, Canada, China, India, Japan, and several European nations.
• Frequency Range: The South African array will focus on mid-frequency signals, while the Australian telescope will cover low-frequency ranges.
• Expansion Plans: Additional dishes are planned in neighbouring African countries to enhance the project’s data triangulation and resolution capabilities.

Scientific Objectives of the SKA

• Exploring the Universe: The SKA will observe and map galaxies at the edge of the observable universe, providing insights into galaxy formation and evolution.
• Studying the ‘Dark Ages’: The telescope will delve into the early universe’s ‘Dark Ages’ and investigate phenomena like dark matter and dark energy.
• Search for Extraterrestrial Life: The SKA will also contribute to the search for life beyond Earth by examining habitable zones around stars.

India’s Role  

• Pathfinder Research Partner: India’s Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope, operated by the National Centre for Radio Astrophysics (NCRA) of Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR), is a key partner in the project.
• Consortium Involvement: The SKA India consortium comprises over 20 colleges and universities across India, contributing to various aspects of the project.

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Introduction

• 2023 Milestones: NASA’s OSIRIS-REx mission returned a sample from an asteroid, and India’s Chandrayaan-3 explored the lunar South Pole.
• 2024 Prospects: The year is set to be thrilling for space exploration, with several missions under NASA’s Artemis plan and Commercial Lunar Payload Services targeting the moon.

Key Missions to Follow in 2024

[1] Europa Clipper: Unveiling Jupiter’s Moon

• Mission Overview: NASA’s Europa Clipper aims to explore Europa, one of Jupiter’s largest moons, known for its icy surface and potential subsurface saltwater ocean.
• Scientific Goals: The mission will conduct close flybys to study Europa’s ice shell, geology, and subsurface ocean, seeking signs of habitability.
• Launch Window: Scheduled for October 10, 2024, with 21 days, aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket.

[2] Artemis II: Human Return to the Moon

• Program Background: Artemis II is part of NASA’s Artemis program, aiming to send humans back to the moon and establish a sustained presence for future Mars missions.
• Mission Details: Artemis II will carry four astronauts on a 10-day mission orbiting the Moon, building upon the uncrewed Artemis I mission.
• Launch Timeline: Planned for as early as November 2024, with potential delays to 2025.

[3] VIPER: Searching for Lunar Water

• Mission Purpose: VIPER, a golf cart-sized rover, will explore the moon’s south pole to search for water and other volatiles.
• Technical Challenges: The mission will navigate extreme lunar temperatures and shadowed regions during its 100-day mission.
• Launch Schedule: Set for November 2024, following a delay for additional lander system tests.

[4] Lunar Trailblazer and PRIME-1: Water Mapping and Drilling

• SIMPLEx Missions: As part of NASA’s low-cost planetary missions, Lunar Trailblazer will orbit the moon to map water locations, while PRIME-1 will test drilling technology.
• Launch Dependencies: Both missions are secondary payloads, with their launch timing contingent on the readiness of primary payloads.

[5] JAXA’s Martian Moon eXploration (MMX) Mission

• Mission Focus: MMX aims to study Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to determine their origin and collect a sample from Phobos.
• Scientific Objectives: The mission will spend three years conducting science operations around Mars and its moons.
• Launch Plan: Scheduled for around September 2024.

[6] ESA’s Hera Mission: Asteroid Defense Study

• Mission Context: Hera will follow up on NASA’s DART mission to the Didymos-Dimorphos asteroid system, where DART tested the kinetic impact technique for planetary defense.
• Research Goals: Hera will study the physical properties of the asteroids and assess the impact of the DART collision.
• Launch and Arrival: Set for October 2024, with arrival at the asteroid system expected in late 2026.

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Central Idea

• The year 2024 is set to be a landmark year in space exploration, following significant achievements in 2023, including NASA’s OSIRIS-REx and India’s Chandrayaan-3 missions.

Upcoming Missions

• The year will feature several key missions under NASA’s Artemis plan and Commercial Lunar Payload Services, along with other international endeavors.

[1] Europa Clipper Mission

• Objective: NASA’s Europa Clipper will explore Jupiter’s moon, Europa, known for its icy surface and potential subsurface saltwater ocean.
• Significance: The mission aims to assess Europa’s habitability for extraterrestrial life by studying its icy shell, geology, and ocean.
• Launch Details: Scheduled for launch on October 10, 2024, aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket, with arrival at Jupiter set for 2030.

[2] Artemis II Mission

• Program Goals: Part of NASA’s Artemis program to return humans to the Moon, including plans for a sustained presence and future Mars missions.
• Mission Specifics: Artemis II, following the uncrewed Artemis I, will be the first crewed mission orbiting the Moon since 1972, planned for November 2024.

[3] VIPER Lunar Mission

• Mission Overview: VIPER (Volatiles Investigating Polar Exploration Rover) aims to explore the Moon’s south pole for volatiles like water and carbon dioxide.
• Technology and Schedule: Equipped to handle extreme lunar temperatures, VIPER’s launch is scheduled for November 2024, focusing on resources for future human exploration.

[4] Lunar Trailblazer and PRIME-1 Missions

• SIMPLEx Program: These missions are part of NASA’s Small, Innovative Missions for Planetary Exploration (SIMPLEx), offering cost-effective, rideshare opportunities.
• Objectives: Lunar Trailblazer will orbit the Moon to map water locations, while PRIME-1 will test drilling technology, both scheduled for mid-2024.

[5] JAXA’s Martian Moon eXploration (MMX) Mission

• Mission Focus: JAXA’s MMX mission aims to study Mars’ moons, Phobos and Deimos, to determine their origin.
• Science Operations: The spacecraft will conduct a three-year mission, including landing on Phobos and returning a sample to Earth, with a launch planned around September 2024.

[6] ESA’s Hera Mission

• Mission Purpose: Hera, by the European Space Agency, will study the Didymos-Dimorphos asteroid system, following NASA’s DART mission’s kinetic impact in 2022.
• Planetary Defense: Hera will assess the impact of DART’s collision and study the asteroids’ physical properties, with a launch set for October 2024.

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Central Idea

• A re-analysis of data from the Cassini mission has revealed a complex mix of molecules in the gaseous plumes of Saturn’s moon Enceladus.

About Cassini Mission

Discovery of Plumes and Initial Analysis

• Cassini’s Initial Discovery: In 2005, the Cassini spacecraft discovered large plumes escaping from Enceladus’s southern hemisphere.
• Source of Plumes: These plumes are believed to originate from a subsurface ocean through fissures in the moon’s icy surface.
• Initial Molecular Findings: Earlier analyses identified water, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, and molecular hydrogen in the plume samples.

Re-examination of Cassini Data

• Research Team: Led by Jonah Peter from the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California.
• Methodology: The team re-examined data using a statistical analysis technique, comparing it against a vast library of known mass spectra.
• Newly Identified Molecules: The analysis revealed the presence of hydrocarbons like hydrogen cyanide (HCN), acetylene (C2H2), propylene (C3H6), ethane (C2H6), along with methanol and molecular oxygen.

Significant Discovery of Nitrogen

• Definite Presence of Nitrogen: The study confirmed the presence of nitrogen in the form of HCN, resolving previous uncertainties due to overlapping signals in mass spectrometry data.
• Potential for Habitability: The diverse chemical reservoir under Enceladus’s surface suggests conditions that might be consistent with a habitable environment.
• Support for Microbial Life: The presence of these compounds, along with mineralogical catalysts and redox gradients, could potentially support microbial communities or complex organic synthesis.
• Caveat on Life Support: The ability of these compounds to support life depends on their concentration in Enceladus’s subsurface ocean.

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Central Idea

• NASA is gearing up for the launch of PACE (Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem) mission in 2024. The mission’s objective is to enhance the understanding of Earth’s atmosphere.

PACE Mission

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Central Idea

• ESA astronauts recorded a red sprite over a thundercloud as part of the Thor-Davis experiment at Danish Technical University.

What are Red Sprites?

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Central Idea

• Six exoplanets have been discovered orbiting HD 110067, a bright star in the Coma Berenices constellation, approximately 100 light-years away.
• The planets’ radii range between that of Earth and Neptune, classifying them as ‘sub-Neptunes’.

About Sub-Neptune Exoplanets

• Prevalence: Sub-Neptunes are commonly found in close-in orbits around more than half of all Sun-like stars.
• Mystery: Despite their prevalence, the composition, formation, and evolution of these planets remain largely unknown.

Observational Details

• TESS Observations: NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) observed dips in HD 110067’s brightness in 2020 and 2022.
• CHEOPS Contribution: Additional observations from the CHaracterising ExOPlanets Satellite (CHEOPS) helped confirm the presence of six planets transiting the star.
• Orbital Calculations: The study calculated the orbits of all six planets, ranging from about nine days for the innermost planet to approximately 54 days for the outermost planet.

Characteristics of the Planets

• Mass and Density Estimates: The planets have relatively low densities, suggesting the presence of large, hydrogen-rich atmospheres.
• Resonant Orbits: All six planets are in resonant orbits, indicating regular gravitational interactions among them.
• System’s Age: The resonant orbits suggest that the system has remained largely unchanged since its formation, estimated to be at least four billion years ago.

HD 110067’s Uniqueness

• Brightness and Host Status: HD 110067 is the brightest star known to host more than four transiting exoplanets.
• Potential for More Discoveries: There is a possibility of additional planets within or beyond the star’s temperate zone, though such observations have not yet been made.
• Learning Opportunity: The HD 110067 system presents a unique opportunity to study sub-Neptunes and understand how such planetary systems form and evolve.

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Central Idea

• Recently, the James Webb Space Telescope has provided detailed insights into slightly older galaxies, known as ‘teenagers’ in galactic terms, shedding light on their evolution and unique characteristics.
• This research is part of the CECILIA Survey, utilizing Webb to analyze the chemistry of distant galaxies, named after astronomer Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin.

Study of Teenage Galaxies

• Formation Period: The study focuses on galaxies that formed around 2-3 billion years after the Big Bang, which occurred about 13.8 billion years ago.
• Research Methodology: Researchers analyzed light across various wavelengths from 23 such galaxies using Webb, akin to studying their ‘chemical DNA.’
• Key Discoveries: These teenage galaxies exhibit distinct chemical compositions, indicative of intense star formation and rapid developmental phases.

Characteristics of Teenage Galaxies

• Contrast with Modern Galaxies: These galaxies show significant differences in appearance and behavior compared to contemporary galaxies.
• Developmental Mysteries: They undergo crucial, yet not fully understood, processes during this phase, shaping their final structure and nature.
• High Temperatures in Star-Forming Regions: Star-forming areas in these galaxies show temperatures around 24,000 degrees Fahrenheit, much higher than in present-day galaxies.
• Young Stars and Gas Properties: This temperature variation suggests differences in the stars and gas properties of teenage galaxies.
• Detected Elements: Observations identified these galaxies glowing with elements like hydrogen, helium, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, argon, nickel, and silicon.

Significance of Oxygen and Nickel

• Oxygen’s Crucial Role: As a key component of galactic DNA and the third-most abundant element in the universe, oxygen is vital for tracking galaxies’ growth history.
• Nickel – An Unexpected Find: The presence of nickel, usually not bright enough to be observed in nearby galaxies, suggests unique aspects of massive stars in these galaxies.
• Undetected Elements: Astronomers believe that additional elements likely exist in these galaxies but remain undetected due to current technological limits.

Implications of the Findings

• Chemical Immaturity and Rapid Growth: The study indicates that these galaxies are in a phase of rapid formation and are still chemically immature.
• Insights into Star Formation: Understanding the chemical makeup of these galaxies provides valuable information about their star formation history and rate.

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Central Idea

• NASA’s DSOC experiment onboarded to Psyche spacecraft, recently demonstrated successful transmission of data over near-infrared laser signals to Earth.
• This technology addresses the challenge of transmitting vast amounts of data over long distances from spacecraft, moving at high speeds in deep space.

Deep Space Optical Communications (DSOC)

• NASA’s DSOC experiment introduces near-infrared laser signals for spacecraft communication.
• DSOC promises data rates at least 10 times faster than conventional radio communication systems, leading to enhanced data transfer rates, higher-resolution images, increased scientific data volume, and even real-time video streaming.
• DSOC’s laser communication technology is comparable to how fiber optics revolutionized Earth-based telecommunications.