PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] In a crucial domain like the public healthcare system, the Indian State should play a vital role to contain the adverse impact of marketisation of the system. Suggest some measures through which the State can enhance the reach of public healthcare at the grassroots level.
Linkage: The role of the state in the public healthcare system and asks for measures to enhance the reach of public healthcare, particularly at the grassroots level. The “medical oxygen access gap” is fundamentally a problem of the public healthcare system’s inability to reach everyone with this essential medicine. |
Mentor’s Comment: Recently, the oxygen shortage has been very serious in South Asia and East Asia-Pacific, where 78% and 74% of people do not have proper access to medical oxygen. Even though oxygen is essential for saving lives and became widely known during the COVID-19 pandemic, many low- and middle-income countries still face problems with its high cost, low supply, and poor access. Unlike medicines, there is no replacement for oxygen, which makes this a serious issue of fairness, basic rights, and survival. The WHO and The Lancet have suggested solutions, but progress has been slow. This is not just about fixing systems—it’s about saving lives, and action is urgently needed.
Today’s editorial talks about the problem of oxygen shortage in Southeast Asia. This topic is useful for GS Paper II (International Relations and Health Sector).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently,’ The Lancet Global Health Commission has pointed out a serious and ongoing medical oxygen crisis, with 5 billion people around the world unable to get safe, good-quality, and affordable medical oxygen.
What challenges hinder global access to medical oxygen?
- Lack of Equipment: Many hospitals in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) lack basic tools like pulse oximeters and oxygen supply systems. Eg: Only 54% of hospitals in LMICs have pulse oximeters; 58% have access to medical oxygen.
- High Financial Burden: Expanding oxygen infrastructure requires large investments, which LMICs struggle to afford. Eg: An estimated $6.8 billion is needed globally, with $2.6 billion required in South Asia alone.
- Shortage of Trained Technicians: Lack of biomedical engineers leads to poor maintenance of oxygen plants and frequent equipment failures. Eg: In rural areas, oxygen concentrators remain unused due to absence of trained personnel.
- Power Supply Issues: Unreliable electricity hinders oxygen production, especially in remote or rural regions. Eg: Nigeria and Ethiopia adopted solar-powered oxygen systems to address power disruptions.
- Weak Policy and Regulatory Frameworks: Absence of strong regulations affects the quality, storage, and distribution of medical oxygen. Eg: In Bangladesh, a 2021 health system assessment by PATH and USAID found that lack of national oxygen guidelines and standardised protocols led to irregular supply chains and compromised oxygen quality in many public hospitals, especially in rural areas.
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Why is oxygen demand high in South and East Asia?
- High Population Density: These regions have some of the world’s most densely populated countries, leading to higher disease burden and medical oxygen demand. Eg: India and China together account for over one-third of the global population, increasing strain on healthcare infrastructure during health crises like COVID-19.
- Prevalence of Respiratory Diseases: High rates of respiratory illnesses such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) elevate oxygen needs. Eg: According to WHO, India sees over 120,000 pneumonia-related child deaths annually, many requiring oxygen therapy.
- Inadequate Healthcare Infrastructure in Rural Areas: Many remote and underserved areas lack sufficient oxygen production, storage, and delivery systems. Eg: During the second COVID-19 wave in Nepal, rural hospitals reported severe oxygen shortages due to lack of concentrators and cylinders.
Where has WHO improved oxygen access through cooperation?
- Bhutan: WHO partnered with Nepal’s National Health Training Center to train biomedical engineers and technicians. Eg: This led to the installation of state-of-the-art PSA oxygen plants in Bhutan, ensuring sustainable operations and maintenance.
- Nepal: WHO supported capacity-building through regional training programs and technical support. Eg: Trained personnel strengthened Nepal’s oxygen infrastructure, especially during COVID-19.
- South-East Asia Region (broad cooperation): WHO facilitated intra-regional collaboration to boost oxygen capacity and resource sharing. Eg: Regional cooperation helped countries like Bangladesh and Sri Lanka improve oxygen planning and emergency response.
Who is responsible for strengthening oxygen ecosystems?
- Governments: They must integrate oxygen access into universal health coverage and emergency preparedness plans, while ensuring quality standards and regulatory frameworks. Eg: The Indian government scaled up PSA oxygen plants under the PM CARES Fund during the COVID-19 crisis.
- Private Sector: Industry must invest in local manufacturing, supply chain optimisation, and cost-effective technologies. Eg: Indian companies like Inox Air Products ramped up production and collaborated with the government to meet surging oxygen demand.
- Global Health Agencies: Agencies like WHO and UNICEF must provide technical and financial support for infrastructure and workforce training. Eg: WHO supported several LMICs (e.g., Bhutan) in installing and operating oxygen plants through cross-border cooperation.
What has been done by the Indian government in Southeast Asia?
- Oxygen Supply to Bangladesh: In July 2021, India dispatched 200 metric tonnes of Liquid Medical Oxygen (LMO) to Bangladesh via the ‘Oxygen Express’ train service. This marked the first international deployment of the Oxygen Express, showcasing India’s commitment to assisting neighboring countries in crisis.
- Medical Aid to Vietnam: In August 2021, the Indian Navy’s INS Airavat delivered 100 metric tonnes of LMO and 300 oxygen concentrators to Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Local Infrastructure: Governments and partners must invest in decentralised oxygen production, solar-powered systems, and skilled workforce development to ensure reliable access, especially in rural and remote areas.
- Establish Robust Policies & Partnerships: Create strong regulatory frameworks and foster public-private-global collaborations to improve oxygen quality, supply chain efficiency, and emergency preparedness across regions.
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Why in the News?
This May has been unusually wet, with India getting 68.4% more rain than normal. Also, there have been no extreme temperatures or major heatwaves across most parts of the country.
What caused the wet and cool May in India?
- Above-Normal Rainfall: India received 68.4% more rainfall than usual for May, making it one of the wettest months in recent times. Eg: 27 out of 36 meteorological subdivisions saw over 20% surplus rain.
- Frequent Moisture-Laden Winds: Western disturbances from the Mediterranean and incursions from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea brought continuous showers. Eg: These weather systems caused intermittent thunderstorms across northern and eastern India.
- Suppression of Heatwaves: Each thunderstorm cooled temperatures, preventing the buildup of heatwaves. Eg: No major heatwave was reported across central and north India during May.
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Why is the formation of heat lows over northwest India important for the monsoon?
- Creates Suction for Moist Winds: Heat lows act like a vacuum, pulling moisture-laden southwesterly winds from the Indian Ocean into the Indian subcontinent. Eg: Strong heat lows over Rajasthan help trigger early monsoon onset over central India.
- Drives Monsoon Circulation: These low-pressure areas initiate and sustain the monsoon trough, which is essential for widespread rainfall. Eg: Absence of heat lows can delay or weaken the monsoon across northwest and central India.
- Influences Rainfall Intensity and Spread: Proper heat low development ensures uniform and timely rainfall, crucial for agriculture. Eg: Weak heat lows in 2015 contributed to a patchy and deficient monsoon season.
How do El Niño and IOD affect the monsoon?
- El Niño Weakens Monsoon Winds: El Niño leads to warmer Pacific Ocean waters, which suppresses the Indian monsoon by weakening the low-pressure system over the subcontinent. Eg: The 2015 El Niño caused a 14% rainfall deficit in India.
- Positive IOD Strengthens Monsoon: A positive Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD) brings warmer waters near Africa and cooler waters near Indonesia, enhancing monsoon winds and rainfall over India. Eg: In 2019, a strong positive IOD offset El Niño’s impact, resulting in above-normal rainfall.
What would be the impact of monsoon on food inflation?
- Good Monsoon Boosts Crop Yields: Adequate rainfall ensures timely sowing and healthy harvests, leading to better food availability and stable prices. Eg: A normal monsoon in 2022 helped moderate cereal price rise.
- Reduces Dependency on Imports: Sufficient domestic production of staples like wheat and pulses lowers the need for costly imports, helping control food inflation. Eg: In 2024, surplus wheat stock due to good rainfall reduced price pressure.
- Stabilises Rural Demand and Supply Chains: A healthy monsoon supports rural incomes, improving supply consistency and reducing volatility in food prices. Eg: Strong kharif output in 2021 led to a drop in vegetable prices.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Climate-Responsive Agriculture: Promote drought- and flood-resistant crop varieties and expand irrigation to reduce dependence on erratic monsoons.
- Enhance Weather Forecasting and Storage Infrastructure: Improve real-time weather alerts and expand warehousing to minimize post-harvest losses and stabilize food prices.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] What are the causes of persistent high food inflation in India? Comment on the effectiveness of the monetary policy of the RBI to control this type of inflation.
Linkage: Understanding the dynamics of food inflation, as required by this question, is essential for appreciating the significant positive economic contribution that a favorable monsoon can make by potentially increasing agricultural output and stabilizing food prices.
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Why in the News?
The Prime Minister said on Friday that the eight states of India’s Northeast are now leading in development and growth, and he encouraged investors to explore opportunities there.
What did the Prime Minister describe the Northeast region as, and why?
- Frontrunner of Growth: PM described the Northeast as no longer a “frontier region”, but a “frontrunner of growth”. Eg: Hosting of the Rising Northeast Summit to attract investment and highlight regional potential.
- Gateway to Southeast Asia: This aligns with the idea of Northeast as a growth leader because its strategic location makes it a natural gateway for trade with Southeast Asia. Eg: Projects connecting Northeast with Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam under the Act East Policy.
- Powerhouse of Energy: It is a frontrunner because it is rich in natural resources, making it a “powerhouse of energy”. Eg: Assam’s tea industry and Arunachal Pradesh’s hydroelectric potential.
- Cultural and Economic Diversity: The region leads in development because its cultural and economic diversity fosters innovation in tourism, crafts, and trade. Eg: Nagaland’s Hornbill Festival promotes both culture and economic activity.
- Ashta Lakshmis (Eight Goddesses of Wealth): PM called the eight states “Ashta Lakshmis” because each contributes uniquely to India’s prosperity, reinforcing its status as a growth frontrunner. Eg: Government initiatives like NESIDS aim to unlock each state’s economic strengths.
Why did the Directorate General of Foreign Trade order the closure of land ports with Bangladesh?.
- To Provide a Level Playing Field for the Northeast: Goods entering via Bangladesh were bypassing local supply chains, hurting Northeast producers and manufacturers. Eg: Cheaper Bangladeshi products undercutting Assam’s handicrafts and processed food sectors.
- To Boost Internal Supply Chains and Manufacturing: Closure of land ports encourages the development of local industries and competitive manufacturing within the Northeast. Eg: Promoting local textile and bamboo industries in Tripura and Mizoram to supply regional demands.
- Strategic Economic Repositioning: Part of a broader effort to reorient the Northeast as a commercial and trade hub within India and toward Southeast Asia. Eg: Integrating Northeast into projects like India-Myanmar-Thailand trilateral highway for long-term trade advantage.
Which sectors are identified as key economic strengths of the Northeast region?
- Bio-economy and Natural Resources: The region is rich in bamboo, tea, and petroleum resources. Eg: Assam is a major hub for tea production; Arunachal Pradesh is emerging in bamboo-based industries.
- Tourism and Eco-tourism: Scenic landscapes, cultural diversity, and biodiversity promote sustainable tourism. Eg: Meghalaya’s living root bridges and Sikkim’s eco-tourism model attract both domestic and international tourists.
- Sports and Youth Potential: High sports participation and talent make it a center for sports development and allied industries. Eg: Manipur and Mizoram produce national-level athletes in football, boxing, and weightlifting.
How is India planning to connect the Northeast with Southeast Asia?
- Infrastructure Development Projects: India is building roads and highways to enhance cross-border connectivity. Eg: The India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway aims to link the Northeast to Southeast Asia by road.
- Multilateral and Bilateral Linkages: Strategic projects are underway to connect Northeast India with ASEAN countries. Eg: Projects to directly connect Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos to India are in progress.
- Transforming the Region into a Trade Gateway: The Northeast is being positioned as the “gateway for trade” with Southeast Asia. Eg: Investment in border trade hubs and logistics parks in states like Manipur and Mizoram supports trade facilitation.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Infrastructure & Connectivity Projects: Ensure timely completion of highways, rail links, and trade corridors to integrate the Northeast with ASEAN markets and boost regional trade.
- Promote Local Industries & Skill Development: Strengthen regional supply chains by supporting local entrepreneurship, MSMEs, and skill training aligned with emerging sectors like eco-tourism, agri-business, and clean energy.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2016] Evaluate the economic and strategic dimensions of India’s Look East Policy in the context of the post-Cold War international scenario.
Linkage: The “Look East Policy” was the predecessor to the current “Act East” policy. The Act East Policy, which emphasizes the Northeast as a gateway for trade and connectivity with Southeast Asia, is essentially a more action-oriented evolution of the Look East Policy.
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Why in the News?
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has recognized six traditional farming systems from Brazil, China, Mexico, and Spain as Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS).
About the Newly Recognised GIAHS Systems:
- Deqing Pearl Mussel Fishery (China): 800-year-old integrated system of pearl farming, rice, and silk boosts ecotourism and water purification.
- Fuding White Tea Culture (China): Biodiverse tea gardens linked to rituals and livelihoods, supporting 18 tea and 41 vegetable varieties.
- Gaolan Pear Orchards (China): 600-year-old dryland system along the Yellow River yields 2 million kg of pears with native crop-livestock integration.
- Erva Mate Agroforestry (Brazil): Indigenous agroforestry under Araucaria forests preserves ecology and culture through erva-mate farming.
- Metepantle Terraces (Mexico): 3,000-year-old Nahua terrace farming ensures food sovereignty and conserves over 140 native species.
- Lanzarote Sand Farming (Spain): Volcanic and sea sand techniques grow crops without irrigation in one of Europe’s driest zones.
About GIAHS:
- Definition: GIAHS are living and evolving agricultural systems where communities maintain strong ties to their land through agrobiodiversity, traditional knowledge, resilient ecosystems, and cultural heritage.
- Purpose: The program works to identify, support, and safeguard agricultural systems that preserve genetic diversity, support rural livelihoods, and maintain cultural landscapes.
- Origins: The concept was launched in 2002 at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg.
- Nodal Agency: The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations leads the GIAHS initiative.
- Program Implementation:
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- Global level: Identification, selection, and formal recognition of GIAHS.
- National level: Policy support and capacity building.
- Local level: Community empowerment and technical assistance for sustainable resource use.
India’s GIAHS-Recognized Farming Systems:
India, known for its diverse agro-ecological zones and rich farming heritage, has 3 GIAHS sites:
- Koraput Traditional Agriculture (Odisha): Practised by tribal communities in the Eastern Ghats, this system conserves over 1,200 indigenous rice varieties; integrates millets and pulses in shifting and terraced cultivation; and supports community seed banks and organic methods vital for agro-biodiversity and food security.
- Kuttanad Below Sea Level Farming System (Kerala): Located in the Vembanad wetland area, it is the only below-sea-level farming system in India; farmers use polders and bunds to grow paddy, practice rice–fish rotation, and manage seasonal flooding through indigenous water control systems.
- Saffron Heritage of Kashmir (UT of Jammu & Kashmir): Found in the Pampore plateau, saffron is cultivated at 1,600–1,800 metres using traditional methods on Karewa soils; the crops are known for its high crocin content, aroma, and colour strength, making it a key product for local economy, export, and cultural heritage.
| [UPSC 2016] The FAO accords the status of ‘Globally Important Agricultural Heritage System (GIAHS)’ to traditional agricultural systems. What is the overall goal of this initiative?
1. To provide modern technology, training in modern farming methods and financial support to local communities of identified GIAHS to greatly enhance their agricultural productivity.
2. To identify and safeguard eco-friendly traditional farm practices and their associated landscapes, agricultural biodiversity and knowledge systems of the local communities
3. The provide Geographical Indication status to all the varieties of agricultural produce in such identifies GIAHS Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India ruled that 86,400 hectares of Zudpi Jungle lands in Eastern Vidarbha, Maharashtra, should be treated as forest land. However, existing structures (built before December 12, 1996) such as schools, homes, graveyards, and government offices were allowed to remain.
About Zudpi Jungles:
- Location and Meaning: They are lands located in the eastern Vidarbha region of Maharashtra. The term “Zudpi” is Marathi for shrubs or bushes.
- Vegetation and Soil: These lands have low-quality vegetation, mostly shrubs and dry plants. The soil, called Murmadi soil, is arid, filled with gravel and soft stones, and unsuitable for large trees.
- Ecological Role: Despite sparse growth, Zudpi lands are ecologically important as wildlife corridors, allowing animals to move safely between forest patches.
- Geographic Spread: Found in 6 Vidarbha districts: Nagpur, Wardha, Bhandara, Gondia, Chandrapur, and Gadchiroli.
- Conservation Status: The Maharashtra government has treated them as forests since the 1980s. In 1987, it requested the Environment Ministry to exempt Zudpi lands from the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, acknowledging their forest-like value.
- Biodiversity Importance: Environmental experts stress that small forest patches like this help maintain biodiversity and ecological balance.
Definition of Forests as per the Godavarman Case (1996):
- Case Background: The T.N. Godavarman v. Union of India case began in 1995 over illegal deforestation in Tamil Nadu’s Nilgiris, leading to a landmark 1996 Supreme Court ruling.
- Expanded Definition: The Court ruled that ‘forest’ includes all areas with forest-like features, not just those recorded as forest in official documents.
- Included Areas: This includes private lands, plantations, uncategorized jungle lands, and corporate forests with significant vegetation.
- Basis of Definition: It adopted the dictionary meaning of forest — “a large area covered chiefly with trees and undergrowth.”
- Legal Protection: All such lands, regardless of ownership, are protected under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
- Doctrine of Public Trust: The ruling applied this doctrine, stating the government must safeguard natural resources for current and future generations.
- Constitutional Links: The Court linked environmental protection to Article 21 (Right to Life) and Article 48A, which mandates the State to protect forests and wildlife.
- Impact: It brought millions of hectares of land under forest protection laws, creating a uniform national standard for forest classification and aiding conservation efforts.
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| [UPSC 2012] A particular State in India has the following characteristics:
1. It is located on the same latitude which passes through northern Rajasthan.
2. It has over 80% of its area under forest cover.
3. Over 12% of forest cover constitutes the Protected Area Network in this State.
Which one among the following States has all the above characteristics?
(a) Arunachal Pradesh* (b) Assam (c) Himachal Pradesh (d) Uttarakhand |
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Why in the News?
The Self-Reliant India (SRI) Fund has invested about ₹10,979 crore in 577 MSMEs across India as of March 2025. The highest number of investee firms are in Karnataka (151), followed by Maharashtra (144) and Delhi (69).
About the Self-Reliant India (SRI) Fund Scheme:
- Launch: The SRI Fund was launched in 2020 under the Atmanirbhar Bharat Package to provide equity funding to MSMEs with growth potential.
- Total Corpus: It targets ₹50,000 crore, with ₹10,000 crore from the Government of India and ₹40,000 crore to be raised from private investors.
- Structure and Management: The fund is a Category-II Alternative Investment Fund (AIF) registered with SEBI. The fund uses a two-tier structure:
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- A Mother Fund managed by NSIC Venture Capital Fund Limited (NVCFL).
- 60 empanelled Daughter Funds that make direct investments in MSMEs.
- Progress: As of March 2025, the SRI Fund has invested ₹10,979 crore in 577 MSMEs.
- Package Alignment: It is a component of the ₹20 lakh crore Atmanirbhar Bharat package, equivalent to 10% of India’s GDP.
Key Features Impact:
- Funding Type: Offers equity or quasi-equity support to reduce MSMEs’ reliance on debt and strengthen long-term growth.
- Sectoral Focus: Prioritises manufacturing, services, and high-growth MSMEs, especially those engaged in innovation, R&D, and exports.
- Addressing Credit Gap: Helps bridge India’s ₹30 lakh crore MSME credit gap by complementing credit guarantee schemes with equity-based support.
- Revised Eligibility: With the turnover limit raised to ₹500 crore, more companies now qualify for SRI and related MSME support.
| [UPSC 2017] The term ‘Domestic Content Requirement’ is sometimes seen in the news with reference to:
Options: (a) Developing solar power production in our country* (b) Granting licenses to foreign T.V. channels in our country. (c) Exporting our food products to other countries. (d) Permitting foreign educational institutions to set up their campuses in our country. |
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Why in the News?
US President Donald Trump announced that he has shortlisted a design for a powerful new missile defence shield called the ‘Golden Dome’.
About the Golden Dome Project:
- Project Launch: It is a proposed missile defence shield announced by Donald Trump.
- Development: It is being led by Michael Guetlein of the US Space Force, with support from SpaceX, Palantir, and Anduril.
- Timeline: The system is projected to cost $175 billion and is expected to be operational by January 2029.
- Purpose: It aims to protect the US from long-range missile threats, particularly ICBMs from China and Russia.
- Defence Layers: The system will combine technologies deployed on land, at sea, and in space for comprehensive coverage.
Key Features:
- Space-Based Interceptors: Thousands of orbiting satellites will carry and launch interceptors from space, offering global missile defence.
- Missile Tracking: Real-time detection using space-based sensors will allow the system to track enemy launches within seconds.
- Altitude and Reach: Drones and satellites operating at 15,000 meters or more will stay above many conventional air defences.
- Payload Flexibility: Capable of deploying surveillance drones, kamikaze UAVs, cruise missiles, and air-to-air missiles depending on mission needs.
- Modular Adaptability: The system is designed for multiple applications, including military operations, public security, and maritime surveillance.
Parallel Examples:
- Iron Dome (Israel): A short-range missile defence system using ground-based radar and Tamir interceptors for protection against rockets and UAVs.
- “Star Wars” Initiative (1980s): President Ronald Reagan’s Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) aimed to destroy nuclear missiles from space using lasers and interceptors.
- DARPA’s Gremlins Project: Explored mother ship-launched drones; Golden Dome builds on this idea at a larger and space-based scale.
| [UPSC 2018] What is “Terminal High Altitude Area Defense (THAAD)”, sometimes seen in the news?
Options: (a) An Israeli radar system (b) India’s indigenous anti-missile programme (c) An American anti-missile system * (d) A defence collaboration between Japan and South Korea |
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Why in the News?
China has unleashed its unmanned aerial “mother ship” drone named ‘Jiu Tian,’ capable of launching and coordinating over 100 drones in a single mission.
About the Jiu Tian Mother Ship Drone:
- Type and Capability: It is a jet-powered, super-high-altitude, long-range drone designed for advanced aerial missions.
- First Appearance: It was first showcased at the Zhuhai Air Show in November 2024.
- Size and Range: The drone is 82 feet wide, has a wingspan of 25 metres, and can fly up to 15,000 metres (50,000 feet) with a maximum range of 7,000 km.
- Weight and Payload: It has a maximum take-off weight of 16 tonnes and can carry up to 6 tonnes of weapons and drones.
- Altitude Advantage: It is designed to fly above medium-range air defence systems, improving survivability in contested zones.
Key Capabilities and Features:
- Drone Deployment: It can release up to 100 small drones or loitering munitions, including kamikaze drones, from both sides of its belly.
- Weapon Compatibility: It features eight external hardpoints that can carry surveillance drones, cruise missiles, and air-to-air missiles like the PL-12E.
- Mission Flexibility: Its modular interior allows for quick reconfiguration to suit different missions such as military strikes, border defence, maritime surveillance, emergency rescue, public security, and high-risk logistics.
| [UPSC 2020] Consider the following activities: (1) Spraying pesticides on a crop field (2) Inspecting the craters of active volcanoes (3) Collecting breath samples from spouting whales for DNA analysis
At the present level of technology, which of the above activities can be successfully carried out by using drones?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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