From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Niger, Niger Benin Export Pipeline
Why in the News?
The China-backed Niger-Benin Export Pipeline that would make Niger an oil-exporting country is being threatened by an internal security crisis and a diplomatic dispute with neighboring Benin.
These issues arose after last year’s coup that toppled Niger’s democratic government.
About Niger
Niger, located in West Africa, is a landlocked country known for its vast desert landscapes and significant cultural heritage.
The northern region of Niger is dominated by the Sahara Desert, comprising more than half of the country.
The central part of Niger is characterized by the Sahel, a semi-arid transition zone between the Sahara
The Aïr Mountains, located in the northern central part are a significant mountain range with the highest peak, Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès (2,022 m).
The Niger River is the country’s primary water source.
Lake Chad is a significant body of water shared with Nigeria, Chad, and Cameroon. Its size keep on fluctuating.
About Niger Benin Export Pipeline
The 1,930-kilometer pipeline runs from Niger’s Chinese-built Agadem oil field to the port of Cotonou in Benin.
It was designed to help Niger achieve an almost 5x increase in oil production through a $400 million deal with China’s state-run national petroleum company.
The pipeline faces significant challenges, including a recent diplomatic disagreement with Benin.
These issues threaten to strain Niger’s economy, heavily reliant on external support now withheld after a coup.
PYQ:
[2018] Which of the following has/have shrunk immensely/dried up in the recent past due to human activities?
Aral Sea
Black Sea
Lake Baikal
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
The Gandhi Sagar sanctuary in Madhya Pradesh is the preferred location for the next batch of cheetah’s relocation plan.
However, Banni in the Rann of Kutch, Gujarat is also being prepared to house some of them.
Cheetah Reintroduction in India:
In India, cheetahs disappeared in the early 1950s due to hunting and the loss of their habitat.
The ‘Action Plan for Reintroduction of Cheetah in India /Project Cheetah (2022)’ aims to bring cheetahs from African countries to various national parks.
It is spearheaded by the National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA).
Recently, cheetahs from Namibia were reintroduced in Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh.
Cheetah are listed as VULNERABLE by the IUCN; Schedule II of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
Kuno NP and Gandhi Sagar has an ideal habitat parallel to Maasai Mara (a National Park) in Kenya, suitable for cheetahs.
About Gandhi Sagar Wildlife Sanctuary
It is located in western Madhya Pradesh and covers an area of 368.62 sq km.
It is a flat rocky plateau characterized by shallow topsoil and exposed sheetrock.
It is divided by the Chambal River, with the Gandhi Sagar dam and reservoir within its boundaries.
Flora and Fauna:
Flora: The sanctuary features a savannah ecosystem with open grasslands interspersed with dry deciduous trees. Riverine valleys within the sanctuary support evergreen vegetation.
Fauna: The sanctuary is home to a diverse range of wildlife, including species like leopards, sloth bears, striped hyenas, grey wolves, golden jackals, jungle cats, Indian foxes, and marsh crocodiles.
About Banni Grasslands:
The Banni Grassland is located in the Kutch district of Gujarat, covering around 3,847 square km.
The climate is arid and semi-arid, with extremely hot summers (temperatures above 45°C) and mild winters (12°C to 25°C), receiving 300-400 mm of annual rainfall mainly during the monsoon.
Flora: Grasses such as Dichanthium, Sporobolus, and Cenchrus species, with salt-tolerant plants, shrubs, and trees like Acacia and the invasive Prosopis juliflora.
Fauna: Indian wolf, hyena, chinkara, Great Indian Bustard, flamingos, and various raptors, reptiles, and invertebrates.
It is inhabited by pastoral communities like the Maldharis, who rely on livestock grazing (cattle, buffalo, and sheep) for their livelihood.
Agriculture is limited due to arid conditions, with some areas used for salt production.
PYQ:
[2024] Consider the following statements:
1. Lions do not have a particular breeding season.
2. Unlike most other big cats, cheetahs do not roar.
3. Unlike male lions, male leopards do not proclaim their territory by scent marking.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2012] Consider the following: (2012)
Black-necked crane
Cheetah
Flying squirrel
Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India?
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2 and 4 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gharial and its conservation, Kaziranga NP
Why in the News?
In Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve, a lone female gharial has emerged as a significant presence, marking a potential revival for the species in the Brahmaputra River.
About Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve:
Located in the state of Assam, Kaziranga is renowned for its biodiversity and conservation efforts.
Established in 1905 as a reserve forest and declared a national park in 1974.
Designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1985 for its unique natural environment and successful conservation of the Great One-Horned Rhinoceros.
Kaziranga is home to the highest density of tigers among protected areas in the world.
It hosts two-thirds of the world’s Great One-Horned Rhinoceros population, a significant conservation success story.
The park spans approximately 430 square kilometers (166 square miles) of grasslands, wetlands, and forests.
One-Horned Rhinoceros:
One–Horned Rhinos: IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable; CITES: Appendix I ; WPA, 1972: Schedule I.
Mainly found in Assam, West Bengal.
Assam hosts about 2,640 rhinos across Pobitora WLS, Rajiv Gandhi Orang NP, Kaziranga NP, and Manas NP.
About Gharial
The Gharial is a fish-eating crocodile native to the Indian subcontinent.
They are a crucial indicator of clean river water.
It is also found in the rainforest biome of Mahanadi in Satkosia Gorge Sanctuary, Odisha.
Gharials are ‘Critically Endangered’in the IUCN Red List of Species.
The species is also listed under Schedule I of the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972.
National Chambal Sanctuary along the river Chambal in Madhya Pradesh is the biggest protected area of the species.
Recent findings of Gharial in Kaziranga
Gharials, distinguished by their long, narrow snouts, were believed to have disappeared from the Brahmaputra by the 1950s.
The female gharial, initially spotted in 2021, has grown to nearly adult size, providing hope for their reintroduction into the ecosystem.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Nicobar Triangle, GNI Project
Why in the News?
The opposition party has demanded the immediate suspension of all clearances granted to NITI Aayog’s Great Nicobar Island (GNI) Project.
It alleged violations of due process, legal and constitutional provisions protecting tribal communities.
Great Nicobar Island: An Overview
Geography and Ecology: Southernmost tip of India, part of the Andaman and Nicobar archipelago comprising 600-odd islands.
Environment: Hilly, covered with lush rainforests, annual rainfall of around 3,500 mm.
Biodiversity: Hosts numerous endangered and endemic species including the giant leatherback turtle, Nicobar megapode, Great Nicobar crake, Nicobar crab-eating macaque, and Nicobar tree shrew.
Area: 910 sq km with mangroves and Pandan forests along the coast.
Indigenous Communities:
Shompen Tribe: Approximately 250 people live in interior forests, predominantly hunter-gatherers, classified as a Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Group.
Nicobarese Community: Two groups – Great Nicobarese and Little Nicobarese, practice farming and fishing.
Resettlement: The Great Nicobarese were resettled in Campbell Bay after the 2004 tsunami.
Administrative Hub: Campbell Bay serves as the administrative hub, housing local offices of the Andaman and Nicobar administration and the panchayat.
Back2Basics:“Nicobar Triangle”
It is named after the Nicobar Islands, which are located at the northern apex of this triangular area.
The islands within the Nicobar Triangle include:
Nicobar Islands: This group of islands belongs to India and is situated to the south of the Andaman Islands. They are known for their diverse flora and fauna and are inhabited by indigenous tribes.
Andaman Islands: Located to the north of the Nicobar Islands, the Andaman Islands are also part of India. They are well-known for their lush forests, coral reefs, and indigenous tribes.
Indonesian Archipelago: To the south and southeast of the Nicobar Islands lies the Indonesian archipelago, which includes thousands of islands spanning a vast area between the Indian and Pacific Oceans.
What is GNI Project?
The GNI Project refers to the “Holistic Development of Great Nicobar Island,” a proposed mega project being piloted by NITI Aayog.
Implementing Agency: The project is to be implemented by the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Integrated Development Corporation (ANIIDCO).
Historical Context: Development plans for a port in Great Nicobar date back to the 1970s, aimed at leveraging its strategic location near the Malacca Strait.
The project aims to develop the southern end of the Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands in the Bay of Bengal by constructing –
Transshipment port
Dual-use military-civil international airport
Power plant (450 MVA gas and solar-based) and
A township over a span of 30 years on more than 160 sq. km of land, of which 130 sq. km is primary forest
Features of the Project
Transshipment hub of the East: The proposed port will allow Great Nicobar to participate in the regional and global maritime economy by becoming a major player in cargo transshipment.
Naval control: The port will be controlled by the Indian Navy, while the airport will have dual military-civilian functions and will cater to tourism as well.
Urban amenities: Roads, public transport, water supply and waste management facilities, and several hotels have been planned to cater to tourists.
Significance of the project
Economic significance: The proposed port would allow GNI to become a significant player in cargo transhipment, as it is positioned equidistant from Colombo, Port Klang (Malaysia), and Singapore.
Strategic significance: The proposal to develop GNI has been on the table since the 1970s, and it has been highlighted repeatedly as a crucial element for national security and consolidation of the Indian Ocean Region.
In recent years, the escalating Chinese presence in the Indian Ocean has added greater urgency to this imperative.
Issues with the Project
The project entails the deforestation of 130 sq km, and felling 10 lakh trees, threatens biodiversity at Galathea Bay, displaces indigenous tribes, lacks thorough impact assessments, and poses seismic risks to vulnerable communities.
Due-process Violations highlighted by the ‘Opposition’
(1) Did not recognise the grant ownership: The island administration did not recognise or grant ownership of any forest land to local tribespeople as per FRA, a requisite step under the Forest Conservation Rules, 2017, before Stage-I clearance is granted.
This is despite the fact that Rule 6(3)(e) of Forest Conservation Rules-2017 (FCR) requires that any diversion of forest land first requires the District Collector to recognise and vest rights to locals under the FRA.
The legislation allows forest communities the right to control and manage the use of the forest land over which they hold titles, and their consent is mandatory for diverting it.
(2) Inconsistencies with Stage-I Clearance: The Stage-I clearance for the project was granted in October 2022, two years after the application was received. Monthly progress reports show that the district administration did not process any claims over forest land under the FRA in the 26 months since project sanction.
(3) Withdrawal of Consent: Weeks after the Stage-I clearance was granted, the Tribal Council at Campbell Bay withdrew the consent granted by the Gram Sabha.
The monsoon has brought a measure of relief to animals especially the one-horned rhinoceros in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary dealing with extreme heat.
About Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary
Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary boasts the highest density of one-horned rhinos globally, second only to Kaziranga National Park in Assam.
Often dubbed as ‘Mini Kaziranga,’ Pobitora shares a similar landscape and vegetation to its renowned counterpart.
The sanctuary shelters variousendangered species, including one-horned rhinoceros, leopards, leopard cats, fishing cats, jungle cats, feral buffaloes, wild pigs, and Chinese pangolins.
Approximately 72% of Pobitora’s area comprises a wet savannah dominated by Arundo donax and Saccharum grasses, while the rest is covered by water bodies.
About One-Horned Rhino:
IUCN Red List Status: Vulnerable.
Habitat– Rhinos are mainly found in Assam, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.
Assam has an estimated 2,640 rhinos in four protected areas, i.e. Pobitora Wildlife Reserve, Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park, Kaziranga National Park, and Manas National Park.
Note: About 2,400 of them are in the Kaziranga National Park and Tiger Reserve (KNPTR).
PYQ:
[2019] Consider the following statements:
The Asian lion is naturally found in India only
Double-humped camel is naturally found in India only
One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Ashwatthama, a 38-year-old elephant, died of electrocution near Karnataka’s Nagarahole Tiger Reserve.
The High Court of Karnataka suo motu initiated a PIL petition to inquire about this incident attributed to a lack of care and diligence by concerned authorities.
Nagarahole Tiger Reserve
Located in the Western Ghats in Karnataka; Spans over 643 square kilometers.
Declared a wildlife sanctuary in 1955 and a tiger reserve in 1999.
Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve is recognised as an Important Bird Area (IBA) and a Project Tiger, Project Elephant reserve.
Managed by the Karnataka Forest Department with efforts focused on conservation, ecotourism, and community engagement.
The reserve is crisscrossed by several rivers such as the Kabini River, Lakshmana Tirtha River, and Moyar River.
Flora and Fauna: Known for its diverse ecosystem, including tropical and moist deciduous forests, home to a variety of wildlife such as tigers, leopards, elephants, gaur, and several species of deer and birds.
Protective Measures:Project Elephant
It was launched in the year 1992 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme with the following objectives:
To protect elephants, their habitat & corridors
To address issues of man-animal conflict
The welfare of captive elephants
It covers 23 states across India.
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change provides financial and technical support to major elephant range states in the country through the project.
It contributed to the increase in the wild elephant population from around 25,000 in 1992 to about 30,000 in 2021.
Status of Elephant Conservation in India
Details
Population Estimate
India hosts the largest population of wild Asian Elephants (Elephas maximus), with around 29,964 individuals,
Approximately 60% of the global population (2017 census).
Leading States
Karnataka holds the highest number of elephants, followed by Assam and Kerala.
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Endangered.
CMS: Appendix I.
Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972: Listed under Schedule I,
CITES: Appendix I.
PYQ:
[2020] With reference to Indian elephants, consider the following statements:
The leader of an elephant group is a female.
The maximum gestation period can be 22 months.
An elephant can normally go on calving till the age of 40 years only.
Among the States in India, the highest elephant population is in Kerala.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Delos Monuments, World Heritage Sites, Various WHS in India
Why in the News?
Delos, a UNESCO World Heritage site situated close to Mykonos, Greece, played a pivotal role as a sanctuary in the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations.
Scientists warn that Delos faces imminent destruction within the next 50 years due to rising sea levels caused by climate change.
About Delos
Delos is a small island located in the Aegean Sea, part of the Cyclades archipelago in Greece.
It is considered as the birthplace of Apollo, the god of light, arts, and healing, and his sister Artemis, the goddess of the hunt.
Its ancient ruins date back to the 3rd millennium BCE.
These ruins include temples, houses, sanctuaries, theatres, and other public buildings.
It served as a port and trading hub, connecting the civilizations of the eastern Mediterranean with those of the west.
Delos was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1990.
Ruins and Monuments:
Some of the most notable ruins and monuments on Delos include the Terrace of the Lions, the Temple of Apollo, the House of the Dolphins, the Theater District, and the Sacred Lake.
About UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS)
Details
Definition
A WHS is a landmark or area with legal protection by an international convention administered by UNESCO.
Criteria
WHS are designated for their cultural, historical, scientific, or other forms of significance.
World Heritage Convention
1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage established the framework for preserving the world’s outstanding heritage.
191 State Parties, including India, have ratified the World Heritage Convention.
Number of Sites
There are currently 1,172 World Heritage Sites across 166 countries.
Types of Sites
913 cultural sites
220 natural sites
39 mixed properties
World Heritage Committee
Evaluate nominated sites and inscribe them on the World Heritage List.
Preservation
Member states commit to protecting their World Heritage Sites.
World Heritage Fund
The fund, supported by member contributions, provides assistance for preserving sites.
Selection Criteria
Sites must demonstrate Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) by meeting criteria defined in the Convention.
Advisory Bodies
International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assess nominated sites.
Criteria for Cultural Sites
Six criteria for significance related to human creative genius, cultural interchange, unique testimony, outstanding examples of architecture, tradition, and events.
Criteria for Natural Sites
Four criteria for significance related to natural phenomena, Earth’s evolutionary history, ecological processes, and biological diversity.
Legal Status
Once inscribed, each site remains the property of the state it belongs to, with shared responsibility for its preservation and protection.
Obligations
Member states are obligated to integrate heritage protection into regional planning, report on-site conditions, and preserve sites for future generations.
Enforcement
The Committee may provide assistance, deploy experts, or delist sites in extreme cases of endangerment.
Important Sites in India:
There are 42 World Heritage Sites in India.
Out of these, 34 are cultural, 7 are natural, and 1, Khangchendzonga National Park, is of mixed type.
India has the sixth-most sites worldwide.
The first sites to be listed were the Ajanta Caves, Ellora Caves, Agra Fort, and Taj Mahal, all of which were inscribed in the 1983 session of the World Heritage Committee.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Campi Flegrei Super Volcano, Mt. Vesuvius, Volcanic eruptions in news.
Why in the News?
A 4.4 magnitude earthquake struck Italy’s Campi Flegrei super volcano, with Pozzuoli as the epicentre. Felt as far as Naples, it’s the strongest tremor in 40 years
Bradyseism Concerns near Campi Flegrei:
Campi Flegrei is prone to bradyseism, where ground elevation changes due to subsurface pressure.
The area, located 50 kilometres from Mt. Vesuvius, is undergoing a new cycle of bradyseism, according to volcanologists.
Over 500,000 people reside in the red zone adjacent to Campi Flegrei, prompting the Italian Civil Protection Agency to update evacuation plans.
AboutCampi Flegrei Volcano
Campi Flegrei, also known as the Phlegraean Fields, is a large volcanic area located in the western suburbs of Naples, Italy.
It is one of the most active volcanic systems in the world and has been active for at least 50,000 years.
Its Volcanic System:
Location: Campi Flegrei is situated within the Campanian volcanic arc in southern Italy, extending from the city of Naples to the Gulf of Pozzuoli.
Geological Formation: The volcanic system of Campi Flegrei is characterized by a large caldera, which is a collapsed volcanic crater, surrounded by numerous volcanic vents, craters, and lava domes. The caldera has a diameter of about 13 kilometers (8 miles).
Volcanic Activity: Campi Flegrei is considered a supervolcano due to its size and potential for large eruptions. It has experienced numerous periods of volcanic activity throughout its history, including explosive eruptions, lava flows, and phreatic (steam-driven) eruptions.
Terrain Features: The landscape of Campi Flegrei is characterized by volcanic features such as craters, fumaroles (steam vents), mud pots, and hot springs.
PYQ:
[2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in ‘2021’ and their impact on regional environment.
[2018] Consider the following statements:
The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Chabahar Port, Persian Gulf Mapping
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
India and Iran signed a 10-year agreement for the operation of the Chabahar port, marking a significant milestone in their cooperation.
Back2Basics: Chabahar Port
The port is located in southeastern Iran in the Sistan-Baluchistan province, on the Gulf of Oman and at the mouth of the Strait of Hormuz.
It is called the “Golden Gate” to Central Asian land-locked countries of Afghanistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
It serves as Iran’s only oceanic port and consists of two separate ports named Shahid Kalantari and Shahid Beheshti.
It is only about 170 km west of the Gwadar port if Pakistan.
The development of Chabahar port was initiated by India with a MoU in 2015 and executed in 2016 during PM Narendra Modi’s visit to Iran.
About the Agreement
The contract, signed between Indian Ports Global Ltd. (IPGL) and Port and Maritime Organisation (PMO) of Iran, involves substantial investment and development initiatives.
IPGL will invest approximately $120 million in equipping the Shahid-Behesti terminal, enhancing the port’s efficiency and capacity.
India has extended a credit window of $250 million for mutually identified projects aimed at improving Chabahar-related infrastructure, emphasizing its commitment to regional development.
Strategic Importance of Chabahar Port to India
Chabahar port will boost India’s access to Iran, the key gateway to the International North-South Transport Corridor that has sea, rail and road routes between India, Russia, Iran, Europe and Central Asia.
Chabahar port will be beneficial to India in countering Chinese presence in the Arabian Sea which China is trying to ensure by helping Pakistan develop the Gwadar port.
India can bypass Pakistan in transporting goods to Afghanistan.
Economic Significance
Chabahar Port is at an important point on the Arabian Sea, with easy access from India’s west coast.
Kandla port in Gujarat is the closest port at 550 nautical miles, while the distance between Chabahar and Mumbai is 786 nautical miles.
Since 2019, the port has handled more than 80,000 twenty-foot equivalent units (TEUs) of container traffic and more than 8 million tonnes of bulk and general cargo.
The port also offers an alternative route from the Strait of Hormuz for cargo traffic between Central Asian countries and Afghanistan.
PYQ:
[2017] What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India?
(a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase.
(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened.
(c) India will not depend on Pakistan to access Afghanistan and Central Asia.
(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the gas pipeline installation between Iraq and India.
Maharashtra’s plan to increase tigers count in Sahyadri-Konkan Wildlife Corridor by translocating tigers from Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR) (Chandrapur, Maharashtra) underscores the critical role of wildlife corridors in conservation efforts.
About Tadoba-Andhari Tiger Reserve (TATR)
Tadoba became one of India’s earliest national parks when it was declared in 1955, alongside Kanha National Park.
The name “Tadoba” is derived from the deity “Tadoba” or “Taru,” worshipped by local Gond Tribals, and “Andhari” refers to the Andhari River flowing through the reserve.
It was later expanded and officially merged with the Andhari Wildlife Sanctuary in 1993 to form the TATR.
TATR is regarded as one of the world’s most preferred destinations for tiger sightings and is a critical part of Project Tiger, aimed at conserving tigers in India.
The reserve has 115 tigers, including 88 within the forest and 27 in the areas immediately surrounding the reserve.
About Sahyadri-Konkan Wildlife Corridor
The Sahyadri-Konkan corridor(Sahyadri-Radhanagari-Goa-Karnataka), plays a vital role in conserving wildlife, particularly tigers, in the northern Western Ghats region.
It spans throughout the states of Maharashtra, Goa, and Karnataka, specifically through the Western Ghats, one of the world’s eight biodiversity hotspots.
Protected Areas Connected:
Sahyadri Tiger Reserve (includes Koyna Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) and Chandoli National Park) and Radhanagari Wildlife Sanctuary (Maharashtra);
Bhimgad Wildlife Sanctuary and Kali Tiger Reserve(includes Anshi National Park and Dandeli WLS) in (Karnataka);
Mollem National Park, Netravali Wildlife Sanctuary (Goa).
Fauna: Tiger (Panthera tigris), Indian leopard (Panthera pardus), dhole (Cuon alpinus), and sloth bear (Melursus ursinus), etc.
The Western Ghats, including parts of the corridor, are designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2012 due to their outstanding universal value in terms of biodiversity and endemic species.
PYQ:
[2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Garo Hills
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Geological Survey of India (GSI) explorers have made a breakthrough, uncovering ancient fossils in Tolegre, South Garo Hills of Meghalaya.
It is speculated that the fossils could be linked to the genera Rhodocetus or Amulocetus (now extinct), considered ancestors of modern whales.
About Garo Hills
The Garo Hills, located in Meghalaya, are part of the Garo-Khasi range, one of the hill ranges in the northeastern region of India.
They are situated in the western part of Meghalaya, bordering Bangladesh to the south and west.
The terrain of the Garo Hills is rugged and hilly, characterized by dense forests, steep slopes, and deep valleys.
The Nokrek is highest Peak, which stands at approximately 1,415 meters (4,642 feet) above sea level.
The climate in the Garo Hills is typically humid subtropical, with heavy rainfall during the monsoon season, which usually lasts from June to September.
Numerous rivers and streams, including the Brahmaputra, Someshwari, and Jinjiram rivers crisscross this region.
The region is also known for its picturesque waterfalls, such as the Pelga Falls, located near Tura, the largest town in the Garo Hills.
The Nokrek National Park, located within, is recognized as a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve and is home to various endangered species, including the Asian elephant and the red panda.
The Garo Hills are inhabited predominantly by the Garo tribe, one of the major ethnic groups in Meghalaya.
PYQ:
[2013] Consider the following pairs:
1. Nokrek Bio-Sphere Reserve : Garo Hills
2. Logtak (Loktak) Lake : Barail Range
3. Namdapha National Park: Daphla Hills
Which of the above pairs is/are correctly matched?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Thar Desert, Desert National Park;
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Rajasthan’s barren Thar Desert may turn green, says a recent study in the journal Earth’s Future.
Thar Desert
The Thar Desert is the 18th largest subtropical desert globally and is one of the most densely populated deserts.
Approximately 40% of the human population in Rajasthan resides in the Thar Desert.
It extends from the Sutlej River and is bounded by the Rann of Kutch, the Aravalli Mountains, and the Indus River.
About 85% of the Thar Desert is located in India, with the remainder in Pakistan.
In India, it spans across Rajasthan, Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab as well.
Civilizations are believed to have thrived in the Thar region around 50,000 years ago across the extinct Saraswati River.
The Desert National Park (home to the endangered Great Indian Bustard, desert fox, desert cat, blackbuck, and Indian gazelle) is situated in the Thar Desert in the northwest Indian state of Rajasthan.
Why is the Thar desert getting greener?
Climate Change Effects:
Alteration of Weather Patterns: Climate change is causing shifts in rainfall distribution in the thar desert area.
Potential for Vegetation Growth: The increased precipitation could provide favorable conditions for vegetation growth, contributing to the greening of the desert.
Indian Monsoon Dynamics:
Westward Extension of Indian Monsoon: The Indian monsoon, known for bringing heavy rainfall to eastern India, is now extending further westward into regions like the Thar Desert.
Impact on Moisture and Rainfall: This change in monsoon dynamics could lead to increased moisture and rainfall in the desert region, facilitating the growth of vegetation.
Expansion of Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP):
Influence on Monsoon Patterns: The Indian Ocean Warm Pool (IOWP) influences monsoon patterns and rainfall distribution over the Indian subcontinent.
Westward Expansion due to Climate Change: Climate change is causing the IOWP to expand westward, potentially resulting in increased rainfall over semi-arid regions like the Thar Desert and promoting greening.
Water Management Practices:
Contribution to Greening: Effective water management practices, such as rainwater harvesting and irrigation techniques like johad, kuis, and kunds, may be playing a role in the greening of the Thar Desert.
Utilization of Water Resources: By harnessing and efficiently utilizing available water resources, local communities and authorities can support vegetation growth and ecosystem restoration efforts in the desert.
Introduction of Irrigation
Commercial Cropping: Irrigation was introduced during British colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries to convert arid and semi-arid ecosystems into cropland.
Restrictions on Grazing: The right to graze animals was restricted to landowners who cultivated crops, leading to the transformation of nomadic pastoralists into sedentary agro-pastoralists.
PYQ:
[2018] Which of the following leaf modifications occur(s) in the desert areas to inhibit water loss?
Hard and waxy leaves
Tiny leaves
Thorns instead of leaves
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
[2020] The process of desertification does not have climate boundaries. Justify with examples.
[2013] Major hot deserts in northern hemisphere are located between 20-30 degree north and on the western side of the continents. Why?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Pulicat Wetland and its topography; Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZs)
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Settlement of claims for local communities within Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary boundary raises concerns.
State government plans to denotify a significant portion of the sanctuary and Eco-Sensitive Zone (ESZ) for industrial park development.
About Pulicat Wetland and Birds Sanctuary
Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary is the second-largest bird sanctuary in India.
It cuts across Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh and Thiruvallur district of Tamil Nadu.
The sanctuary is situated along the coast of the Bay of Bengal covering an area of 759 square kilometers.
The sanctuary is bordered by the Arani River at its southern tip, the Kalangi River from the Northwest, and the Swarnamukhi River at the northern end.
Pulicat Lake runs parallel to the Bay of Bengal and has a sand bar, making it a lagoon of its own kind.
Sriharikota, renowned as India’s rocket launch pad and home to the Satish Dhawan Space Centre, separates the lake from the Bay of Bengal.
The sanctuary includes 16 island villages and 30 villages adjoining the lake, whose inhabitants depend on the lake for their livelihood.
Pulicat Lake Bird Sanctuary hosts a large number of migratory birds during winter, including gulls, terns, plovers, shanks, curlews, and storks.
It is a habitat for a variety of bird species such as flamingos, pelicans, storks, herons, and ducks.
What are the Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZs)?
Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs) or Ecologically Fragile Areas (EFAs) are areas notified by the MoEFCC around Protected Areas, National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries.
The purpose of declaring ESZs is to create some kind of “shock absorbers” to the protected areas by regulating and managing the activities around such areas.
They also act as a transition zone from areas of high protection to areas involving lesser protection.
How are they demarcated?
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 does NOT mention the word “Eco-Sensitive Zones”.
However, Section 3(2)(v) of the Act, says that Central Government can restrict areas in which any industries, operations or processes or class of industries, operations or processes shall be carried out or shall not, subject to certain safeguards.
Besides Rule 5(1) of the Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 states that central government can prohibit or restrict the location of industries and carrying on certain operations or processes on the basis of certain considerations.
The same criteria have been used by the government to declare No Development Zones (NDZs).
Defining its boundaries
An ESZ could go up to 10 kilometres around a protected area as provided in the Wildlife Conservation Strategy, 2002.
Moreover, in the case where sensitive corridors, connectivity and ecologically important patches, crucial for landscape linkage, are beyond 10 km width, these should be included in the ESZs.
Further, even in the context of a particular Protected Area, the distribution of an area of ESZ and the extent of regulation may not be uniform all around and it could be of variable width and extent.
PYQ:
[2017] Consider the following statements:
1. In India, the Himalayas are spread over five States only.
2. Western Ghats are spread over five States only.
3. Pulicat Lake is spread over two States only.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mount Ruang, Pacific Ring of Fire, Sangihe Islands arc, Tectonic Plates mentioned
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Indonesia witnessed a series of eruptions from Mount Ruang, a stratovolcano located in North Sulawesi Province.
About MountRuang
Ruang is situated in the Sangihe Islands arc, North Sulawesi, Indonesia.
It comprises an island that is 4 by 5 kilometers wide, with a summit containing a partial lava dome reaching an altitude of 725 meters (2,379 ft).
From its summit, peaks such as Klabat, Siau, and Ternate can be observed in the south, north, and east, respectively.
The volcano’s first recorded eruption was in 1808.
Why so many volcanic eruptions in Indonesia this year?
Indonesia, an archipelago of 270 million people, has 120 active volcanoes.
It is prone to volcanic activity because it sits along the “Ring of Fire,” a horseshoe-shaped series of seismic fault lines around the Pacific Ocean.
What is the Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’?
The Pacific ‘Ring of Fire’ or Pacific Rim, or the Circum-Pacific Belt, is an area along the Pacific Ocean that is characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
Volcanic arcs and oceanic trenches partly encircling the Pacific Basin form the so-called Ring of Fire.
It is home to about 75 per cent of the world’s volcanoes – more than 450 volcanoes.
Also, about 90 per cent of the world’s earthquakes occur here.
Its spread
Its length is over 40,000 kilometres and traces from New Zealand clockwise in an almost circular arc covering Tonga, Kermadec Islands, Indonesia.
It is moving up to the Philippines, Japan, and stretching eastward to the Aleutian Islands, then southward along the western coast of North America and South America.
Seismic activity of the region
The area is along several tectonic plates including the:
Pacific plate,
Philippine Plate,
Juan de Fuca plate,
Cocos plate,
Nazca plate, and
North American plate.
The movement of these plates or tectonic activity makes the area witness abundant earthquakes and tsunamis every year.
Along much of the Ring, tectonic plates move towards each other creating subduction zones.
PYQ:
[2018] Consider the following statements:
The Barren Island volcano is an active volcano located in the Indian Territory.
Barren Island lies about 140 km east of Great Nicobar.
The last time the Barren Island volcano erupted was in 1991 and it has remained inactive since then.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
A pack of wild dogs, or Dholes, in Mudumalai Tiger Reserve (MTR) have suffered severe exfoliating skin infection which is an alarming fungal and bacterial infection.
AboutMudumalai Tiger Reserve
Mudumalai Tiger Reserve is situated in Tamil Nadu’s Nilgiris District, at the intersection of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
It forms part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, India’s first biosphere reserve, alongside Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary (Kerala), Bandipur National Park (Karnataka), Mukurthi National Park, and Silent Valley.
The name “Mudumalai” signifies “the ancient hill range,” dating back 65 million years to the formation of the Western Ghats.
Flora: The reserve boasts tall grasses, including Elephant Grass, and diverse flora such as giant bamboo, Teak, and Rosewood.
Fauna: It is home to flagship species like the Tiger and Asian Elephant, as well as the Indian Gaur, Spotted Deer, Malabar Giant Squirrel, and Jungle Cat, among others.
With over 260 bird species, Mudumalai hosts 8% of India’s avian species, including rare birds like the Malabar grey hornbill and Malabar pied hornbill.
Asiatic Wild Dog (Dhole)
Details
Name
Dhole (Cuon alpinus)
Native Range
Central, South, East, and Southeast Asia
Distribution in India
Most of India south of the Ganges, Central Indian Highlands, Western and Eastern Ghats, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Terai region of Indo-Gangetic Plain
Other Names
Asian wild dog, Asiatic wild dog, Indian wild dog, whistling dog, red dog, mountain wolf
Conservation Status
IUCN Red List: Endangered
CITES: Appendix II
Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule 1
Social Structure
Lives in big, loosely organized groups with several breeding females
Factors Contributing to Decline
Habitat loss, loss of prey, competition with other species, persecution due to livestock predation, disease transfer from domestic dogs
Significance
Besides the tiger, it is the only large carnivore in India that is under IUCN’s ‘endangered’ category.
PYQ:
[2019] Which of the following are in Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve?
(a) Neyyar, Peppara and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Kalakad Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve
(b) Mudumalai, Sathyamangalam and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Silent Valley National Park
(c) Kaundinya, Gundla Brahmeswaram and Papikonda Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Mukurthi National Park
(d) Kawal and Sri Venkateswara Wildlife Sanctuaries; and Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
The Forest Department and a temple authority at Ahobilam have imposed certain restrictionson visitors arriving at a shrine in Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve (NSTR).
About Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve
Details
Origin of Name
Named after Nagarjuna Sagar Dam and Srisailam Dam.
Location
Situated in the Nallamala hill range, part of the Eastern Ghats in Andhra Pradesh.
Area
Largest tiger reserve area in India, covering a total area of 3727 sq km.
Wildlife Sanctuaries
Constituted by the Rajiv Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and the Gundla Brahmeswaram Wildlife Sanctuary.
Vegetation
Features tropical, dry, moist, deciduous vegetation with diverse flora and fauna.
Topography
Consists of plateaus, ridges, gorges, and deep valleys.
River Krishna
Traverses through the reserve for approximately 270 kilometers.
Additional Information
Attained tiger reserve status in 1983.
Home to Bengal tigers, Indian leopards, and more.
Habitat contains several endemic species of plants.
Tropical dry deciduous forests with bamboo and grass undergrowth.
PYQ:
2020:
Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?
(a) Corbett
(b) Ranthambore
(c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam
(d) Sunderbans
2015:
Consider the following pairs :
Place of Pilgrimage: Location
1. Srisailam : Nallamala Hills
2. Omkareshwar : Satmala Hills
3. Pushkar : Mahadeo Hills
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Practice MCQ:
It is the largest tiger reserve in India, covering a total area of 3727 sq km. It is constituted by the Rajiv Gandhi Wildlife Sanctuary and the Gundla Brahmeswaram Wildlife Sanctuary and features tropical, dry, moist, deciduous vegetation with diverse flora and fauna.
Which protected area is implied by the above description?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Katchatheevu Island
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Prime Minister recently claimed that the then PM Indira Gandhi had given away the island of Katchatheevu to Sri Lanka for no reason.
About Katchatheevu Island
Katchatheevu is a small, uninhabited island measuring merely 285 acres, lying between India and Sri Lanka.
It is situated in the Palk Strait.
It was originally owned by the king of Ramnad (present-day Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu).
The island is used by fishermen to dry their nets.
Despite its modest size, the island holds significant religious significance, housing Anthony’s church, a centuries-old Catholic shrine revered by devotees from both nations.
Beyond its religious connotations, Katchatheevu is a vital ecosystem, supporting diverse flora and fauna endemic to the region’s maritime environment.
A Quick Recap of its History
During the British rule, it was administered jointly by India and Sri Lanka.
In the early 20th century, Sri Lanka claimed territorial ownership over the islet.
India ceded the island to Sri Lanka, through a joint agreement in 1974; India further gave up its fishing rights in the region in 1976.
Present Issue
In 1974 and 1976 treaties were signed between the two countries to demarcate the International Maritime Boundary Line (IMBL).
However, the agreement could not stop the fishermen from fishing in these waters, as fishermen know no boundary.
Culmination of the Political Dispute
Unresolved Issue: While Indian fishermen retained certain access rights to the island, the agreements failed to address key concerns regarding fishing rights, leading to simmering discontent among fishing communities.
Sri Lankan Atrocities: The civil war in Sri Lanka overshadowed the Katchatheevu issue, with Indian fishermen facing arrests and allegations of mistreatment by the Sri Lankan navy.
Renewed Demands: Instances of fishermen’s rights violations reignited calls for the retrieval of Katchatheevu by Tamil Nadu politicians, who highlighted the plight of affected fishing communities.
Present Backlash: The agreement sparked widespread protests and political backlash in Tamil Nadu, with regional parties and activists condemning the perceived abandonment of Indian sovereignty over Katchatheevu.
PYQ:
Consider the following statements:
1. The value of Indo-Sri Lanka trade has consistently increased in the last decade.
2. “Textile and textile articles” constitute an important item of trade between India and Bangladesh.
3. In the last five years, Nepal has been the largest trading partner of India in South Asia.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2020)
(a) 1 and 2 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 2 only
(d) 3 only
Practice MCQ:
With reference to the Katchatheevu Island recently seen in news, consider the following statements:
1. During the British rule, it was administered by India.
2. India ceded the island to Sri Lanka, through a joint agreement in 1974 but holds fishing rights in the region.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: SEAMA Ecoregion
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
A recent study has revealed about undocumented biodiversity in the newly recognized South East Africa Montane Archipelago (SEAMA) Ecoregion.
What isSEAMA Ecoregion?
The SEAMA is a recently recognized ecoregion located in Southern Africa.
It spans across northern Mozambique and incorporating Mount Mulanje in Malawi.
SEAMA is distinguished by its mountainous terrain, encompassing diverse habitats such as montane forests, grasslands, and rock faces.
Despite its relatively recent recognition, SEAMA has been identified as a hub of biodiversity, hosting numerous species of plants, vertebrates, and invertebrates.
Recent Findings on SEAMA Ecoregion
Species Documentation: The researchers identified 127 plants, 45 vertebrates, and 45 invertebrate species, including two endemic genera of plants and reptiles.
Endemic Reptiles: SEAMA is home to 22 strictly endemic reptile species, most of which are threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation.
Global Significance: The remarkable diversity of SEAMA has prompted proposals to designate it as a new ecoregion of global biological importance.
Conservation Challenges
Late Discovery: Despite being located in a region considered the birthplace of modern humans, the mountains of northern Mozambique remained largely unstudied until recent decades due to historical conflicts.
Deforestation Threats: SEAMA faces severe deforestation threats, with up to 18% of its primary humid forest cover lost since 2000.
Causes of Deforestation: Slash and burn shifting agricultural practices, along with charcoal production, are the primary drivers of deforestation in the region.
PYQ:
2013: Which one of the following pairs a correctly matched?
Geographical feature and region
(a) Abyssinian Plateau – Arabia
(b) Atlas Mountains – Northwest Africa
(c) Guiana Highlands – Southwest Africa
(d) Okavango Basin – Patagonia
Practice MCQ:
The SEAMA Ecoregion often seen in news is located in-
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: International Seabed Authority (ISBA), AN Seamount
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
India has applied to the International Seabed Authority (ISBA) for exploration rights in the Afanasy Nikitin (AN) Seamount in the Indian Ocean outside its jurisdiction.
India’s application is motivated by reports of Chinese vessels conducting reconnaissance in the same region, raising concerns about strategic interests and resource competition.
It was established in 1994 and headquartered in Kingston, Jamaica.
ISA is tasked with regulating mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond national jurisdiction, which includes polymetallic nodules, polymetallic sulphides, and cobalt-rich ferromanganese crusts.
The Authority issues exploration and exploitation contracts to countries and private entities for deep-sea mining activities, subject to certain regulations and environmental safeguards.
ISA comprises various organs, including the Assembly, the Council, the Legal and Technical Commission, and the Secretariat, each with specific functions related to deep-sea mining regulation.
According to Article 156(2) of the UNCLOS, all UNCLOS partiesare members of ISBA.
As of 2023 has 169 members, including 168 member states and the European Union.
India became a member of the UNCLOS in 1994.
About AN Seamount
The AN Seamount, located about 3,000 km from India’s coast, is a substantial structural feature in the Central Indian Ocean Basin.
A seamount is a large submarine landform that rises from the ocean floor without reaching the surface, and thus is not an island.
It is 400 km-long and 150 km-wide. From an oceanic depth of about 4,800 metres it rises to about 1,200 metres.
It was discovered during a marine research expedition, named after the Russian explorer Afanasy Nikitin.
It is renowned for its polymetallic nodules containing cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper
Continental Shelf Claims and Implications
Sri Lanka has applied for continental shelf claims up to 500 nautical miles beyond its Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), citing a special provision.
India, noting Chinese presence, has staked a claim for exploration rights to prevent future consequences.
India has also applied for permission to explore another region, spanning 3,00,000 square km, called the Carlsberg Ridge in the Central Indian Ocean to investigate for polymetallic sulphides, which are reportedly rich in copper, zinc, gold and silver.
PYQ:
2021: Consider the following statements:
The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
a) 1 and 2 only
b) 2 and 3 only
c) 1 and 3 only
d) 1, 2 and 3
Practice MCQ:
Consider the following statements about the International Seabed Authority (ISBA):
ISBA is an intergovernmental organization established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Geo-Heritage Sites in India
Mains level: NA
Why in the news
Pandavula Gutta, an ancient geological marvel predating the Himalayan hills, has been officially designated as Telangana’s sole Geo-heritage site.
Also the 165 million-year-old meteor Ramgarh Crater in Rajasthan was declared geo-heritage site.
[A] Pandavula Gutta
Pandavula Gutta is located in Jayashankar Bhupalpally District in Telangana.
It is known for its rock art and geological heritage.
The site features Paleolithic cave paintings depicting wildlife and symbols.
Discovered in 1990, it showcases habitation from the mesolithic to medieval times.
Recognized as the sole Geo-heritage site in Telangana, older than the Himalayan hills.
[B] Ramgarh Crater
The Ramgarh Crater, also known as Ramgarh structure, Ramgarh Dome, and Ramgarh astrobleme, is a meteor impact crater located near the town of Ramgarh in Baran district of Rajasthan.
It is established as an asteroid impact crater in India, excavated within sandstone, shale, and limestone horizons of the Lower Bhander Group of the Vindhyan Region.
It was formed by a meteorite impact, with a diameter of 3.2 kilometers and an elevation of over 200 meters above the surrounding terrain.
It is declared Conservation Reserve, namely Ramgarh Conservation Reserve, under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and a notified wetland under Wetland (Conservation & Management) Rules, 2017.
What areGeo-Heritage Sites?
Geo-Heritage Sites in India are geological features of significant importance, either culturally or inherently, that provide insights into the Earth’s evolution or serve educational purposes.
These sites are recognized and protected by the Geological Survey of India (GSI) and the respective State governments.
India presently has 34 National Geological Heritage Monument Sites.
Examples:
Mawmluh Cave in Meghalaya
Majuli Island in Assam
Chabimura in Tripura
Purpose:
Promote geotourism
Preserve unique geological formations
Enhance geological literacy among the public
Tap this link to read more about all Geo-Heritage Parks in India:
