PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2013] Constitutional mechanisms to resolve the inter-state water disputes have failed to address and solve the problems. Is the failure due to structural or process inadequacy or both? Discuss.
Linkage: India’s water management problems are explicitly stated to be a result of a “fragmented and sectoral approach”. This contrasts sharply with the need for a holistic “new course.” The existing situation is problematic because “rivers and other waterbodies are often interstate and multiple political jurisdictions are involved in administering the same waterbody”. |
Mentor’s Comment: In 2025, global water governance takes a historic turn as the United Nations declares it the International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation and launches the Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science (2025–2034). These initiatives, aligned with World Water Day 2025 and World Day for Glaciers (March 21), focus directly on the vital connections between mountain glaciers, freshwater, and ocean ecosystems. They promote the “Source-to-Sea (S2S)” approach, which integrates water governance from glacial sources all the way to ocean outlets, acknowledging their ecological and hydrological continuity.
Today’s editorial will talk about water governance in India and the world. It will help with GS Paper I (Geography), GS Paper II (Policy Making) and GS Paper III (Environment).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Scientists and decision-makers need to pay attention to the Source to Sea (S2S) approach.
What is the theme of World Water Day 2025?
- Theme: Glacier Preservation
- 2025 is also declared the International Year of Glaciers Preservation by the United Nations.
- Marks the start of a Decade of Action on Cryospheric Science (2025-2034).
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Why is it significant?
- Crucial Source of Freshwater: Glaciers act as natural water reservoirs, supplying freshwater to millions downstream. Their preservation ensures sustained water availability for drinking, agriculture, and ecosystems. Eg: The Himalayan glaciers feed rivers like the Ganga and Brahmaputra, supporting millions of people in India.
- Indicator of Climate Change: Glaciers are sensitive to global warming; their rapid melting signals climate change impacts. Protecting them helps monitor and mitigate broader environmental risks. Eg: Melting Himalayan glaciers contribute to changing river flows, affecting flood and drought patterns in South Asia.
- Supports Sustainable Development: Preserving glaciers helps maintain mountain ecosystems and supports downstream communities dependent on glacier-fed waters for their livelihoods and economic activities. Eg: Alpine glaciers support mountain agriculture and tourism, critical to local economies in regions like Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh.
Why is the Source-to-Sea (S2S) approach important for global water governance?
- Integrated Management of Water Systems: S2S treats freshwater and marine systems as a connected continuum, ensuring that actions upstream (rivers, lakes) consider their impact downstream (coastal and marine environments). Eg: Pollution control in river basins like the Ganges directly affects the health of the Bay of Bengal ecosystem.
- Improves Coordination Across Jurisdictions: S2S promotes cooperation among multiple stakeholders and political jurisdictions, bridging fragmented governance to manage shared water resources effectively. Eg: The Manila Declaration encourages countries to work together on ridge-to-reef management to protect water quality from land to ocean.
- Facilitates Sustainable Solutions for Water and Marine Challenges: By addressing the entire water cycle, S2S enables holistic strategies that tackle issues like pollution, water diversion, and habitat loss, benefiting both terrestrial and marine biodiversity. Eg: Initiatives under the SIWI Action Platform connect freshwater and marine experts to develop better water management practices globally.
What is the cryosphere?
The cryosphere includes all frozen water parts of Earth, such as glaciers, snow, sea ice, and permafrost. It helps regulate the climate, reflects sunlight, and stores Earth’s freshwater. |
How does the changing mountain cryosphere impact downstream water resources?
- Altered Water Flow Patterns: Melting glaciers and shrinking snowpacks change the timing and volume of water flow downstream, leading to seasonal water shortages or floods. Eg: Reduced glacial melt in the Himalayas affects the flow of rivers like the Ganges, impacting water availability for millions.
- Reduced Water Storage Capacity: Glaciers act as natural reservoirs, storing water during cold months and releasing it slowly. Their retreat means less buffering capacity during dry periods, causing water stress downstream. Eg: Declining glacier size in the Alps affects water supplies for European river basins in summer.
- Increased Risk of Natural Hazards: Glacier melt can lead to the formation and sudden breach of glacial lakes, causing flash floods and damaging downstream ecosystems and communities. Eg: Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs) in the Himalayas pose risks to villages and infrastructure along rivers like the Indus.
What are the key challenges India faces in managing its water resources?
- Groundwater Depletion: Over-extraction of groundwater for irrigation, industrial use, and domestic consumption has led to alarming depletion rates of aquifers. This poses a significant threat to long-term water availability and agricultural productivity. Eg, states like Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan report over 100% utilization of groundwater resources, leading to critical water scarcity.
- Water Pollution: Water pollution from industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and agricultural runoff has made large quantities of freshwater unusable. According to the Central Pollution Control Board, more than 70% of India’s surface water is polluted, with rivers like the Ganga and Yamuna being majorly affected.
- Climate Change and Erratic Weather Patterns: Changing rainfall patterns, prolonged droughts, and frequent floods induced by climate change are altering water availability. The Indian Meteorological Department has noted a decline in monsoon rainfall, which is critical for replenishing rivers, lakes, and groundwater reserves.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- Formulation and Revision of National Water Policies: The government introduced the first National Water Policy in 1987, and since then, it has been periodically updated to address emerging challenges. The latest draft policies emphasize integrated water resource management and sustainability. Eg, the 2019 draft National Water Policy focuses on water conservation, efficient use, and equitable distribution.
- Institutional Reforms and Coordination Bodies: Committees have been set up to improve water governance by restructuring key institutions. Eg, in 2015, a committee was formed to merge the Central Water Commission and Central Ground Water Board into a unified National Water Commission to foster better coordination and planning.
- Promotion of Sustainable and Integrated Approaches: The government supports approaches like Source-to-Sea (S2S) management, which integrates land, freshwater, coastal, and marine resource management. Eg, pilot projects in the Indo-Gangetic basin and Delhi waterbodies are being explored under the S2S framework to address pollution and water quality comprehensively.
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Way forward:
- Adopt Source-to-Sea (S2S) Approach Nationwide: Implement integrated water governance that connects glacial sources to coastal ecosystems, ensuring coordinated action across sectors and regions.
- Strengthen Climate-Resilient Water Infrastructure: Invest in glacier monitoring, early warning systems, and sustainable groundwater management to adapt to climate-induced water variability and safeguard water security.
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Why in the News?
World Food Safety Day 2025 is observed with the theme “Food Safety: Science in Action.” It highlights India’s progress in food safety, though there are still some gaps to address.
What is the theme of World Food Safety Day 2025?
Theme: “Food Safety: Science in Action”. It emphasizes the importance of applying science to ensure food safety. |
How does it reflect India’s evolving approach to food safety?
- Shift from Adulteration to Risk-Based Framework: Earlier, the Prevention of Food Adulteration (PFA) Act, 1954 focused on whether food was adulterated or not. The Food Safety and Standards Act, 2006 introduced a scientific, risk-based approach through the creation of FSSAI.
- Adoption of International Scientific Standards: India aligned its food regulations with global norms like those of the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Eg: Standards for Maximum Residue Limits (MRLs) and Acceptable Daily Intake (ADI) values are now scientifically defined.
- Efforts to Strengthen Scientific Capacity: India is focusing on generating its own toxicological data and conducting Total Diet Studies (TDS) to suit local needs. Eg: Indian-specific dietary patterns and environmental factors are being considered to improve food safety regulations.
What are Toxicology Studies?
These are scientific assessments that evaluate the harmful effects of chemicals or substances (like pesticides, additives, contaminants) on living organisms, especially humans. |
Why are India-specific toxicology studies important for food safety?
- Reflect Local Dietary Habits: International toxicology data may not match Indian dietary patterns and consumption levels. Eg: An average Indian may consume more rice or spices than Western populations, affecting exposure to contaminants.
- Consider Unique Agricultural Practices: India’s crop varieties, pesticide usage, and farming methods differ from global practices. Eg: Pesticide residues on Indian-grown vegetables may vary significantly compared to Europe, requiring tailored safety limits.
- Account for Environmental and Genetic Differences: Climate, water quality, and genetic factors influence how toxins impact health in India. Eg: Heavy metal contamination in groundwater in Indian regions could cause higher cumulative exposure, not captured by foreign studies.
What is monosodium glutamate (MSG)?
MSG is a flavour enhancer commonly added to food to intensify the umami taste (a savoury flavour). It is the sodium salt of glutamic acid, a naturally occurring amino acid found in many foods. |
How has the regulation of monosodium glutamate (MSG) in India differed from global practices?
- Continued Use of Outdated Warning Labels: While global authorities like JECFA (Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives) have declared MSG safe since 1971, India still mandates a warning label stating it is unsafe for infants. Eg: Most countries have removed such warnings, but India continues them despite scientific consensus.
- Misleading Public Perception: The mandatory label in India has led to consumer fear and confusion, with many believing MSG is inherently harmful. Eg: This is misleading, as natural glutamates (chemically identical to MSG) are found in tomato, mushroom, garlic, and even breast milk.
- Lag in Regulatory Modernisation: India has been slow to align its food safety regulations with global scientific evidence. Eg: Despite MSG receiving an “ADI not specified” status globally (indicating high safety), India still treats it with caution due to legacy regulations.
What can improve food safety risk communication in India?
- Simplify Scientific Language: Communicate complex terms like MRLs (Maximum Residue Limits) and ADIs (Acceptable Daily Intake) in easy-to-understand formats for the public. Eg: Instead of stating “0.1 mg/kg,” explain it as a level safe for lifelong consumption in common quantities of food.
- Replace Misleading Labels with Evidence-Based Information: Outdated or alarming labels should be updated to reflect current scientific understanding. Eg: The MSG warning label in India should be replaced with factual information about its safety, as done in other countries.
- Enhance Public Engagement and Transparency: Build public trust through open communication with consumers, industry, and media to explain regulatory changes and safety updates. Eg: When MRL limits for pesticides were revised, clearer messaging could have prevented public fear and misunderstanding.
Way forward:
- Invest in India-Specific Scientific Research: Conduct localized toxicological studies and Total Diet Studies (TDS) to ensure food safety standards reflect Indian dietary habits, agricultural practices, and environmental conditions.
- Strengthen Risk Communication and Public Awareness: Simplify scientific terms for the public, revise outdated labels, and build transparent engagement with stakeholders to promote informed consumer choices and trust in regulatory decisions.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2022] Briefly discuss the status and significance of the food processing industry in India.
Linkage: The “status and significance of the food processing industry” in India is directly and fundamentally linked to the country’s food safety standards. For this industry to achieve and maintain a significant status, it must adhere to and uphold rigorous food safety standards. The perception and reality of food safety directly influence consumer trust, market access (both domestic and international), and overall economic contribution of the sector.
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Why in the News?
India has rejected the “scare stories” spread by Pakistan and others about China building dams upstream on the Brahmaputra River, especially the big 60,000 MW Medog Hydropower Project in Tibet.
What is the significance of the Brahmaputra’s flow originating mostly in India?
- Major Contribution to River Flow: Although India has only about 34.2% of the Brahmaputra basin area, it contributes over 80% of the river’s total water flow due to higher rainfall and tributary inflows. Eg: The Indian basin receives an average annual rainfall of 2,371 mm, much higher than Tibet’s 300 mm.
- Flood Management Potential: Control over a major share of the river’s flow gives India better scope to design flood control infrastructure and storage systems to reduce monsoon-related disasters. Eg: Assam CM stated that reduced flow from China could help mitigate annual floods in Assam.
- Strengthened Riparian Rights and Development Planning: India’s dominant share in flow enhances its claim as a principal riparian state, empowering it to undertake hydropower and irrigation projects without heavy external dependency. Eg: India is developing hydropower projects like Dibang and Subansiri in Arunachal Pradesh based on its flow share.
| Note: A “riparian state” refers to a state or country that shares a river or stream border with another state or country. |
What about the Medog Hydropower Project?
The Medog Hydropower Project is an ambitious and controversial initiative by China to construct the world’s largest hydropower dam on the Yarlung Tsangpo River in Tibet. With a planned capacity of 60,000 megawatts (MW) and an estimated cost of $137 billion, the project has significant environmental, geopolitical, and social implications for the region |
Why is China’s proposed Medog hydropower project raising concerns for India?
- Strategic Control Over Water Flow: China’s 60,000 MW Medog dam could allow manipulation of the Brahmaputra’s flow, risking reduced water in dry seasons or artificial floods during monsoons. Eg: Sudden releases from Chinese dams have previously caused flash floods in Arunachal Pradesh and Assam.
- Environmental and Seismic Hazards: The dam’s location in a seismic zone threatens biodiversity, increases landslide risks, and may disrupt sediment flow critical for downstream agriculture. Eg: Trapped sediments can reduce soil fertility, impacting farming in India and Bangladesh.
- Absence of Water-Sharing Agreements: China’s unilateral actions without consultation violate equitable sharing norms, worsening trust deficits. Eg: Unlike the Indus Treaty with Pakistan, no formal pact exists between India and China on the Brahmaputra.
What steps has India taken or proposed to utilise the Brahmaputra’s water potential?
- Development of Hydropower Projects: India is actively constructing and planning large hydropower projects in Arunachal Pradesh to harness the Brahmaputra’s energy potential and establish water-use rights. Eg: Projects like the Dibang Multipurpose Project (2880 MW) and Subansiri Lower Hydroelectric Project (2000 MW) are designed to generate clean energy and regulate river flow.
- Construction of Multipurpose Storage Reservoirs: India is focusing on creating dams and storage facilities to control floods, store monsoon water, and ensure water availability in dry seasons. Eg: The proposed Upper Siang project aims to store floodwaters and generate electricity while supporting irrigation and drinking water needs in the region.
- Promotion of Inland Waterways and River Navigation: The Brahmaputra is being developed as a key navigable waterway under India’s Act East Policy to boost trade and regional connectivity. Eg: The National Waterway-2 (NW-2) on the Brahmaputra facilitates cargo movement between Assam and Bangladesh, promoting economic use of the river.
Way forward:
- Bilateral Water-Sharing Framework: India and China should initiate dialogue to establish a formal transboundary water-sharing agreement, ensuring data transparency, flow regulation, and emergency notification mechanisms—similar to the Indus Waters Treaty.
- Regional Environmental Assessment Mechanism: Promote a joint environmental impact assessment (EIA) involving India, China, and Bangladesh under a multilateral platform like the UN or SAARC, to ensure sustainable and equitable river basin management.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013} What do you understand by run of the river hydroelectricity project? How is it different from any other hydroelectricity project?
Linkage: The articles talks about the Chinese infrastructure interventions on the Brahmaputra are “hydropower projects with minimal storage”. It also mentions the massive planned Medog project as the world’s largest hydropower facility, and India’s own Upper Siang Project which will generate power and serve as a buffer against flow variations. This question directly relates to a type of hydropower project pertinent to river development and control.
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Why in the News?
Prime Minister inaugurated the world’s highest railway bridge over the Chenab River in Jammu and Kashmir.
About the Chenab Rail Bridge:
- Location: The Chenab Rail Bridge is the world’s highest railway bridge, situated over the Chenab River in Reasi district, Jammu and Kashmir. It is part of the Udhampur–Srinagar–Baramulla Rail Link (USBRL).
- Height: The bridge rises to a height of 359 metres, which is 35 metres taller than the Eiffel Tower.
- Structure and Length: It has a total length of 1,315 metres, comprising a 530-metre approach bridge and a 785-metre steel arch bridge.
- Project Execution: Constructed by Konkan Railway Corporation, with contributions from Afcons Infrastructure, Ultra Construction & Engineering (South Korea), and VSL India.
- Design and Engineering:
- IISc Bengaluru designed the foundation.
- IIT Delhi and IIT Roorkee conducted seismic analysis.
- DRDO ensured it is blast-proof.
- Durability and Safety: The bridge can withstand magnitude 8 earthquakes, blasts up to 40 tonnes of TNT, temperatures as low as -20°C, and wind speeds of 266 km/h.
- Speed and Lifespan: It supports train speeds up to 100 km/h and has a lifespan of 120 years.
- Key Milestones: The arch closure was completed in April 2021, and the Golden Joint Ceremony was held on August 13, 2022.
PM also inaugurated Anji Bridge:
- About: The Anji Bridge is India’s first cable-stayed railway bridge, built over the Anji River, a tributary of the Chenab.
- Ranking: It is the second-highest railway bridge in India, after the Chenab Bridge.
- Design: Originally planned as an arch bridge, the design was changed to cable-stayed due to geological challenges.
- Structure Details: The total length is 725 metres, comprising an ancillary viaduct, approach bridge, and central embankment.
- Features: It is supported by 96 cables ranging from 82 to 295 metres, with a deck width of 15 metres.
- Resilience: The bridge is engineered to withstand seismic activity, unstable terrain, strong winds, heavy storms, and explosions.
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| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. Indian Railways have prepared a National Rail Plan (NRP) to create a future ready railway system by 2028. II. ‘Kavach’ is an Automatic Train Protection system developed in collaboration with Germany. III. ‘Kavach’ system consists of RFID tags fitted on track in station section.
Which of the statements given above are not correct?
Options: (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only (d) I, II and III* |
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Why in the News?
The RBI, in its Monetary Policy Committee (MPC) meeting, cut the Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) by 1% to release ₹2.5 lakh crore into the banking system by November 2025.
Key Changes Announced:
- Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) reduced by 1% in four tranches, bringing it down to 3% by November 29, 2025.
- This CRR cut will release ₹2.5 lakh crore liquidity into the banking system by December 2025.
- Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) remains unchanged at 18% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).
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Key terms related to the MPC instruments:
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Explanation |
| Cash Reserve Ratio (CRR) |
- CRR is the percentage of a bank’s total deposits that must be maintained as liquid cash with the RBI.
- Banks cannot use this amount for lending or investment. No interest is earned on CRR.
- It is used to control liquidity and inflation in the economy.
- Increasing CRR reduces bank lending capacity; decreasing it increases liquidity.
- Current CRR is 4.5% of Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL).
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| Statutory Liquidity Ratio (SLR) |
- SLR is the minimum percentage of NDTL that banks must maintain in liquid form.
- It includes cash, gold, or approved government securities, kept with the bank itself.
- It helps ensure bank solvency and restricts excessive credit growth.
- Raising SLR reduces funds available for lending; lowering it boosts credit and growth.
- It also helps the government ensure demand for its securities.
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| Net Demand and Time Liabilities (NDTL) |
- It includes public deposits and balances held with other banks.
- It excludes deposits the bank itself has with other banks.
- Demand liabilities include current accounts and demand drafts.
- Time liabilities include fixed deposits and recurring deposits.
- CRR and SLR are calculated as a percentage of NDTL.
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| Repo Rate |
- The repo rate is the rate at which the RBI lends short-term funds to commercial banks against government securities.
- Banks sell securities to RBI with an agreement to repurchase them later.
- Lower repo rate makes borrowing cheaper and boosts liquidity.
- Higher repo rate makes borrowing costlier, reducing liquidity.
- It is a key monetary policy tool to regulate inflation and money supply.
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| Variable Rate Repo (VRR) Auction |
- VRR auction is a method where RBI conducts repo operations at variable interest rates.
- Interest rate is determined through competitive bidding by banks.
- It reflects real-time demand and supply of liquidity.
- Enables more flexible and efficient liquidity management by RBI.
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| Standing Deposit Facility (SDF) |
- SDF allows banks to deposit surplus funds with the RBI without providing any collateral.
- Banks earn interest at a rate set by the RBI.
- It is used to absorb excess liquidity from the system.
- Part of RBI’s liquidity management framework.
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| Weighted Average Call Rate (WACR) |
- WACR is the weighted average interest rate at which banks borrow and lend overnight funds in the interbank call money market.
- It is an important indicator of short-term liquidity conditions.
- RBI monitors WACR to guide monetary policy decisions.
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| [UPSC 2020] If the RBI decides to adopt an expansionist monetary policy, which of the following would it not do?
1. Cut and optimise the Statutory Liquidity Ratio.
2. Increase the Marginal Standing Facility Rate.
3. Cut the Bank Rate and Repo Rate.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
India has been elected to the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) for the term 2026–2028.
About the UN’s Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):
- Establishment: It is one of the 6 principal UN organs, created in 1945 under the UN Charter.
- Mandate: It coordinates the UN’s economic, social, humanitarian, and cultural work.
- Role: ECOSOC serves as the central platform for global policy dialogue, review, and development recommendations.
- Composition: ECOSOC has 54 member states, elected by the UN General Assembly for three-year terms.
- Decision-Making: Decisions are made by simple majority; no permanent members; presidency rotates annually.
- Functions and Powers:
- Coordination: Oversees 15 specialized agencies (e.g., WHO, ILO), 8 functional commissions, and 5 regional commissions.
- Promotion Areas: Focuses on living standards, employment, human rights, education, healthcare, and environmental protection.
- Engagement with NGOs: Grants consultative status to over 1,600 NGOs and organizes global conferences.
- UN Oversight: Supervises agencies such as UNICEF, UNDP, and UNHCR.
- Sessions and Meetings:
- Main Sessions: Held each July, along with an organizational session.
- Finance Dialogues: Hosts April meetings with finance ministers from the IMF and World Bank.
- SDG Monitoring: Organizes the High-Level Political Forum (HLPF) to track progress on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
- Legal and Institutional Details:
- UN Charter Basis: Defined under Chapter X (Articles 61–72) of the Charter.
- Headquarters: Located in New York.
- Scope: ECOSOC is the largest and most complex UN body, shaping global development policy.
India and ECOSOC:
- Membership: India is serving its 18th term as a member, elected for the 2026–28 period.
- Subsidiary Roles: India has held positions in bodies like the UN Statistical Commission, Commission on Narcotic Drugs, and UNAIDS Board.
- Recent Milestone: India recently joined the UN Committee of Experts on Big Data and Data Science for Official Statistics (UN-CEBD), highlighting its data expertise.
- Policy Priorities: India supports inclusive growth, SDG progress, and south-south cooperation through evidence-based multilateral leadership.
| [UPSC 2009] With reference to the United Nations, consider the following statements:
1. The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of UN consists of 24 member States.
2. It is elected by a 2/3 majority of The General Assembly for a 3-year term.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
Union Minister for Minority Affairs has launched the Unified Waqf Management, Empowerment, Efficiency and Development (UMEED) portal—a centralised digital platform to manage Waqf properties across India.
Tap to read more about the Waqf and the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025.
About the UMEED Portal
- Launch: It was launched by the Ministry of Minority Affairs on June 6, 2025.
- Core Purpose: It ensures real-time registration, verification, and monitoring of Waqf properties across India.
- Legal Alignment: The portal is aligned with the Waqf (Amendment) Act, 2025, which received presidential assent in April 2025.
- Governance Shift: UMEED aims to promote transparency, accountability, and public participation by making Waqf data digitally traceable.
Key Features:
- Centralized Registration: All Waqf properties must be registered on a single digital platform.
- Documentation: Each property receives a 17-digit ID and must include ownership papers, exact measurements, and geotagged location data.
- User-Friendly Design: Features include dropdown-based input, GIS mapping, and a grievance redressal system.
- 3-Tier Verification:
- Maker: Mutawalli enters the property data.
- Checker: District official verifies the entry.
- Approver: CEO or authorised Waqf Board officer grants approval.
- Transparency and Privacy: Public access to basic property details is allowed, while data privacy is ensured.
- Eligibility Rule: Properties registered in women’s names are not eligible as Waqf properties, though women and vulnerable groups remain priority beneficiaries.
- Support System: A toll-free helpline is available for technical assistance.
Registration Process:
- Responsible Authority: State Waqf Boards are in charge of registering properties.
- Deadline: All registrations must be completed within 6 months of the portal’s launch.
- Required Data: Includes property size, ownership documents, geotagging, and whether the land is government-owned.
- Extension Policy: A 1–2 month extension may be granted upon valid request.
- Non-Compliance: Unregistered properties will be marked as “disputed” and referred to the Waqf Tribunal.
- Missing Documents: In such cases, the mutawalli must approach the Tribunal for validation.
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