As questions emerge over the conduct of elections in India, restoring faith in the Election Commission is crucial to safeguarding democratic legitimacy.
Context and Relevance (GS2 – Polity and Governance, Constitutional Bodies):
The Election Commission of India (ECI), a constitutionally mandated body under Article 324, is once again in the spotlight. Following the 2024 general elections, allegations from political leaders, including Rahul Gandhi and Tejashwi Yadav, have cast a shadow over the Commission’s neutrality and transparency. These charges revive a critical debate: Can India’s democracy survive without full public trust in its electoral machinery? The answer lies in the integrity, independence, and accountability of the Election Commission, one of the bedrocks of India’s representative democracy.
Why Is Electoral Credibility So Vital?
- Democratic legitimacy stems not just from elections being conducted, but from them being widely perceived as free, fair, and impartial.
- If losers in elections feel the process was biased or manipulated, public trust erodes, similar to a rigged court trial or fixed sporting match.
- Thus, electoral bodies must maintain absolute transparency to avoid a crisis of trust.
What are the Allegations?
- Discrepancies in Voter Rolls: A Member of Parliament has hinted at large-scale discrepancies in the 2024 elections. Tejashwi Yadav alleged that his name was missing from the electoral rolls in Bihar due to a mismatch in his EPIC (voter ID) number.
- Opacity in VVPAT Functioning: The Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT), a critical component of EVMs, has been flagged for lack of transparency. Unlike the Ballot Unit and Control Unit, the VVPAT contains software and is centrally programmed — raising questions about tamper-proofing and auditability.
- Arbitrary VVPAT Tallying: The process of randomly tallying VVPAT slips with EVM counts has become highly discretionary, leading to low public confidence.
- ECI’s Defensive Posture: Rather than addressing concerns head-on, the ECI has simply rejected tampering allegations and asked parties to raise objections “at the appropriate time”.
Wider Implications for Indian Democracy
- Public Trust in Institutions: Without visible impartiality, even a fair process may be discredited by perception. This impacts citizen engagement, voter turnout, and social cohesion.
- Level Playing Field in Elections: If major opposition leaders claim unfair treatment, it undermines the equality of contest fundamental to electoral democracy.
- Rule of Law and Accountability: The ECI is not above public scrutiny. While insulated from political pressure, it must remain answerable to constitutional values and public confidence.
- Judicial Oversight and Electoral Reforms: Calls may grow for stronger judicial or parliamentary oversight of ECI decisions — or reforms such as: Collegium system for appointing Election Commissioners, Mandatory disclosures of EVM-VVPAT audit protocols.
Way Forward
- Ensure Real Transparency: ECI should publish standard operating procedures for VVPAT tallying and voter roll revision.
- Independent Audit Mechanisms: Encourage third-party audits and real-time grievance tracking for electoral complaints.
- Reform ECI Appointments: Move from Executive-dominated selection to a multi-member collegium including CJI, opposition leaders, and the President.
- Digital Literacy and Voter Awareness: Boost public understanding of electoral tech like EVMs and VVPAT to counter misinformation and suspicion.
Conclusion:
India’s electoral democracy is only as strong as its citizens’ belief in its fairness. As a constitutional guardian of that belief, the Election Commission must go beyond legal compliance and strive to uphold both institutional credibility and democratic trust. A recalibration is urgently needed — not just for politicians or parties, but for the citizen-voter, who is the ultimate stakeholder in the democratic process.
Sample UPSC Mains Question (GS2 – Polity, 15 Marks)
“The credibility of democratic institutions lies not just in their constitutional design but in public perception of their impartiality.” In light of recent controversies, critically examine the functioning of the Election Commission of India. Suggest reforms to strengthen its autonomy and transparency.
Value Addition:
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Constitutional Articles related to ECI
- Article 324: Vests the superintendence, direction, and control of elections in the ECI.
- Article 325: One general electoral roll for every territorial constituency.
- Article 326: Elections to Lok Sabha and State Assemblies to be based on adult suffrage.
- Article 327: Power of Parliament to make provisions with respect to elections.
- Article 328: Power of State Legislature to make provisions relating to elections.
- Article 329: Bar to interference by courts in electoral matters.
Voter Verified Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT)
- VVPAT is an independent system attached to EVMs that allows voters to verify that their vote has been cast correctly.
- It generates a printed slip with the candidate’s name and symbol, visible for 7 seconds before being dropped into a sealed box.
- First used in India: 2013 in Nagam (Nagaland) by-election.
- Nationwide use: Mandated by the Supreme Court in 2013; implemented in all 543 constituencies in 2019 General Elections.
- SC 2019 ruling: 5 random VVPAT slips to be matched with EVMs per Assembly segment to increase transparency.
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) in India
- Introduced on experimental basis in 1982 (Parur Assembly, Kerala).
- Used in some constituencies in 1999 Lok Sabha elections.
- Nationwide use: Since 2004 Lok Sabha elections.
- EVMs have no internet connectivity, operate on standalone power, and are considered tamper-proof by EC.
- Two parts: Control Unit & Balloting Unit, connected via cable.
Recent Issues in News Related to ECI
- Demand for Collegium-style appointment of Election Commissioners:
- The Supreme Court in 2023 ruled that CEC and ECs will be appointed by the President on recommendation of a committee comprising PM, LoP, and CJI.
- Aims to reduce Executive influence and ensure independence of the ECI.
- Delay in Disqualification under Anti-Defection Law:
- ECI was criticized for delay in acting on defections in assemblies, e.g., Maharashtra political crisis.
- Raises questions about the commission’s proactive powers under Tenth Schedule.
- Electoral Roll Purification & Aadhaar-linkage:
- Efforts to link voter ID with Aadhaar raised privacy concerns.
- Opposition raised fears of disenfranchisement, especially of vulnerable communities.
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The Growth is Now Coming Not from Insecticides or Fungicides, but Herbicides.
Understanding the Three Major Types of Pesticides:
Pesticides are chemical or biological substances used to protect crops by eliminating or controlling pests, diseases, or weeds. India’s pesticide market primarily consists of:
- Insecticides: These control insects that damage crops by feeding on them or transmitting diseases.
- Fungicides: These are used to prevent or eliminate fungal infections like mildew, blight, or rust that affect crop yield and quality.
- Herbicides: These destroy or inhibit the growth of weeds that compete with crops for nutrients, water, and sunlight.
Herbicides – The New Growth Driver of India’s Pesticide Market:
India’s organised crop protection market is valued at approximately ₹24,500 crore. While insecticides (₹10,700 crore) remain the largest segment, herbicides (₹8,200 crore) have emerged as the fastest-growing category, with an annual growth rate exceeding 10%. This shift reflects a deeper transformation in India’s rural economy—one driven by labour scarcity, rising wage rates, and the need for mechanisation and efficiency in farm operations.
Why Herbicides Are Gaining Ground:
- Labour Shortages in Agriculture: Manual weeding is time-consuming and labour-intensive. A labourer takes 8–10 hours to weed one acre, and the average daily wage has increased from ₹326 in 2019 to over ₹447 in 2024. Moreover, rural youth are increasingly moving away from agricultural work. This has led to a surge in herbicide use as a labour-saving input, similar to how tractors reduced the need for manual ploughing.
- Time-Saving and Cost-Effective: Power weeders are limited in closely spaced or deep-rooted crops. Herbicides, on the other hand, can be sprayed easily and reduce both labour dependence and turnaround time between cropping cycles.
- Strategic Use Patterns Emerging: Earlier, herbicides were used only after weed emergence (“post-emergent”). Now, farmers increasingly apply “pre-emergent” herbicides at or just after sowing to prevent weed growth from the beginning—reflecting a shift from reactive to preventive agriculture.
Role of Indian Companies Amidst MNC Dominance:
India’s crop protection sector remains largely dominated by multinationals like Bayer (Germany), Syngenta (Switzerland), Corteva (USA), and Sumitomo (Japan). However, Indian companies like Crystal Crop Protection Ltd (CCPL) and Dhanuka Agritech are rising players:
- CCPL acquired rights for key herbicides like Ethoxysulfuron and Gramoxone from global majors.
- It has also developed new products like ‘Sikosa’ in partnership with Battelle (USA) and Mitsui (Japan), showing how Indian firms are strategically expanding through innovation and collaboration.
Why This Matters for India’s Agricultural Future
- Productivity Gains: Weeds reduce crop yield by competing for water and nutrients. Herbicides help ensure better resource absorption by crops.
- Supports Mechanisation: Like other farm machinery, herbicides reduce dependence on human labour and enable faster, scalable farming.
- Aligns with Climate-Resilient Agriculture: Timely and smart weed control reduces input waste and improves crop resilience.
Key Concerns
- Ecological Impact: Excessive herbicide use can lead to soil degradation, water contamination, and loss of biodiversity.
- Labour Displacement: As weeding becomes chemical-driven, demand for rural manual labour might further decline.
- MNC Monopoly: Unlike seeds and fertilisers, pesticides remain MNC-dominated, raising questions on strategic autonomy in agri-inputs.
Conclusion:
The rise of herbicides in India’s pesticide market marks a significant transformation in agricultural input use. While they offer a timely solution to labour shortages and boost farm efficiency, a cautious, balanced, and indigenously empowered approach is necessary.
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President Trump announces steep tariff hikes on Indian imports over continued Russian oil purchases; India calls it “unjustified and unreasonable”.
Context and Relevance (GS2 – International Relations, GS3 – Economy, Trade Policy):
In a move that has strained India–U.S. economic ties, U.S. President Donald Trump has announced plans to “substantially” increase tariffs on Indian goods. This decision comes days after a 25% tariff plus penalty was imposed, with Trump citing India’s oil imports from Russia as the trigger. India has hit back, defending its energy security needs and calling out the West’s own trade with Russia.
This development adds to the geopolitical-economic complexity facing India’s foreign policy and trade decisions in the wake of the Russia–Ukraine conflict.
What are Tariffs?
- A tariff is a tax imposed by a government on imported goods.
- Tariffs make foreign goods costlier, potentially protecting domestic industries but also risking retaliation and higher consumer prices.
Sectors Likely to Be Affected
- Pharmaceuticals – India is a major exporter of generic drugs to the U.S.; tariffs could increase prices and affect competitiveness.
- Metals and Engineering Goods – Steel, aluminum, and other value-added metals are vulnerable.
- Textiles and Apparel – A major Indian export to the U.S. which operates on thin margins.
- IT Services (Indirect Impact) – Not under direct tariff but can be impacted by broader deterioration in trade ties.
- Petrochemicals and Refined Products – As India refines and re-exports Russian crude, this area could come under scrutiny.
- Defence Procurement and Technology Sharing – Strategic relations could take a hit, affecting high-tech transfers.
- Startups and Digital Trade – New tech collaborations may slow if the overall atmosphere deteriorates.
Why is the U.S. Taking This Step:
President Trump’s reasoning includes:
- India allegedly buying “massive amounts of Russian oil” and re-exporting it for profits.
- High Indian tariffs and non-tariff barriers that restrict U.S. goods.
- India’s continued energy and defence cooperation with Russia.
- Trump’s argument taps into U.S. domestic concerns around trade imbalances and perceived strategic neutrality by India on the Russia–Ukraine issue.
India’s Stand: Energy Security First:
India’s Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) issued a strong rebuttal:
- India started buying from Russia when traditional suppliers diverted oil to Europe.
- The U.S. itself had encouraged these imports to stabilise global markets.
- Western nations continue trading with Russia in: LNG, uranium, palladium, fertilisers, and chemicals.
- EU–Russia bilateral trade in 2024 exceeded €84.7 billion (goods + services).
India argued that its trade was a “vital compulsion”, unlike the West’s “strategic choice”.
Economic and Strategic Implications for India:
Core Economic Concepts at Play
- Trade Diversion & Substitution: U.S. importers may turn to other countries, diverting trade away from India.
- Protectionism vs Globalisation: Rising protectionism threatens the rules-based global trade order.
- Non-Tariff Barriers Debate: Focus returns to India’s complex regulatory environment that discourages FDI and foreign trade.
- Elasticity of Demand for Indian Exports: Tariff hikes could reveal price sensitivity in sectors like pharma and textiles.
Foreign Policy and Strategic Autonomy
- India’s multi-alignment strategy is being tested.
- Strategic autonomy in energy choices now faces economic costs.
Impact on India’s Export Competitiveness
- With countries like Vietnam, Mexico, and Indonesia unaffected by such tariffs, India faces a competitive disadvantage.
Investor Confidence
- Heightened U.S.–India tensions could create policy uncertainty for foreign investors.
Way Forward for India:
- Bilateral Negotiations: Urgent dialogue needed through trade channels to de-escalate.
- Diversification: India must strengthen ties with other large markets (e.g., EU, ASEAN, Africa).
- Strengthen Domestic Industry: Boost manufacturing competitiveness through PLI schemes, FTAs, and ease of doing business.
- Energy Diplomacy: Deepen engagement with Gulf countries and renewables to reduce over-dependence on Russia.
Conclusion:
This episode is a litmus test for India’s balancing act between strategic autonomy and economic pragmatism. It also reflects the larger trend of global economic nationalism overshadowing multilateral cooperation. India will need to walk a tightrope between asserting its sovereign right to energy security and preserving its vital trade relationships.
Sample UPSC Mains Question (GS2/GS3 – 15 Marks)
In the wake of rising global protectionism and India’s continued energy trade with Russia, critically examine the impact of unilateral tariff impositions by developed nations on India’s strategic autonomy and export competitiveness. Suggest a multi-pronged approach to mitigate such risks.
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Why in the News?
To support India’s net-zero transport goal by 2070, NITI Aayog launched the India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI) to track and rank States/UTs on their shift to electric mobility.
![[pib] India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI)](https://d18x2uyjeekruj.cloudfront.net/wp-content/uploads/2025/08/imei.jpg)
About India Electric Mobility Index (IEMI):
- Launched by: NITI Aayog in 2024.
- Purpose: To evaluate and benchmark the progress of Indian States and Union Territories (UTs) in achieving their electric mobility and transport decarbonization goals.
- Scoring: States and UTs are scored out of 100 using 16 indicators grouped under 3 core themes.
- Core Themes:
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- Transport Electrification Progress – Measures EV adoption across segments (2W, 3W, 4W, buses, etc.)
- Charging Infrastructure Readiness – Assesses public charging station density, coverage, and policy support.
- EV Research & Innovation Status – Tracks EV startups, R&D activity, patents, and skilling efforts.
- Significance:
- Supports tailored policymaking and cross-learning.
- Enables transparency and healthy competition among states.
- Aligns with India’s net-zero emissions target by 2070.
- Methodology: Based on VAHAN data, charging infrastructure maps, and stakeholder consultations.
- Accessibility: Publicly available dashboard and report for rankings, scores, and methodology.
Key Highlights (2024 Edition):
- Top Performers: Delhi, Maharashtra, and Chandigarh lead overall in EV readiness.
- Category Leaders:
- Transport Electrification: Delhi and Maharashtra.
- Charging Infrastructure: Karnataka, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Ladakh.
- Research & Innovation: Delhi, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Haryana.
- EV Policy Status: 29 States/UTs have formal EV policies; 4 are in the draft stage.
- EV Adoption Data:
- EVs make up 5.3% of private vehicle sales in 2024.
- Over 12 lakh EVs registered in India during the year.
- Public Charging Network: India has over 25,000 public EV charging stations.
- State Categories:
- Performers: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Haryana, Goa.
- Aspirants: Punjab, Rajasthan, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Kerala, North-East states.
| [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is the exhaust pipe emission from Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles powered by hydrogen?
Options: (a) Hydrogen peroxide (b) Hydronium (c) Oxygen (d) Water vapour* |
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Why in the News?
After suspending the Indus Waters Treaty, India is asserting water control in J&K by reviving the Sawalkote Hydroelectric Project — the UT’s largest planned hydro project.
About Sawalkote Hydro Project:
- Location: Ramban and Udhampur districts, Jammu and Kashmir.
- River: Built on the Chenab River (a western river under the Indus Waters Treaty).
- Agency: Implemented by National Hydroelectric Power Corporation.
- History: Proposed in the 1960s; delayed due to Pakistan’s objections, environmental issues, and red tape. Revived after India suspended the Indus Waters Treaty post the April 2025 Pahalgam terror attack.
- Status (2025): Forest clearance granted; tenders floated on 29 July 2025; declared a project of national importance.
- Timeline: 96 months post-clearance; expected commissioning by or after 2032.
Key Features:
- Type: Run-of-the-river (utilizes the natural flow and elevation drop of a river) hydroelectric project.
- Capacity: 1,856 Megawatts (8 × 225 MW + 1 × 56 MW).
- Dam: 192.5 m high, roller-compacted concrete gravity dam; reservoir holds 550 million cubic meters.
- Powerhouse: Underground, with Francis turbines.
- Cost: ₹22,704.8 crore (~2.6 billion United States Dollars).
| [UPSC 2009] Gandhi Sagar Dam is a part of which one of the following?
Options: (a) Chambal Project * (b) Kosi Project (c) Damodar Valley Project (d) Bhakra Nangal Project |
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Why in the News?
In a landmark ruling, the Supreme Court has empowered Pollution Control Boards (PCBs) across India with the authority to impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages under the Water and Air Acts.
Key Highlights of Supreme Court Ruling:
- Key Powers Granted:
- Impose and collect restitutionary and compensatory damages.
- Demand bank guarantees in anticipation of environmental harm.
- Legal Basis:
- Section 33A, Water Act, 1974: Power to issue directions for closure/regulation of industries and stoppage of utilities to enforce water pollution norms.
- Section 31A, Air Act, 1981: Similar binding powers to control air pollution; non-compliance is a legal violation.
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About Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB):
- Established: September 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974; Also empowered under Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981.
- Role: Statutory technical body to promote clean air and water; provides services under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
- Key Functions:
- Control and abate water and air pollution; promote stream and well cleanliness.
- Advise the Central Government on pollution-related issues.
- Coordinate with and assist State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs); resolve disputes.
- Monitor pollution in Union Territories via delegated powers under Water, Air, and Water Cess Acts.
- Develops and revises:
- National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
- Water Quality Criteria from various sources.
- Emission/Discharge Standards under Environment Protection Rules, 1986.
- Bio-Medical Waste Incineration Norms.
- Noise/Emission Limits for diesel, LPG, and CNG generators.
- Minimal National Standards (MINAS) Issuance:
- Covers effluent, emission, noise, and solid waste across industries.
- Mandatory for State adoption as baseline standards.
- Publishes COINDS (Comprehensive Industry Documents), manuals, and codes for pollution treatment and control systems.
About State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs):
- Constitution: Formed by State Governments under the Water and Air Acts.
- Functions:
- Monitor and control local pollution.
- Inspect industries and enforce compliance.
- Advise state governments.
- Conduct awareness campaigns.
- Implement control programmes and collaborate with CPCB and local bodies.
| [UPSC 2018] How is the National Green Tribunal (NGT) different from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)?
1. The NGT has been established by an Act whereas the CPCB has been created by an executive order of the Government.
2. The NGT provides environmental justice and helps reduce the burden of litigation in the higher courts whereas the CPCB promotes cleanliness of streams and wells and aims to improve the quality of air in the country.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The Asian giant tortoise (Manouria emys), the largest tortoise in mainland Asia, has been reintroduced into the Zeliang Community Reserve in Nagaland’s Peren district.
About Asian Giant Tortoise (Manouria emys):
- It is the largest tortoise in mainland Asia.
- Two subspecies: Manouria emys emys and Manouria emys phayrei.
- Uniquely, it lays eggs above ground in leaf-litter nests.
- Behaviour: It is solitary and active mostly during dawn and dusk.
- Found in evergreen and bamboo forests across India, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
- Habitat in India: Nengpui WLS, Nongkhyllem WLS, and North Cachar Hills.
- Conservation status: IUCN – Critically Endangered; CITES – Appendix II; Wildlife Protection Act – Schedule IV.
- Major threats: Illegal hunting for meat, habitat degradation, forest fires, and bamboo removal.
| [UPSC 2017] In India, if a species of tortoise is declared protected under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, what does it imply?
Options: (a) It enjoys the same level of protection as the tiger*
(b) It no longer exists in the wild, a few individuals are under captive protection; and how it is impossible to prevent its extinction
(c) It is endemic to a particular region of India
(d) Both (b) and (c) stated above are correct in this context. |
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Why in the News?
A recent breakthrough demonstrated use of quantum science, blockchain, and cryptography to create truly random and secure numbers used in encryption for secure communication.
About the Technology:
- Encryption: Converts readable data into unreadable code using a “key”; only someone with the correct key can decrypt the message.
- Importance of Randomness: Secure encryption depends on unpredictable keys—predictable keys can be guessed or hacked.
- Issue with Computers: Most keys are generated using pseudo-random algorithms, which appear random but are predictable if the method is known.
About the Breakthrough Lava Lamp Method:
- Setup: 100 lava lamps placed on a wall at Cloudflare’s San Francisco office; a camera takes periodic photos of the moving blobs.
- Process: Each photo is converted into numerical data, creating a random seed to generate encryption keys.
- Why Lava Lamps? The heat-driven movement of wax blobs is unpredictable and creates unique images.
- Limitations: Movements follow physics, so not truly random. Also, the algorithm that converts images is deterministic—reproducible if known.
Quantum Random Number Generation Protocol:
- Why Quantum Physics: Subatomic particles like photons behave randomly; for example, a photon’s polarization is unknown until measured.
- How It Works: Scientists used lasers to generate entangled photons and measured them millions of times to produce random results.
- Data Conversion: The raw data (in binary) was biased, so a randomness extractor was used to generate a clean 512-bit unbiased number using a second random seed.
- Blockchain Role: Each step was recorded on blockchain for transparency, with digital fingerprints (hashes) to ensure data integrity.
- Team Involvement: National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), University of Colorado, and DRAND each handled separate parts to ensure decentralization and trust.
- Public Use: The final random numbers are shared via CURBy, a public distribution service.
- Significance: Though still emerging, this method shows strong potential for future ultra-secure encryption systems.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III |
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