💥Join UPSC 2027,2028 Mentorship (August Batch) + XFactor Notes & Microthemes PDF
Talk to Mentor

Civilsdaily

Login

Archives: News

  • ‘Virtual magnet’ claims reveal why EVs need their rare-earths

    Why in the News?

    A Bengaluru startup, Vimag Labs, has claimed to replace rare-earth permanent magnets in electric motors with software-controlled “virtual” magnets built from copper coils and electromagnets. The claim describes a decades-old electromagnet design rather than a genuine breakthrough, and that it does not resolve the efficiency, cost and rare-earth dependency problems facing India’s electric vehicle (EV) motor supply chain.

    What is the startup actually claiming to have built?

    1. The claim: Vimag Labs says it removes permanent magnets from a motor, replaces them with copper coils, and uses software to generate magnetic fields inside the motor.
    2. What this technically is: Passing current through copper coils wound around a ferromagnet to temporarily create a magnetic field is an electromagnet, a design used in large hydroelectric, thermal and nuclear power plant generators for more than 135 years.
    3. No novelty in the mechanism: The software in this design does not create magnetism; it only regulates how much current flows through the electromagnets, controlling the strength and direction of the existing magnetic field.

    Why do permanent magnets remain more efficient than electromagnets in EV motors?

    1. One-step versus multi-step process: A permanent magnet establishes a magnetic field in a single step with no additional electrical energy, while an electromagnet requires the field to be established and continuously modulated by software, consuming energy at every step.
    2. Energy losses compound: Electromagnet-based motors face core losses in the ferromagnetic core, resistance losses in copper conductors, and switching and conduction losses in electronic switches, making them unlikely to match a permanent magnet motor’s efficiency.
    3. Efficiency drives EV range: Every 0.1% increase in motor drive efficiency improves range for a given battery size, since the battery pack is the costliest and heaviest component of an EV, which is why permanent magnet synchronous motors dominate the EV market today.

    What is India’s underlying rare-earth dependency problem that this claim does not solve?

    1. No alternative has matched permanent magnets: BMW and Renault have tried electrically excited motors, and Tesla’s first Model S used an induction motor in 2012, but neither matched permanent magnet efficiency.
    2. Other alternatives face their own limits: The switched reluctance motor (SRM), which uses neither permanent magnets nor copper coils in its rotor, avoids rare-earth dependency but suffers from noisier, less efficient, spurt-like torque delivery, an approach Honda and Hitachi Astemo are still trying to refine.
    3. Conclusion of the constraint: Efficiency, starting torque capability and maximum achievable speed remain the constraints that have kept non-permanent-magnet motors out of mainstream EVs, meaning India’s EV motor supply chain still depends on rare-earth magnets regardless of this claim.

    Conclusion

    The Bengaluru startup’s “virtual magnet” is an established electromagnet design, not a new way to escape rare-earth dependency, since electromagnets remain less efficient than permanent magnets for the reasons physics has established for decades. India’s EV motor strategy must therefore continue to treat rare-earth and critical mineral access as a supply chain problem to be solved directly, rather than expect a software fix to remove the need for these magnets.

    Back2Basics:

    Rare Earth Elements (REEs)

    1. What they are: Rare Earth Elements are a set of 17 metallic elements used in permanent magnets, electronics, and clean energy technologies, valued for their magnetic and conductive properties.
    2. China’s dominance: China holds the largest share of global rare earth mining and processing capacity, giving it significant leverage over EV motor and electronics supply chains worldwide.
    3. India’s response: India launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) in 2025 to build a framework for self-reliance in critical minerals, including rare earths, reducing import dependency for strategic sectors such as EVs and electronics.

    Back2Basics

    Role of Permanent magnets in Electric Vehicles:

    They are vital for electric vehicles because they provide high energy efficiency, maximum torque density, and compact motor sizing. They are primarily used in the main traction motor, power steering, and auxiliary systems.

    Core Functions in EV Motors

    1. Creating Constant Fields: They produce a strong, permanent magnetic field without needing extra electricity.
    2. Energy Conversion: They interact with electrical coils to turn electric energy into physical motion that spins the wheels.
    3. Regenerative Braking: They help capture energy back when the car slows down

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2026] Which of the following statements about Rare Earth Elements (REEs) and Critical Minerals is/are correct?

    1. Modern technological innovations including Artificial Intelligence, robotics and space exploration extensively utilise Rare Earth Elements (REEs).

    2. China has the highest share in mining of REEs followed by India.

    3. The Government of India launched the National Critical Mineral Mission (NCMM) in 2025 to establish a robust framework for self reliance in the critical mineral sector.

    4. Rare Earth Elements are a set of 13 metallic elements.

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1, 3 and 4

    (d) 1, 2 and 4″

    Answer: (a)

  • PLI schemes drive ₹96,000 crore investment

    Why in the News

    The production-linked incentive scheme for large-scale electronics manufacturing (PLI-LSEM) has catalysed Rs 96,000 crore of investment in India’s mobile manufacturing ecosystem, Parliament was informed on 29 July 2026. Electronics production crossed Rs 3.11 lakh crore in FY 2025-26, and the Semicon India Programme has moved from policy announcement to actual commercial output for the first time.

    What is the PLI Scheme for Large-Scale Electronics Manufacturing (PLI-LSEM)?

    1. Launch and purpose: PLI-LSEM was launched in 2020 to boost indigenous production of mobile phones and reduce import dependence.
    2. Mechanism: The scheme pays eligible manufacturers a percentage incentive on incremental sales of India-made goods over a base year, tied to investment and production commitments.
    3. Scope expansion: The government followed it with PLI Scheme 2.0 for IT Hardware in 2023, covering laptops, tablets and servers.
    4. Semicon India Programme: A separate scheme approves fabrication and packaging projects to build domestic semiconductor manufacturing capacity.

    What does the data show about electronics manufacturing growth?

    1. Investment catalysed: PLI-LSEM has catalysed approximately Rs 96,000 crore of investment in the mobile manufacturing ecosystem.
    2. Production growth: Electronics production rose from Rs 1.32 lakh crore in FY 2024-25 to Rs 3.11 lakh crore in FY 2025-26, a year-on-year growth of 15.8%.
    3. Domestic value addition: An external evaluation study found domestic value addition (DVA) under PLI-LSEM increased to 23% in FY 2023-24.
    4. Export ranking: Smartphones, absent from India’s top 100 exported commodities in 2014, became India’s top exported individual commodity in FY 2025-26, surpassing petroleum and gems and jewellery.
    5. IT Hardware scheme: PLI Scheme 2.0 for IT Hardware has generated cumulative production of Rs 24,385.89 crore, cumulative investment of Rs 1,056.36 crore, and 5,216 direct jobs.

    What is the state of the Semicon India Programme?

    1. Projects approved: 12 projects have been approved under the Semicon India Programme, entailing a committed investment of Rs 1.64 lakh crore.
    2. Commercial production: 3 of the 12 approved projects have already started commercial production.
    3. Private follow-on investment: Semiconductor firm Marvell Technology has separately announced a $250 million investment in India, citing the country’s growing role as an engineering hub.

    Challenges to India’s PLI and semiconductor manufacturing push

    1. Import dependence on components: India’s electronics assembly still relies heavily on imported chips and displays, keeping true domestic value addition below finished-goods value.
    2. Technology gap: India’s semiconductor fabrication projects remain at trailing-edge nodes, far behind the sub-10 nanometre technology used by global leaders such as Taiwan.
    3. Fiscal cost of incentives: The PLI outlay across sectors runs into tens of thousands of crores, raising questions about cost per job created against alternative uses of the same fiscal space.
    4. Sunset risk: PLI incentives are time-bound, and companies that scale up during the incentive period face uncertainty about competitiveness once the subsidy period ends.
    5. Tariff exposure: Sharp increases in United States tariffs on electronics exports could squeeze the margins that make India-based assembly viable for global companies.

    Conclusion

    The PLI-LSEM and Semicon India Programme disclosures show incentive-linked manufacturing has moved from policy design to measurable investment and production gains, with smartphones now India’s top exported commodity. The next milestone is whether the remaining nine approved semiconductor projects reach commercial production and whether domestic value addition rises beyond assembly-level gains.

    Back2Basics:

    Production-Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme

    1. Launch: The PLI framework was launched in 2020 across multiple sectors to boost domestic manufacturing and cut import dependence.
    2. Mechanism: The government pays selected manufacturers a financial incentive, typically 4-6% of incremental sales over a base year, contingent on investment and production commitments.
    3. Nodal ministry: The Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology administers PLI-LSEM and IT Hardware; other sectors are administered by their respective ministries.
    4. Sectoral spread: PLI schemes cover 14 sectors including mobile manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, telecom equipment, textiles, food processing and semiconductors.

    The Semicon India Programme

    1. It is a national initiative backed by financial outlays and implemented through the India Semiconductor Mission to build a complete domestic semiconductor and display manufacturing ecosystem

    Financial Outlay and Phases

    1. Phase 1 (Semicon 1.0): Approved in December 2021 with an initial fiscal outlay of ₹76,000 crore to incentivize silicon fabs, display units, and packaging.
    2. Phase 2 (Semicon 2.0): Approved in July 2026 with an expanded outlay of ₹1,27,500 crore to widen the scope of domestic manufacturing and supply chains.

    Core Focus Pillars

    1. Semiconductor Fabs: Fiscal backing covering up to 50% of project costs for silicon CMOS fabrication units.
    2. ATMP/OSAT: Support for assembly, testing, marking, and packaging facilities.
    3. Design & R&D: Incentives for chip design infrastructure, raw materials, equipment, and talent development.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2025] Discuss the rationale of the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme. What are its achievements? In what way can the functioning and outcomes of the scheme be improved?
    Linkage: The PYQ examines government policies to promote manufacturing, industrial growth and global competitiveness. The article evaluates how PLI-LSEM and the Semicon India Programme are strengthening electronics manufacturing, exports and domestic value addition while highlighting the remaining challenges in semiconductor self-reliance.

  • Does the RBI believe rupee is ‘undervalued’?

    Why in the News

    Reserve Bank of India (RBI) Governor has repeated, across two separate settings, that the rupee is undervalued in both nominal and real effective exchange rate (REER) terms. The remark is unusual because central bankers rarely comment on whether their own currency is priced fairly, and it comes as the rupee has depreciated 5.8% year-to-date against the US dollar.

    What is Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER) and why does it matter here?

    1. Definition: The real effective exchange rate (REER) measures a country’s currency value against a basket of trading partner currencies, adjusted for inflation.
    2. Contrast with nominal rate: The nominal exchange rate measures the rupee’s value against a single currency such as the US dollar, while REER captures relative price changes across multiple trading partners.
    3. Why economists prefer it: Economists rely on REER to assess overvaluation or undervaluation because it accounts for inflation differentials rather than only bilateral currency movements.

    What did the Governor actually say?

    1. First statement: It would be reasonable to think the rupee is not overvalued, and that “one could argue the rupee has become undervalued both in nominal and in REER terms.”
    2. Walk-back attempt: He initially disagreed that he had made such a statement, before again saying, “It is reasonable to think that it [Rupee] may not be overvalued.”
    3. No exchange rate target: He reiterated that the RBI does not target any specific exchange rate or band for the rupee.
    4. Market interpretation: Financial markets read the remarks as an indication that the central bank believes the rupee has weakened beyond what economic fundamentals justify.

    What is driving the rupee’s depreciation despite the RBI’s undervaluation claim?

    1. External pressure factors: Higher crude oil prices, geopolitical tensions, a stronger US dollar and intermittent foreign portfolio outflows from emerging markets have pressured the rupee.
    2. Capital outflows: Foreign portfolio investors have drained billions from the Indian stock market, increasing dollar demand while reducing capital inflows.
    3. Domestic fundamentals cited: The RBI points to over 6% annual growth, moderating inflation and forex reserves covering 11 months of imports as evidence the depreciation does not reflect domestic conditions.

    Can a Market-Determined Exchange Rate Be Undervalued?

    1. Non-intervention position: The RBI maintains it does not seek either a permanently strong or a permanently weak currency, and that its exchange rate policy is market-determined.
    2. Limited intervention purpose: The RBI’s foreign exchange interventions aim only to curb excessive volatility and ensure orderly market conditions, not to defend a fixed rupee value.
    3. The tension: By publicly labelling the rupee undervalued while disclaiming any exchange rate target, the Governor signals a view on fair value without committing to any corrective policy action, leaving markets to price in the central bank’s assessment without a stated mechanism to act on it.

    Conclusion

    The RBI Governor’s repeated undervaluation remark distinguishes short-term currency market pressure from India’s underlying macroeconomic fundamentals, without indicating any change in the central bank’s non-intervention stance. Whether the rupee corrects toward this “fair value” will depend on crude oil prices, US monetary policy and capital flows rather than any RBI trigger.

    Back2Basics:

    Real Effective Exchange Rate (REER)

    1. Definition: REER measures a currency’s value against a trade-weighted basket of partner currencies, adjusted for relative inflation.
    2. Custodian: The RBI publishes REER indices for the rupee using 6-currency and 40-currency trade-weighted baskets.
    3. Reading the index: A REER value above 100 relative to the base year typically signals overvaluation; below 100 signals undervaluation.

    Nominal Effective Exchange Rate (NEER)

    1. Definition: NEER measures a currency’s value against a trade-weighted basket of partner currencies, without adjusting for inflation.
    2. Core Concept: It shows the pure external value of the rupee against a group of foreign currencies based purely on market exchange rates.

    Key Differences: NEER vs REER

    1. Inflation Adjustment: NEER ignores inflation completely, while REER adjusts the NEER value for inflation differences between India and its trading partners.
    2. Economic Meaning: NEER tracks simple currency price movements, whereas REER reflects the actual price competitiveness of Indian goods in the global market.
    3. Formula Relationship: REER X (Domestic Inflation Index/Foreign Inflation Index)
    4. Policy Focus: If India’s inflation is higher than its partners, REER will rise faster than NEER, signaling that Indian exports are becoming more expensive despite a stable nominal exchange rate.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?

    Linkage: It examines the impact of exchange rate movements on India’s macroeconomic stability and external sector. It extends the PYQ by explaining RBI’s REER-based assessment of the rupee’s valuation under a market-determined exchange rate regime.

  • IRDAI Reforms to Revamp the Insurance Sector

    Why in News?

    The Insurance Regulatory and Development Authority of India (IRDAI) approved a series of reforms to modernise the insurance sector and implement the Sabka Bima Sabki Raksha (Amendment of Insurance Laws) Act, 2025.

    Key Highlights

    • Reforms aim to:
      • Improve ease of doing business.
      • Enhance insurance penetration.
      • Strengthen governance and policyholder protection.
      • Provide greater operational and financial flexibility to insurers.
    • Liberalised norms for Investments. Capital infusion. Corporate restructuring. Transfer of shares and amalgamation of insurers.
    • Policyholders’ Education and Protection Fund (PEPF) operationalised under Section 16A of the IRDA Act, 1999 to Promote insurance awareness. Improve grievance redressal. Trace unclaimed insurance amounts. Enhance policyholder services.
    • Insurance intermediaries reforms:
      • Mandatory tagging of the authorised salesperson with every insurance proposal and policy.
      • Perpetual registration for intermediaries through an annual fee system, replacing periodic renewals.

    About IRDAI

    • Statutory regulator established under the IRDA Act, 1999.
    • Regulates, promotes, and ensures orderly growth of the insurance sector.
    • Headquarters: Hyderabad.

    Prelims Facts

    • IRDA Act, 1999 established IRDAI.
    • PEPF aims to strengthen insurance literacy and policyholder protection.
    • The reforms implement the Sabka Bima Sabki Raksha (Amendment of Insurance Laws) Act, 2025.

    [2019] In India, which of the following bodies/mechanisms review the functioning of independent regulators like PFRDA, IBBI, AERA, and PNGRB?
    1.Ad Hoc Committees appointed by the Parliament.
    2.Parliamentary Standing Committees.
    3.NITI Aayog.
    4.Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission (FSLRC).
    5.Finance Commission.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 1, 3, and 4

    [C] 2, 4, and 5

    [D] 2 only

  • Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026

    Why in News?

    The Rajya Sabha passed the Prevention of Insults to National Honour (Amendment) Bill, 2026, extending legal protection to Vande Mataram by making its intentional disruption or prevention a punishable offence.

    Key Highlights

    • Amends the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.
    • Makes intentional disruption or prevention of the singing of Vande Mataram punishable.
    • Punishment: Imprisonment up to 3 years, or fine, or both.
    • Seeks to accord the National Song legal protection similar to the National Anthem (Jana Gana Mana).
    • Passed by the Rajya Sabha through a voice vote.

    About the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971

    • The Act penalises insults to: National Flag, Constitution of India, and National Anthem
    • The 2026 amendment adds protection for the National Song (Vande Mataram).

    Vande Mataram

    • Written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
    • Originally appeared in the novel Anandamath (1882).
    • Adopted as the National Song on 24 January 1950.
    • Only the first two stanzas are accorded official status.

    Prelims Facts

    • National Anthem: Jana Gana Mana by Rabindranath Tagore.
    • National Song: Vande Mataram by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay.
    • 24 January 1950: Constituent Assembly adopted Jana Gana Mana as the National Anthem while according Vande Mataram equal honour as the National Song.

    [2025] Consider the following pairs:
    Provision in the Constitution of India State under
    I. Separation of Judiciary from the Executive in the Public services of the StateThe Directive principles of the State policy
    II. Valuing and preserving of the rich Heritage of our composite cultureThe Fundamental Duties
    III. Prohibition of employment of children below the age of 14 years in factoriesThe Fundamental Rights
    How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] All the three

    [D] None

  • India Becomes Free from Left Wing Extremism (LWE)

    Why in News?

    The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) announced that India became free from Left Wing Extremism (LWE) in March-April 2026, following sustained implementation of the National Policy and Action Plan (2015).

    Key Highlights

    • No district is currently categorized as LWE-affected.
    • LWE-affected districts reduced from: 126 (2014) → 90 (2018) → 70 (2021) → 38 (2024) → 8 (2025) → 0 (2026).
    • 37 districts are now classified as Legacy & Thrust Districts for continued security and development support.
    • 1 district remains a District of Concern for continued surveillance.

    National Policy and Action Plan (2015)

    • Adopts a Whole-of-Government Approach focusing on: Security operations. Infrastructure and connectivity. Welfare and development. Protection of tribal rights. Good governance and financial inclusion.

    Major Government Initiatives

    Security Measures

    • Security Related Expenditure (SRE) Scheme.
    • Modernisation of Police Forces (MPF).
    • Special Infrastructure Scheme (SIS).
    • Assistance to Central Agencies for LWE Management (ACALWEMS).
    • Surrender-cum-Rehabilitation Policy for Maoist cadres.

    Development Measures

    • 15,189 km roads constructed in LWE areas.
    • 9,497 telecom towers commissioned.
    • 179 Eklavya Model Residential Schools (EMRS) functional.
    • 47 ITIs and 49 Skill Development Centres established.
    • 6,025 post offices with banking services opened.
    • Security camps are being converted into Jan Suvidha Kendras.

    Other Initiatives

    • Special Central Assistance (SCA) for infrastructure.
    • Tribal Youth Exchange Programme (TYEP).
    • Civic Action Programme (CAP) to improve community engagement.
    • Distribution of over 21 lakh Forest Rights Act title deeds.

    [2023] Consider the following statements:
    1. According to the Constitution of India, the Central Government has a duty to protect States from internal disturbances.
    2. The Constitution of India exempts the States from providing legal counsel to a person being held for preventive detention.
    3. According to the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, confession of the accused before the police cannot be used as evidence.
    How many of the above statements are correct?

    [A] Only one

    [B] Only two

    [C] All three

    [D] None

  • CPGRAMS Report for States/UTs (June 2026)

    Why in News?

    The Department of Administrative Reforms and Public Grievances (DARPG) released the 47th monthly report on the Centralized Public Grievance Redress and Monitoring System (CPGRAMS) for States/UTs for June 2026.

    Key Highlights

    • Public Grievances Received: 96,190
    • Grievances Redressed: 93,170
    • Pending Cases (30 June 2026): 2,16,032
    • 23 States/UTs have over 1,000 pending grievances.
    • Uttar Pradesh recorded the highest disposals (31,460), followed by Maharashtra (7,619).

    CPGRAMS

    • CPGRAMS is an online grievance redress platform of the Government of India.
    • Developed and monitored by DARPG.
    • Enables citizens to submit and track grievances against government departments.
    • Integrated with over 5 lakh Common Service Centres (CSCs) through 2.5 lakh Village Level Entrepreneurs (VLEs).

    Sevottam Scheme

    • Capacity-building initiative to improve public service delivery and grievance redress.
    • FY 2022-23 to FY 2026-27 (till June): 1,196 training programmes conducted. Around 39,509 officers trained.

    Other Highlights

    • 83,544 new users registered on CPGRAMS in June 2026.
    • Feedback Call Centre collected 75,318 feedbacks, including 33,092 from States/UTs.
    • 6,262 grievances were registered through CSCs.
    • A dedicated Review Module for senior-level monitoring has been operational since 6 June 2025.

    Prelims Facts

    • DARPG: Department under the Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances and Pensions.
    • CPGRAMS: National online portal for public grievance redressal.
    • Sevottam Scheme: Focuses on improving service delivery and grievance redress mechanisms in government.

    [2021] With reference to the Union Government, consider the following statements:
    1. N. Gopalaswamy Iyengar Committee suggested that a minister and a secretary be designated solely for pursuing the subject of administrative reform and promoting it.
    2. In 1970, the Department of Personnel was constituted on the recommendation of the Administrative Reforms Commission, 1966, and this was placed under the Prime Minister’s charge.
    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • Celebrating 25 Years of the Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT)

    Why in News?

    The Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT) at Hanle, Ladakh, completed 25 years of operation. The occasion was marked by a conference highlighting its scientific achievements and future expansion plans.

    Key Highlights

    • Location: Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), Hanle, Ladakh (4,517 m).
    • Managed by: Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • First Light: 26 September 2000; dedicated to the nation in 2001.
    • Named after Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar.
    • Operated remotely from Bengaluru via INSAT-3B since 2001.

    Why is Hanle Important?

    • Over 250 clear nights annually.
    • Very low atmospheric water vapour and minimal light pollution.
    • Ideal for optical and near-infrared astronomy.
    • Protected under the Hanle Dark Sky Reserve.

    Major Scientific Contributions

    • Studies of gamma-ray bursts, comets, exoplanets, supernovae, variable stars, galaxies, and active galactic nuclei (AGN).
    • Contributed to the discovery of TRAPPIST-1b.

    Key Instruments

    • HFOSC – Optical camera and spectrograph.
    • uTIRSPEC – Near-infrared spectrometer.
    • HESP – High-resolution Echelle spectrograph.

    Future Plans

    The Union Budget announced:

    • 3.7-m Upgraded Himalayan Chandra Telescope (UHCT).
    • 13.7-m National Large Optical-Infrared Telescope (NLOT) at Hanle.

    Prelims Facts

    • HCT: 2-m optical telescope at Hanle, Ladakh.
    • Nodal Agency: Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA).
    • Administrative Ministry: Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • Hanle Dark Sky Reserve: India’s first Dark Sky Reserve.

    [2016] With reference to ‘Astrosat’,’ the astronomical observatory launched by India, which of the following statements is/are correct?
    1. Other than USA and Russia, India is the only country to have launched a similar observatory into space.
    2. Astrosat is a 2000 kg satellite placed in an orbit at 1650 km above the surface of the Earth.
    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    [A] 1 only

    [B] 2 only

    [C] Both 1 and 2

    [D] Neither 1 nor 2

  • Pollens Help Trace Why the Harappan Civilization Shrank

    Why in News?

    A study by the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) has used pollen preserved in lake sediments from Deoria Tal (Garhwal Himalaya) to reconstruct past climate. The findings suggest that a prolonged weakening of the Indian Summer Monsoon (ISM) and the 4.2 ka climatic event contributed to the decline and eastward migration of the Harappan Civilization.

    Key Findings

    • Analysis of pollen and spores reconstructed vegetation and monsoon history over the last ~5,100 years.
    • Around 4200 years BP [Before Present](4.2 ka event), the region experienced an abrupt cool and dry climate with a weakened ISM.
    • Reduced monsoon weakened the perennial river systems of the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra, making agriculture difficult.
    • This likely triggered the migration of Harappan populations towards the Ganga plains, contributing to the shrinking of the civilization.
    • The study establishes a strong link between abrupt climate change and changes in ancient human settlements.

    How Did Scientists Reconstruct the Past?

    • Sediment core collected from Deoria Tal in Uttarakhand.
    • Pollen analysis (Palynology) reconstructed past vegetation and climate.
    • Chronology established using 10 AMS Radiocarbon (¹⁴C) dates on Trapa (water chestnut) seed cases.
    • Changes in the Oak/Pine pollen ratio served as an indicator of changing temperature and monsoon strength.

    What is the 4.2 ka Event?

    • A major global climatic event that occurred around 4200 years ago.
    • Characterized by:
      • Weak Indian Summer Monsoon.
      • Cooler and drier climate.
      • Widespread droughts across several ancient civilizations.
    • Linked to the decline of civilizations such as Harappan Civilization, Akkadian Empire, and Old Kingdom of Egypt

    Why Did the Monsoon Weaken?

    Researchers attribute the weakened ISM to multiple interacting climatic factors:

    • Southward shift of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
    • Strong El Niño conditions.
    • Strong negative phase of the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD).
    • Reduced Northern Hemisphere summer insolation.

    Other Climate Phases Identified

    • Roman Warm Period (2500 to 1450 cal yr BP): Strong ISM and higher agricultural productivity.
    • Medieval Climate Anomaly (1050 to 650 cal yr BP): Strong monsoon due to northward ITCZ.
    • Little Ice Age (650 to 100 cal yr BP / CE 1350 to 1850): Weak ISM associated with stronger westerlies, ENSO and southward ITCZ.

    [2026] Consider the following statements about the archaeological findings in Harappan towns:
    I. There is wide occurrence of spindle-whorls in the houses but absence of spinning wheels.
    II. Weights and measurement scales, complete with graduations have been discovered.
    III. There are houses built in large part with baked bricks, around relatively spacious courtyards, with their own wells, bathing platforms, and large rooms.
    Which of the following inferences can be drawn from the above statements?
    1. Statement I suggests that spinning was a laborious activity done at home.
    2. Statement II suggests the extent of the scientific knowledge that the Harappans possessed.
    3. Statement III suggests the emergence of a common property system.
    Select the answer using the code given below :

    [A] 1 and 2 only

    [B] 2 and 3 only

    [C] 1 and 3 only

    [D] 1, 2 and 3

  • Viruses don’t respect borders: the case for timely, fair global vaccine access for zoonotic outbreaks

    Why in the News?

    An International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) scientist has argued that timely and fair global vaccine access for zoonotic outbreaks, such as Ebola, Nipah and hantavirus, requires academia-industry partnerships and a shared risk funding model. This is because such vaccines are not commercially attractive to manufacturers.

    Why are zoonotic outbreak vaccines commercially unattractive?

    1. Small, unpredictable markets: Ebola, Nipah and hantavirus outbreaks are episodic and geographically concentrated, giving manufacturers no stable, predictable market to justify sustained investment.
    2. High development cost, low return: Vaccine development costs remain similar regardless of market size, so a vaccine with a small addressable market offers manufacturers a poor return relative to vaccines for widespread diseases.
    3. Outbreak timing mismatch: Vaccine demand spikes only during an active outbreak, while development must happen years in advance, a mismatch that discourages manufacturers from investing ahead of demonstrated demand.

    What would a shared risk funding model change?

    1. Risk redistribution: A shared risk funding model spreads the financial risk of vaccine development across academia, industry and public funders, rather than leaving it entirely on a manufacturer’s commercial judgment.
    2. Academia-industry partnership: Academic institutions like ICGEB can carry early stage research risk, handing over a de-risked candidate for industry to scale, lowering the barrier for private investment.
    3. Access consequence: A funding model that does not depend on commercial viability alone can keep resulting vaccines priced for equitable global access rather than for cost recovery in a niche market.

    Conclusion

    The central idea is that zoonotic outbreak vaccines fail a commercial viability test that has nothing to do with their public health importance. A shared risk funding model, built on academia-industry partnership, is the mechanism proposed to close that gap between epidemic risk and market incentive.

    Back2Basics

    International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB): An intergovernmental organisation with a component in New Delhi, conducting research in genetic engineering and biotechnology, including vaccine and infectious disease research.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2022] What is the basic principle behind vaccine development? How do vaccines work? What approaches were adopted by the Indian vaccine manufacturers to produce COVID-19 vaccines?

    Linkage: The PYQ examines the scientific principles of vaccine development and the challenges in developing vaccines for emerging infectious diseases. The article explains why vaccines for zoonotic diseases require shared-risk funding and academia-industry partnerships to overcome weak commercial incentives and ensure equitable access.