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Type: Prelims Only

  • Pharma Sector – Drug Pricing, NPPA, FDC, Generics, etc.

    Cannabis Cultivation in India

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Legal status of Cannabis

    Why in the News?

    The Himachal Pradesh Cabinet has approved a pilot study for the controlled cultivation of cannabis for medicinal and industrial purposes.

    Legal Status of Cannabis Cultivation in India:

    • Prohibited for recreational use under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985.
    • Section 2 of the NDPS Act bans the cultivation, production, and sale of cannabis resin and flowers.
    • Section 10 allows state governments to regulate cannabis cultivation for medicinal and scientific purposes.
    • Section 14 grants the Central Government authority to permit cultivation for industrial uses (fiber and seed extraction).

    Why Himachal Pradesh Could Soon Allow Controlled Cannabis Cultivation?

    • The Himalayan region’s soil and climate are ideal for cultivating low-THC hemp varieties, making Himachal Pradesh a prime location for controlled cannabis farming.
    • The government sees controlled cultivation as a way to generate revenue, create employment opportunities, and support local farmers, particularly in Kullu, Chamba, Mandi, Solan, Kangra, and Sirmaur.
    • Cannabis cultivation will be restricted to industrial and pharmaceutical uses, such as:
      • Pain relief medications
      • Textile and paper production
      • Biofuel and cosmetics
      • Hemp-based food products
    • The Kullu and Malana regions are known for illegal narcotic cannabis cultivation. Regulating the sector could reduce illegal activities and ensure legal trade.
    • The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985 allows state governments to permit and regulate cannabis cultivation for scientific, medicinal, and industrial purposes under strict conditions.

    Which are the other States to allow Controlled Cannabis Cultivation in India?

    • Uttarakhand (2018):
      • First state to legalize industrial hemp cultivation.
      • Managed by the Centre for Aromatic Plants (CAP), Selaqui.
      • Challenges include maintaining THC levels below 0.3% and seed availability.
    • Madhya Pradesh (2023):
      • Approved medicinal cannabis research but commercial cultivation is yet to start.
      • Sai Phytoceuticals (Pvt. Ltd.) received the first license for cannabis-based medicine production.
    • Jammu & Kashmir (2021):
      • India’s first medicinal cannabis pilot project launched by CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine (IIIM), Jammu.
      • Conducted in Public-Private Partnership (PPP) mode with a Canadian firm.
      • Research focuses on cannabis-based cancer and epilepsy treatments.

    PYQ:

    [2018] India’s proximity to the two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What counter-measures should be taken to prevent the same?

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  • Nuclear Energy

    China’s Artificial Sun creates Record in Fusion Research

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T – Applications In Everyday Life

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: EAST Project; Artificial Sun

    Why in the News?

    China’s Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak (EAST), commonly referred to as the Artificial Sun, has set a new world record by sustaining a high-confinement plasma operation for 1066 seconds. The artificial sun reached an extreme temperature of 100 million degrees Celsius, surpassing its own previous record of 403 seconds.

    What is the EAST Project?

    • EAST is a nuclear fusion research facility developed by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (ASIPP) in 2006.
    • It aims to replicate solar fusion reactions to create a sustainable, clean energy source for future power generation.
    • The project serves as a global research platform for fusion experiments and advancing magnetic confinement technology.
    • It uses superconducting magnets to contain ultra-hot plasma, necessary for fusion.

    Comparison with Other Fusion Projects

    • China’s EAST (Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak):
      • Record: 1066 seconds at 100 million degrees Celsius (2025).
      • Previous Record: 403 seconds at high confinement mode.
      • Goal: Develop a commercial fusion power plant.
    • Korea’s KSTAR (Superconducting Tokamak Advanced Research):
      • Record: 100 million degrees Celsius for 20 seconds (2020).
      • Goal: Sustain a longer plasma confinement period.
    • France’s ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor):
      • Largest global fusion project, involving 35 nations.
      • Expected to achieve plasma ignition by 2035.
      • Focuses on demonstrating large-scale fusion feasibility.

    Significance of This Achievement

    • Record-Breaking Fusion Operation: EAST sustained plasma at 100 million°C for 1066 seconds, surpassing its previous record of 403 seconds.
    • Progress Toward Fusion Power Plants: Prolonged plasma confinement is crucial for achieving continuous, self-sustaining fusion reactions.
    • Potential for Clean Energy: Fusion produces zero carbon emissions and could serve as an unlimited energy source once commercially viable.
    • Global Competition: Other projects like ITER (France) and KSTAR (Korea) are also advancing fusion research, aiming for similar breakthroughs.

    Challenges in Nuclear Fusion

    • Extreme Temperatures: Plasma must be sustained at over 100 million°C, requiring high-energy input.
    • Material Limitations: Reactor components must withstand intense heat and radiation, yet no material can do so indefinitely.
    • Energy Input vs. Output: Current reactors consume more energy than they generate, preventing commercial viability.
    • Magnetic Confinement Issues: Plasma instability can disrupt reactions, making sustained fusion difficult.
    • High Costs: Fusion research requires expensive superconductors, cryogenics, and containment systems.

    Difference between Nuclear Fusion and Fission

    Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission
    Process Combines atomic nuclei to release energy. Splits heavy nuclei to release energy.
    Energy Output Much higher than fission. Comparatively lower.
    Fuel Source Hydrogen isotopes (Deuterium, Tritium)—abundant in seawater. Uranium-235, Plutonium-239—limited supply.
    Waste Production Minimal radioactive waste (helium byproduct). Produces long-lived radioactive waste.
    Environmental Risk No meltdown risk, completely safe. Risk of radiation leaks (e.g., Chernobyl, Fukushima).
    Current Feasibility Still experimental, not yet commercially viable. Commercially used in nuclear power plants.

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  • Urban Floods

    In news: Palar River

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Palar River

    Why in the News?

    The British-era Palar River Anaicut, a masonry check dam built in 1858, is undergoing a major restoration following severe structural damage caused by the 2021 floods.

    Supreme Court’s Directives:

    • The Supreme Court (SC) has directed that all restoration activities must adhere to environmental protection laws and sustainable development principles.
    • The WRD must ensure that the restored structure can withstand future floods and water releases.
    • The SC emphasized local farmers’ involvement in decision-making, considering the impact on irrigation and water availability.

    In news: Palar River

    About Palar River

    • The Palar River originates in the Nandi Hills of Karnataka, at an altitude of 1,400 meters above sea level.
    • It flows through Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu, covering a total length of 348 km before emptying into the Bay of Bengal near Vayalur, Tamil Nadu.
    • Important tributaries include Cheyyar, Ponnai, Malattar, and Kosasthalaiyar rivers.
    • The river has been a lifeline for agriculture, supporting ancient civilizations and irrigation networks in South India.
    • Geographical Features: 
      • It is rain-fed, experiencing seasonal variations—it remains dry for most of the year but carries heavy flows during monsoons.
      • Its basin consists of alluvial, red, and black soil, supporting paddy, sugarcane, and groundnut cultivation.
      • It is heavily dammed, leading to reduced flow, sand mining concerns, and groundwater depletion.
      • The Palar Anaicut and various reservoirs distribute water to agricultural lands in Tamil Nadu, ensuring water security for farmers.

    PYQ:

    [2016] Recently, which of the following States has explored the possibility of constructing an artificial inland port to be connected to sea by a long navigational channel?

    (a) Andhra Pradesh

    (b) Chhattisgarh

    (c) Karnataka

    (d) Rajasthan

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  • Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

    MoEFCC approves Reconstruction of Teesta Dam despite Safety Concerns

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Teesta River

    Why in the News?

    The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC) has approved the reconstruction of the Teesta-III Dam, which was destroyed by a Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) in October 2023.

    About Teesta River

    • The Teesta River is a transboundary river flowing through India and Bangladesh.
    • Originates from Tso Lhamo Lake, Sikkim, at 5,330 meters in the Himalayas.
    • Major tributary of the Brahmaputra River (Jamuna in Bangladesh).
    • Vital for irrigation, hydroelectric power, and water supply in Sikkim, West Bengal, and Bangladesh.
    • The Teesta Water Dispute remains unresolved, with Bangladesh seeking an equitable share of water.

    Geographical Features:

    • Length: 414 km (309 km in India, 105 km in Bangladesh).
    • Basin Area: 12,159 sq. km in Sikkim and North Bengal.
    • Originates in North Sikkim → flows through West Bengal → enters Bangladesh before merging with the Brahmaputra River.
    • Passes through major towns like Mangan, Kalimpong, Jalpaiguri, and Rangpo.
    • Tributaries:
      • Left-bank: Rangit, Relli, Great Rangit.
      • Right-bank: Lachung, Lachen, Talung.
    • It supports Himalayan biodiversity, crucial for tea plantations and terrace farming.

    Conservation Initiatives:

    • National River Conservation Plan (NRCP): Includes efforts to reduce pollution and improve water quality of the Teesta.
    • Teesta Barrage Project (West Bengal): Aimed at irrigation development and hydroelectric power generation in North Bengal.
    • Hydroelectric Projects in Sikkim: Several Teesta Hydropower Projects (Teesta Stage III, IV, V, VI, etc.) have been established to generate renewable energy while ensuring minimum ecological impact.
    • India-Bangladesh Water Sharing Talks: Ongoing diplomatic negotiations to resolve the Teesta water-sharing dispute, ensuring equitable distribution.
    • Catchment Area Treatment (CAT) Plan: Implemented to prevent soil erosion and siltation, protecting river health.
    PYQ:

    [2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements:

    1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.

    2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta.

    3. River Teesta falls into Bay of Bengal at the border of India and Bangladesh.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Asteroid Bennu Samples hold Secrets of Life’s Origins

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Asteroid Bennu; OSIRIS-REx Mission

    Why in the News?

    NASA’s OSIRIS-REx (Origins, Spectral Interpretation, Resource Identification, Security–Regolith Explorer) mission has delivered samples from asteroid Bennu, revealing amino acids, nucleobases, and signs of ancient saltwater, key components in the origins of life.

    Key Findings of the Study:

    • 14 out of 20 amino acids essential for proteins on Earth were found.
    • All five nucleo-bases used in DNA and RNA were detected, indicating prebiotic chemistry beyond Earth.
    • Ammonia & Formaldehyde compounds can react under suitable conditions to form complex organic molecules.
    • It thus supports the idea that asteroids delivered key building blocks for life to early Earth.
    • Calcite, halite, sylvite, and trona were found, indicating prolonged exposure to liquid water.
    • Similar briny conditions have been observed on Ceres and Enceladus, suggesting the solar system had widespread environments suitable for organic chemistry.
    • Life on Earth exclusively uses left-handed amino acids, but Bennu samples show an equal mix, raising questions about why life evolved with this preference.

    About Asteroid Bennu  

    • Asteroid Bennu is a carbon-rich asteroid that orbits between Earth and Mars.
    • It is believed to be a primitive remnant of the early solar system, holding clues to the origins of life.
    • The asteroid is porous, with up to 60% empty space, affecting its collision potential with Earth in the distant future.
    • It periodically ejects material, classifying it as an active asteroid.
    • OSIRIS-REx was NASA’s first asteroid sample-return mission, launched in 2016 to study and collect material from Bennu’s surface.
      • The spacecraft arrived at Bennu in 2018, mapped its surface for two years, and collected samples in 2020.
      • It successfully returned the material to Earth in 2023.
    • The mission aimed to analyze Bennu’s composition, understand its water history, and study the organic molecules that may have played a role in the origin of life.

    Significance of the Study:

    • It strengthens the theory that asteroids contributed to life’s origins by delivering organic molecules and water to early Earth.
    • It confirms that essential ingredients for life were widespread in the early solar system, increasing the possibility of life beyond Earth.
    • It helps refine planetary defense strategies, as Bennu has a small chance of impacting Earth in the future.

    PYQ:

    [2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

    1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.
    2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
    3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 1 and 3 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Trade Sector Updates – Falling Exports, TIES, MEIS, Foreign Trade Policy, etc.

    [pib] DGFT launches enhanced eCoO 2.0 System

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: eCoO 2.0 System

    Why in the News?

    The Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) has launched the enhanced Certificate of Origin (eCoO) 2.0 system, a major upgrade aimed at simplifying export certification and improving trade efficiency.

    What is eCoO 2.0 System?

    • The eCoO 2.0 system is a digital platform launched by the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) to simplify and streamline the issuance of Non-Preferential Certificates of Origin (CoO).
    • Effective January 1, 2025, exporters must electronically file CoO applications through this platform.
    • It aligns with India’s Ease of Doing Business initiative by improving trade facilitation, digital authentication, and document processing.

    Key Features of the eCoO 2.0 System

    • Exporters must submit Non-Preferential Certificates of Origin (CoO) online.
    • Allows exporters to authorize multiple users under a single Importer Exporter Code (IEC).
    • Aadhaar-based e-Signing provides an alternative to Digital Signature Tokens, enhancing security and ease of use.
    • Offers real-time access to eCoO services, Free Trade Agreement (FTA) details, trade events, and notifications.
    • Exporters can request In-lieu CoO for rectifications on previously issued CoOs.
    • The system handles 7,000+ eCoOs daily, integrating 125 issuing agencies, 110 chambers of commerce, and 650+ issuing officers.

    Significance of the eCoO 2.0 System

    • Reduces manual paperwork and speeds up export documentation.
    • Digitally signed CoOs prevent fraudulent certifications and ensure traceability.
    • Facilitates smoother re-exports, trans-shipments, and intermediary trade, boosting India’s position in global supply chains.
    • Faster approvals help exporters comply with international trade agreements, enhancing competitiveness.
    • Aligns with India’s push for paperless trade, reinforcing DGFT’s trade facilitation efforts.

    PYQ:

    [2011]  A “closed economy” is an economy in which:

    (a) the money supply is fully controlled

    (b) deficit financing takes place

    (c) only exports take place

    (d) neither exports or imports take place

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Why Greenland’s crystal blue lakes have turned brown?

    IOCRPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Greenland

    Why in the News?

    A new study has revealed that over 7,500 lakes in western Greenland have turned brown, suffered water quality deterioration, and started emitting carbon due to extreme weather events in 2022.

    About Greenland and Its Lakes

    • Greenland, the world’s largest island, is covered by a massive ice sheet that holds nearly 8% of the world’s freshwater.
    • The island is home to thousands of glacial-fed lakes, which are crystal blue due to their pristine water quality and low organic content.
    • These lakes play a crucial role in providing drinking water, supporting biodiversity, and storing atmospheric carbon by acting as natural carbon sinks.

    What are the reasons?

    • Extreme Weather in 2022: Greenland saw record-breaking heatwaves and heavy rainfall instead of the usual snowfall.
    • Permafrost Thawing: Rising temperatures melted permafrost, releasing large amounts of organic carbon, iron, and other minerals into the lakes.
    • Atmospheric Rivers: These long, narrow streams of water vapor in the sky caused intense precipitation, leading to large-scale runoff of organic material and sediments into the lakes.
    • Loss of Light Penetration: Increased sedimentation turned the lakes murky brown, reducing sunlight penetration and affecting phytoplankton, which play a key role in carbon absorption.

    Why this Study is important?

    • The study found that changes in the lakes occurred within months instead of centuries, signaling an unprecedented climate impact.
    • Once natural carbon absorbers, the lakes are now releasing 350% more carbon dioxide, accelerating global warming.
    • The lakes, which supply drinking water, now contain higher levels of organic pollutants, affecting both humans and aquatic ecosystems.
    • Studies suggest atmospheric rivers will become 50–290% more frequent by the end of the century, leading to widespread changes in other freshwater ecosystems worldwide.
    • The study adds to growing evidence that Earth’s natural carbon sinks are failing, posing a major challenge to climate mitigation efforts.

    PYQ:

    [2011] The surface of a lake is frozen in severe winter, but the water at its bottom is still liquid. What is the reason?

    (a) Ice is a bad conductor of heat

    (b) Since the surface of the lake is at the same temperature as the air, no heat is lost

    (c) The density of water is maximum at 4 °C

    (d) None of the statements A, B and C given above is correct.

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Labrys portucalensis F11

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Labrys portucalensis F11

    Why in the News?

    A research team has discovered that Labrys portucalensis F11, a strain of aerobic bacteria from the Xanthobacteraceae family, can break down and transform multiple types of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), a group of persistent environmental pollutants.

    About Labrys portucalensis F11

    • It is a type of bacteria that can break down harmful chemicals known as PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances).
    • It was first found in contaminated soil at an industrial site in Portugal.
    • Scientists have discovered that it can remove fluorine from certain chemical pollutants, making them less toxic.
    • PFAS are known as “forever chemicals” because they do not break down easily in nature.
    • Labrys portucalensis F11 can digest PFAS, helping to clean up polluted soil and water.

    How does it work?

    • It attacks the strong chemical bonds in PFAS, removing fluorine atoms.
    • It uses carbon from PFAS as food, helping it grow while reducing pollution.
    • It survives in oxygen-rich environments, making it ideal for cleaning up industrial waste sites.
    • In 100 days, it broke down 90% of PFOS, one of the most harmful PFAS chemicals.
    • Unlike most bacteria, it can also break down PFAS leftovers, making them even safer.

    Back2Basics: Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS)

    • Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS) are a group of synthetic chemicals widely used in industrial and consumer products for their waterproof, grease-resistant, and non-stick properties.
    • PFAS are commonly found in non-stick cookware (Teflon), waterproof clothing, food packaging, fire-fighting foams, and industrial applications.
    • These chemicals are known for their high resistance to heat, water, and oil, making them useful but also environmentally persistent.
    • Common Uses:
      • Non-stick cookware (Teflon), waterproof fabrics, stain-resistant coatings, and fire-fighting foams.
      • Industrial applications such as metal plating, food packaging, and electronics manufacturing.
    • Environmental and Health Concerns:
      • PFAS are often called “forever chemicals” because they do not naturally degrade and persist in soil, water, and living organisms.
      • Exposure to PFAS has been linked to cancer, liver damage, immune system disruption, and hormonal imbalances.
    • Regulatory Actions:
      • In 2023, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) designated PFOS (a type of PFAS) as a hazardous substance, requiring strict monitoring and clean-up efforts.
      • Governments worldwide are phasing out PFAS use and funding research into bioremediation technologies like the F11 bacteria-based clean-up approach.
      • In 2020, the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) adopted international criteria for sampling and testing certain PFAS compounds, such as perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS).
        • However, comprehensive policies to regulate or ban PFAS are still lacking.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India?

    1. Arsenic
    2. Sorbitol
    3. Fluoride
    4. Formaldehyde
    5. Uranium

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only
    (b) 2, 4 and 5 only
    (c) 1, 3 and 5 only
    (d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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  • Fertilizer Sector reforms – NBS, bio-fertilizers, Neem coating, etc.

    Organophosphate Poisoning in J&K

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Organophosphates

    Why in the News?

    A mysterious illness in Jammu & Kashmir has caused 17 deaths, with doctors suspecting organophosphate poisoning from pesticides as the possible cause.

    What are Organophosphates?

    • Organophosphates (OPs) are a class of chemical compounds primarily used as pesticides and insecticides in agriculture.
    • They work by disrupting the nervous system by inhibiting the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE), leading to excessive nerve stimulation.
    • It is commonly used in agriculture, household pest control, and chemical warfare agents (e.g., nerve gases like Sarin).
    • It is found in pesticides such as malathion, chlorpyrifos, and diazinon.
    • Effects of OP poisoning:
      • Acute Symptoms: Excessive sweating, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, muscle twitching, breathing difficulty, seizures, and coma.
      • Chronic Effects: Neurological disorders, memory loss, muscle weakness, and reproductive toxicity.

    Treatment for Organophosphate Poisoning

    • Organophosphate poisoning requires immediate medical attention to prevent fatal complications.
      • Decontamination: Remove contaminated clothing, wash exposed skin, and use activated charcoal if ingested.
    • Medical Treatment:
      • Atropine: Blocks excess nerve stimulation.
      • Pralidoxime (2-PAM): Restores enzyme function.
      • Oxygen therapy and ventilator support if needed.
      • Supportive Care: IV fluids, anti-seizure medications, and hospitalization in severe cases.

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  • Zoonotic Diseases: Medical Sciences Involved & Preventive Measures

    What is Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS)?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Guillain-Barre Syndrome

    Why in the News?

    In an alarming move, the Guillain-Barre Syndrome (GBS) cases rise to 110 in Pune.

    What is Guillain-Barré Syndrome (GBS)?

    • GBS is an autoimmune disorder where the immune system attacks peripheral nerves, causing muscle weakness and, in severe cases, paralysis.
    • It is rare, affecting 1–2 per 100,000 people annually.
    • It is more common in adults and males.
    • It is often triggered by viral or bacterial infections, especially Campylobacter jejuni (a cause of gastroenteritis), influenza, Epstein-Barr virus, Zika virus, or, in rare cases, vaccinations.
    • Its Symptoms: 
      • Early signs: Tingling, weakness in legs spreading to the upper body, pins-and-needles sensation, back pain.
      • Severe cases: Paralysis, breathing difficulties, loss of speech, vision problems.
      • Complications: Can affect the autonomic nervous system, leading to irregular heartbeat, blood pressure fluctuations, and potential respiratory failure.

    Treatment and Recovery:

    • No definitive cure, but treatments include:
      • Plasma Exchange (Plasmapheresis): Removes harmful antibodies attacking nerves.
      • Intravenous Immunoglobulin (IVIG) Therapy: Injects healthy antibodies to counteract immune attacks.
    • Supportive care: Some patients require ventilator support, physical therapy, and months to years of rehabilitation.

    PYQ:

    [2022] In the context of vaccines manufactured to prevent COVID-19 pandemic, consider the following statements:

    1. The Serum Institute of India produced COVID-19 vaccine named Covishield using mRNA platform.
    2. Sputnik V vaccine is manufactured using vector-based platform.
    3. COVAXIN is an inactivated pathogen-based vaccine.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 2 and 3 only
    (c) 1 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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