PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2015] India’s Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) which has a database containing formatted information on more than 2 million medicinal formulations is proving a powerful weapon in the country’s fight against erroneous patents. Discuss the pros and cons making this database publicly available under open-source licensing.
Linkage: This question directly discusses the “Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL)” and its role in protecting “traditional knowledge” from erroneous patents. This is highly relevant as the source champions the idea of treating repair as a “cultural and intellectual resource” and recognizing “tacit knowledge”. |
Mentor’s Comment: In May 2025, the Indian government accepted a report proposing a Repairability Index for mobile phones and appliances, marking a significant policy shift toward sustainable electronics and the Right to Repair. This move comes amid growing global and domestic recognition of repair as a cultural, environmental, and intellectual resource. It ties into India’s digital and AI policy evolution, yet highlights a blind spot — the continued exclusion of informal repair ecosystems from mainstream policy frameworks, even as they remain central to material resilience and circular economy goals.
Today’s editorial analyses the Repairability Index for mobile phones and appliances. This topic is important for GS Paper II (Governance) and GS Paper III (Science and Technology) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, the Indian government made an important move to support eco-friendly electronics by approving a report that suggests a Repairability Index.
What is India’s Repairability Index?
- India’s Repairability Index was introduced by the Department of Consumer Affairs under the Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution.
- It is part of the broader Right to Repair framework announced in 2022, aimed at empowering consumers, reducing electronic waste, and promoting sustainable consumption practices in line with India’s LiFE (Lifestyle for Environment)movement.
- This index will rank products based on:
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- Ease of repair
- Availability of spare parts
- Duration of software support
What is the significance of it?
- Sustainable consumption – Promotes products that last longer and are repairable. Eg: Smartphones with modular parts like Fairphone (Dutch electronics company known for producing sustainable and repairable smartphones).
- Informed consumer choices – Enables buyers to compare repairability before purchase. Eg: Choosing a laptop with a higher repair score.
- Reduction in e-waste – Minimizes discarding of electronics due to minor faults. Eg: Repairing washing machines instead of replacing them.
- Accountability of manufacturers – Pushes brands to provide spare parts and repair guides. Eg: Brands like Apple offering self-service repair kits.
- Support for circular economy – Aligns with India’s LiFE initiative and green goals. Eg: Encouraging reuse and repair to lower carbon footprint.
Why is informal repair knowledge important?
India’s Repairability Index promotes affordable, sustainable repairs by valuing informal repair knowledge
- Affordable & Accessible Repairs: Informal repair shops offer low-cost services, especially in rural and low-income areas. Eg: Mobile repair kiosks in small towns reduce reliance on costly authorized centers.
- Skill Preservation & Livelihoods: Supports local employment and traditional skills, often passed down informally. Eg: TV/radio technicians in informal markets maintain electronics affordably.
- E-waste Reduction & Sustainability: Extends product lifespan, minimizing electronic waste and promoting circular economy. Eg: Refurbishing laptops in Delhi’s Nehru Place instead of discarding them.
What are the challenges related to the informal repair sector?
- No Legal Recognition: Informal repairers lack licensing, social security, and financial support. E.g.: Mobile repairers in small towns operate without official status or access to schemes.
- Bias Toward Authorized Centres: Policies favour OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) -authorized repairs, sidelining local technicians. Eg: Warranties void if not repaired at authorized service centers.
- Exclusion from Policy Frameworks: Right to Repair and e-waste policies neglect grassroots repair ecosystems. Eg: Informal markets like Nehru Place not integrated into national repair planning.
Which steps can link repair to AI and sustainability goals?
- AI-Powered Predictive Maintenance: AI algorithms detect faults early and recommend timely repairs, reducing waste. Eg: Smart appliances (e.g., washing machines) alert users before breakdowns, helping extend product life.
- AI-Driven Repair Diagnostics: AI tools assist technicians by analyzing errors and suggesting solutions, even in informal sectors. Eg: Mobile apps using AI (like Bhashini-based tools) guide rural repairers to fix smartphones or electronics.
- Support for Circular Economy: Integrate AI with repairability data (e.g., India’s Repairability Index) to promote reuse and reduce e-waste.
Way forward:
- Recognize Informal Repair Sector: Include informal technicians in policy frameworks and skilling programs under schemes like Skill India.
- Strengthen India’s Repairability Index: Ensure it includes access to spare parts, repair manuals, and supports local repair ecosystems.
- Promote Open Access to Repair Tools: Mandate OEMs to share diagnostic tools and data with certified independent and informal repairers.
- Leverage AI for Inclusive Repair Solutions: Use AI-powered platforms to assist grassroots repairers and map repair needs, boosting sustainability goals.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the World Bank’s 2024 update to its income classification system revealed major shifts, with a sharp decline in low-income populations and a rise in upper-middle-income countries.
Global Income Classification Trends (2004–2024): Key Shifts in Population Distribution:
- Global Shift Upwards: The share of the world population in low-income countries dropped from 37.4% in 2004 to 7.6% in 2024, showing significant poverty reduction.
- Rise of Upper-Middle Group: The population in upper-middle-income countries rose from 8.9% in 2004 to 34.7% in 2024, indicating broad economic progress in many developing nations.
- Lower-Middle Income Stability: The lower-middle-income group has remained relatively stable, around 38–40% of global population from 2004 to 2024.
- High-Income Countries’ Share Fluctuated: The global population in high-income nations peaked at 18.9% in 2014, then slightly declined to 17.4% in 2024.
- Country Reclassifications: Countries like India and Indonesia moved to higher income groups, while some African countries remained or slipped into low-income status.
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What is the World Bank’s income classification?
- Four Income Groups: Countries are classified into low, lower-middle, upper-middle, and high-income based on their Gross National Income (GNI) per capita.
- Annual Update: Classifications are updated yearly, adjusting for global inflation and changes in income.
- Absolute Thresholds: Groupings are based on fixed income thresholds, not relative comparisons with other countries.
- Low income: GNI per capita ≤ $1,135
- Lower-middle income: $1,136 – $4,465
- Upper-middle income: $4,466 – $13,845
- High income: ≥ $13,846
How is GNI per capita used in this system?
- It measures the average income per person, including income from abroad.
- GNI figures (reported in local currency) are converted to USD using exchange rates.
- Countries are placed into groups using predetermined income thresholds.
Why do countries shift between income groups?
- Economic Growth or Decline: Strong GDP growth raises GNI per capita, moving countries to higher groups. Eg: India’s GNI per capita rose from $2,250 (2022) to $2,610 (2023), nearing upper-middle-income status.
- Currency Exchange Fluctuations: A weaker local currency reduces GNI in USD terms. Eg: Egypt’s currency depreciation led its GNI per capita to fall from $3,890 (2022) to $3,240 (2023), reclassifying it from upper-middle to lower-middle-income.
- Population Growth Rates: Fast population growth reduces GNI per capita even if total income rises. Eg: Nigeria’s large population growth kept its GNI per capita at $2,110 (2023), maintaining its lower-middle-income status.
What are the challenges for India as a Lower-Middle-Income Country?
- Limited Fiscal Space: India struggles to allocate sufficient funds for healthcare, education, and infrastructure. Eg: Public health spending remains around 2% of GDP, below the global average of 5–6%.
- High Income Inequality: Rapid growth hasn’t translated into equitable wealth distribution. Eg: The top 10% in India hold nearly 77% of total national wealth (Oxfam, 2023).
- Jobless Growth: Economic expansion hasn’t created enough formal sector jobs. Eg: Despite over 6% GDP growth, unemployment among youth remains high at around 45% (CMIE, 2023).
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- PM Gati Shakti Mission: Enhances infrastructure development for seamless connectivity and job creation.
- National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Aims to improve access, equity, and quality in education, especially in rural areas.
- Ayushman Bharat Scheme: Provides free healthcare to over 50 crore people, addressing public health gaps.
- Make in India & PLI Schemes: Promote domestic manufacturing and boost employment across key sectors.
- Digital India & Skill India: Focuses on digital inclusion and vocational training to equip youth with employable skills.
Way forward:
- Accelerate Inclusive Economic Growth: Focus on MSMEs, rural entrepreneurship, and labour-intensive sectors to boost incomes and job creation.
- Invest in Human Capital: Enhance education quality, healthcare access, and nutritional outcomes, especially for the poor.
- Strengthen Social Safety Nets: Expand direct benefit transfers (DBTs) and targeted subsidies to reduce vulnerability and inequality.
- Promote Technological Innovation: Support startups, R&D, and digital infrastructure to drive productivity and global competitiveness.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2013] The World Bank and the IMF, collectively known as the Bretton Woods Institutions, are the two inter-governmental pillars supporting the structure of the world’s economic and financial order. Superficially, the World Bank and the IMF exhibit many common characteristics, yet their role, functions and mandate are distinctly different. Elucidate.
Linkage: This question directly asks about the World Bank’s role, functions, and mandate. A fundamental aspect of the World Bank’s function is its income classification system, which was initially designed to determine eligibility for loans, particularly concessional ones, based on a country’s average income.
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Why in the News?
Concerns have emerged over India’s commitments in the India-UK Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), particularly Article 13.6 on intellectual property. Critics argue it weakens India’s long-standing stance on compulsory licensing, favouring voluntary mechanisms instead.
How does Article 13.6 affect medicine access in India?
- Dilution of Compulsory Licensing Rights: The Article 13.6 of CETA favours voluntary licensing over compulsory licensing, reducing India’s legal room to ensure affordable drug access, especially during public health emergencies.
- Reduced Policy Space in Patent Law: Provisions like weakening the “working requirement” restrict India’s ability to revoke non-working foreign patents, hampering local production of essential medicines.
- Dependence on Foreign Patent Holders: Voluntary licensing shifts control to multinational corporations, allowing them to set restrictive terms, often limiting distribution, pricing, and manufacturing flexibility for Indian firms.
- Loss of Global TRIPS Advocacy Role
India’s past leadership in pushing for TRIPS flexibilities (Doha Declaration) is undermined, affecting its credibility in representing developing countries’ interests in global forums.
- Risk to Access and Affordability of Medicines: The FTA could hinder production of low-cost generics, making life-saving drugs less accessible to Indian citizens and low-income countries relying on Indian pharma exports.
What is Voluntary Licensing?
Voluntary licensing is when the patent holder (usually a pharmaceutical company) gives permission to another company (often in another country) to produce and sell its patented product, usually generic versions under agreed terms and conditions.
What is Compulsory Licensing?
Compulsory licensing is when a government allows someone else to produce a patented product or process without the consent of the patent holder, usually under specific public interest grounds such as health emergencies. |
Which global rules backed India’s earlier patent stand?
- TRIPS Agreement (WTO): Allowed for compulsory licensing under public health grounds, helping India prioritize affordable access over strict patent monopolies.
- Doha Declaration on TRIPS and Public Health (2001): Reaffirmed countries’ right to protect public health and promote access to medicines, supporting India’s flexible patent stance.
- Paragraph 6 System (WTO, 2003): Enabled countries like India to export generic medicines to nations lacking manufacturing capacity, aligning with its role as the “pharmacy of the world.”
- Indian Patent Act, 1970 (amended in 2005): Incorporated TRIPS flexibilities such as compulsory licensing and strict patentability criteria (e.g. Section 3(d)) to prevent evergreening.
- UN High-Level Panel on Access to Medicines (2016): Emphasized that IP rights should not override public health, validating India’s position on balancing innovation and accessibility.
What should be done?
- Reaffirm TRIPS Flexibilities in Trade Negotiations: India must ensure that all future FTAs explicitly protect its right to use compulsory licensing and patent law flexibilitiesunder the TRIPS Agreement.
- Strengthen Domestic Patent Law: Amend and reinforce provisions like the “working requirement” to protect public health and allow challenges to non-working or unaffordable patents.
- Enhance Public Health Safeguards in FTAs: Negotiate clear exceptions for essential medicines and green technology, ensuring that IP provisions do not override public interest obligations.
- Build Strategic Alliances with Global South: Collaborate with developing countries to collectively oppose IP-heavy provisions in trade deals and promote affordable access to medicines globally.
- Promote Indigenous Innovation and R&D: Invest in public sector research and incentivize Indian pharma and green tech innovation to reduce dependency on foreign patents and strengthen self-reliance.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss the implications of Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials? Although, India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.
Linkage: This question directly asks about “Intellectual Property rights with respect to life materials” and patents. The article talks about the implications of India’s CETA commitments on its patent regime concerning “patented medicines” and the “patent system”. The “slip up” in the trade pact is precisely about India compromising its traditional stance on IPR, particularly regarding access to medicines, which is a direct implication of intellectual property rights on life materials.
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Why in the News?
New research shows that rain can reduce ocean buoyancy and stabilize tropical waters, challenging the belief that rain always enhances mixing.
About Buoyancy:
- What is it: It is the upward force exerted by a fluid (e.g., water) on an object submerged in it.
- It determines whether an object floats, sinks, or stays suspended.
- Buoyancy in Oceans: It depends on density differences in water.
- Lighter water above → unstable → mixing happens.
- Heavier water above → stable → mixing stops.
- Buoyancy Flux: Measures changes in buoyancy at the ocean surface over time.
- Freshwater from rain → makes surface lighter → positive flux → promotes mixing.
- Heat loss → cools surface → makes water denser → negative flux → resists mixing.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Light Rain (0.2–4 mm/hr): Often leads to positive buoyancy flux → supports ocean mixing.
- Heavy Rain:
- Usually results in negative buoyancy flux → surface becomes stable.
- Caused by cold pools that enhance heat loss.
- Day vs. Night Effect:
- Night: Rain destabilizes surface → mixing increases.
- Day: Rain promotes stability → due to added heat loss from sunlight blockage.
- Geographical Insights:
- Cold Rain Zones (Western Pacific, Indian Ocean): More stabilization.
- Hot Rain Zones (Central Pacific): More prone to mixing.
Significance of the Study
- Scientific Implications:
- Refutes the general belief that rain always increases buoyancy.
- Shows rain can both stabilize or destabilize the ocean surface depending on conditions.
- Climate Relevance:
- Ocean mixing is key to heat, carbon, and nutrient cycling.
- Misreading rainfall’s role can skew climate and weather models.
- Practical Impact:
- Improves forecasting accuracy in oceanography and climate science.
- Aids in understanding the climate-ocean feedback loop more precisely.
| [UPSC 2020] With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26°C isotherm which is 129 meters in the southwestern Indian Ocean during January — March.
2. OMT collected during January — March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long-term mean.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
A new study by the Wildlife Institute of India (WII) reveals that wind farms in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan, have the highest recorded bird mortality rates globally.
Bird Mortality at Wind Farms: Key Findings
- Study Details: Conducted across 3,000 sq. km in Jaisalmer, Rajasthan, covering 90 wind turbines and 272 bird species, including the critically endangered Great Indian Bustard.
- Carcass Count: 124 bird carcasses found within 150m radius of turbines.
- Annual Mortality Estimate: 4,464 birds per 1,000 sq. km, after corrections for detection gaps and scavenger interference.
- Control Sites: 28 sites (500–2,000m from turbines) found zero carcasses — indicating turbines as the direct cause.
- Reasons:
- Policy Gap: Onshore wind projects in India do not require Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), which weakens ecological safeguards.
India’s Wind Energy Growth:
- Current Status: India added 3.5 GW of wind power in the first half of 2025 — an 82% YoY increase.
- Total Installed Capacity: Now stands at 51.3 GW.
- Untapped Potential: Estimated at 1163.9 GW at 150 meters above ground level (National Institute of Wind Energy).
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Comparison with Past Studies:
- 2019 Studies: Recorded just 0.47 bird deaths per turbine/year in Kutch and Davangere.
- Thar Desert Rate: 1.24 bird deaths per turbine/month — significantly higher.
- Contributing Factors:
- High bird density in Thar.
- Location along Central Asian Flyway.
- Collisions with turbine-linked power lines included in this study.
Proposed Mitigation Measures:
- Technological:
- Paint one turbine blade for visibility.
- Shut down turbines during peak migration or high-risk periods.
- Planning-Based:
- Careful Site Selection seen as most critical step.
- Use of tools like AVISTEP (Avian Sensitivity Tool for Energy Planning), which maps avian sensitivity across India.
- AVISTEP ranks zones as low to very high sensitivity — intended as a guide for site avoidance.
| [UPSC 2012] Vultures which used to be very common in Indian countryside some years ago are rarely seen nowadays. This is attributed to:
Options: (a) the destruction of their nesting sites by new invasive species disease among them
(b) a drug used by cattle owners for treating their diseased cattle persistent and fatal *
(c) scarcity of food available to them
(d) a widespread, persistent and fatal disease among them |
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Why in the News?
Harvard Scientists have recently used AI to design synthetic proteins that activate T Cells, offering a new path for cancer treatment and vaccine development.
What are T Cells?
- They are a type of white blood cell that play a central role in the immune system.
- Types of T Cells:
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- Helper T cells (CD4+): Activate and direct other immune cells.
- Killer T cells (CD8+): Destroy infected or cancerous cells.
- Memory T cells: “Remember” past invaders for faster response in the future.
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About the Study:
- Used artificial intelligence (AI) to design soluble proteins that activate ‘Notch Signalling’, a key immune pathway.
- These are synthetic molecular activators designed using advanced AI-driven protein design technologies.
- Unlike older lab-only methods, these proteins work inside the body (in vivo) and in lab settings.
- Result: Significant boost in T cell production from human progenitor cells.
What is Notch Signalling?
- A cell-to-cell signalling system that guides cell development.
- Crucial for forming T cells, which fight infections and cancers.
- No reliable therapeutic activator existed earlier.
Key Benefits Offered:
- Mass T Cell Generation: Meets clinical needs for CAR T Cell Therapy.
- Vaccine Support: Boosted Memory T cells in mice, improving long-term immunity.
- Cancer Therapy: Helps fight immune-suppressive tumour environments.
- Scalable & Soluble: Works in humans, not just in lab dishes.
- AI in Medicine: Shows AI’s growing role in designing immune therapies.
| [UPSC 2022] Which one of the following statements best describes the role of B cells and T cells in the human body?
Options: (a) They protect the body from environmental allergens.
(b) They alleviate the body’s pain and inflammation.
(c) They act as immunosuppressants in the body.
(d) They protect the body from the diseases caused by pathogens |
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Why in the News?
A Central Zoo Authority (CZA) report reveals a major conservation error — the critically endangered Alpine musk deer was wrongly replaced by the Himalayan musk deer in India’s breeding programmes.
Back2Basics: Central Zoo Authority (CZA):
- Establishment: Formed in 1992 under Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
- Mandate: Captive breeding, zoo oversight, and assigning species to zoos.
- Expanded Scope (2022): Includes rescue centres, off-display facilities, and conservation breeding centres.
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About Alpine Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster):
- Not a true Deer: closer to goats and antelopes (Bovidae).
- Musk Sac: Males have a visible musk sac between the testes.
- Canines: Grows fang-like canines during the mating season.
- Habitat: Found at 3,000–5,000 m in forests of the Himalayas.
- Range: India (J&K, HP, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal), Nepal, Bhutan, China.
- Diet: Eats grasses, leaves, lichens, mosses, and twigs.
- Behaviour: Solitary and crepuscular (active at dawn/dusk).
- Legal Protection: IUCN Status Critically Endangered (2014), CITES Appendix I; Indian Wildlife Act- Schedule I.
- Threats: Poaching for musk and habitat loss.
- Key Habitats: Askot, Gangotri & Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuaries (Uttarakhand).
| [UPSC 2020] Which of the following are the most likely places to find the musk deer in its natural habitat?
1. Askot Wildlife Sanctuary 2. Gangotri National Park
3. Kishanpur Wildlife Sanctuary 4. Manas National Park
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only (d) 1 and 4 only |
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Why in the News?
At an event in New Delhi, Denotified, Semi-Nomadic and Nomadic Tribes (DNTs) strongly demanded a permanent National Commission to address their long-standing marginalisation.
Who are Denotified, Nomadic, and Semi-Nomadic Tribes (DNTs)?
- Denotified Tribes (DNTs):
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- Colonial Tag: Branded “criminal by birth” under the Criminal Tribes Act, 1871.
- Legal Reversal: Act repealed in 1949; tribes de-notified in 1952.
- Persistent Stigma: Continue to face police profiling and social exclusion.
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- Lifestyle: No fixed habitation; move cyclically for livelihood.
- Occupations: Animal herding, salt trading, performing arts, traditional healing.
- Semi-Nomadic Tribes (SNTs):
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- Hybrid Living: Alternate between mobile and semi-settled life.
- Movement: Shift seasonally but often retain a base settlement.
Current Status in India:
- Population Share: Around 10% of India’s population.
- Communities: ~150+ Denotified, 500+ Nomadic tribes.
- Major States: Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh.
- Examples of Communities (not exhaustive):
- Denotified: Bedia, Pardhi, Sansi, Kanjar, Lodha, Nat, Chhara, Bhantu
- Nomadic: Banjara, Gadia Lohar, Rabari, Madari, Kalbelia, Nat
- Semi-Nomadic: Abor, Adi, Aka, Apatani, Dafla, Galo, Nishi, Tagin
Major Committees & Commissions:
|
Year |
Contribution |
| Criminal Tribes Inquiry Committee |
1947 |
Criticized criminal branding |
| Ayyangar Committee |
1949 |
Led to repeal of Criminal Tribes Act |
| Kaka Kalelkar Commission |
1953 |
Recognized DNTs, no full classification |
| B.P. Mandal Commission |
1980 |
Suggested NTs for OBC list |
| Constitution Review Commission |
2002 |
Urged protective measures for DNTs |
| Renke Commission |
2008 |
Listed 500+ communities, lacked implementation resources |
| Idate Commission |
2017–2018 |
Listed 1,200+, proposed permanent commission |
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements about Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) in India:
1. PVTGs reside in 18 States and one Union Territory. 2. A stagnant or declining population is one of the criteria for determining PVTG status.
3. There are 95 PVTGs officially notified in the country so far. 4. Irular and Konda Reddi tribes are included in the list of PVTGs.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2, 3 and 4 (c) 1, 2 and 4* (d) 1, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
India has taken a significant step towards interplanetary human missions with the launch of the Human Outer Planet Exploration (HOPE) analogue station at Tso Kar, Ladakh.
About HOPE (Human Outer Planet Exploration):
- Purpose: Simulates Moon and Mars conditions to prepare for future human missions.
- Developer: Built by Protoplanet (Bengaluru); partially funded by ISRO.
- Location: Tso Kar, Ladakh (14,500 ft) — chosen for its lunar/Martian-like terrain.
- Features: Enables isolation research, tech trials, and crew training; 1 of 33 such stations globally.
- First Mission (2025): Two scientists (Rahul Mogalapalli, Yaman Akot) conducted a 10-day simulation focusing on resilience and mental health.
- Significance:
- Boosts India’s human spaceflight readiness.
- Supports goals like Bharatiya Antariksh Station (2035) and Moon mission (2040).
India’s Astronomical Assets in Ladakh:
- Location: Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), at Mt. Saraswati (4,500 m), Hanle; run by Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
- Key Instruments:
- Himalayan Chandra Telescope (optical/infrared)
- HAGAR (gamma rays, with Tata Institute of Fundamental Research)
- MACE (Cherenkov telescope, with Bhabha Atomic Research Centre)
- Stargazing hubs: Hanle, Nubra Valley, Pangong, Tso Moriri.
- Advantages & Recognition:
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- 270+ clear nights; low humidity; dark skies.
- Declared India’s 1st Dark-Sky Reserve (2022) to curb light pollution.
| [UPSC 2012] The world’s highest ground based telescopic observatory is located in
Options: (a) Colombia (b) India* (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland |
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Why in the News?
While most medicines are small molecule drugs with simple structures, a newer class—biologics and biosimilars—is reshaping modern medicine with their complex, targeted action.
What are Small Molecule Drugs?
- Definition: Chemically synthesised, low molecular weight compounds.
- Features: Fixed structure, chemically stable, easy to replicate, patent-protected.
- Cost Dynamics: Expensive while under patent; affordable generics post-expiry (e.g., Sovaldi dropped from $84,000 to $1,000).
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About Biologics & Biosimilars:
-
- Overview: Large, complex drugs made from living cells or organisms.
- Examples: Insulin (~5,800 daltons), Remicade (~150,000 daltons).
- Nature: Slight structural variations possible; used for cancer, autoimmune diseases, hormone therapy.
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- Overview: Near-identical versions of biologics, made after patent expiry.
- Not Generics: Due to complex cell-based production, they’re similar but not identical.
- Use: Offer lower-cost alternatives to high-end biologics.
Regulation and Reform:
- Current Barriers: Biosimilars need costly trials (animal + clinical), unlike generics.
- Global Moves: UK and USA are easing animal trial norms (organ-on-chip, human models).
- India: Still follows older norms; waivers under review, but clinical trials still mandatory.
Significance for India:
- Access: Generic small molecules transformed Indian healthcare.
- Opportunity: Affordable biosimilars can do the same for chronic and rare diseases.
- Urgency: Regulatory reform is key to reduce costs, speed up access, and widen healthcare coverage.
| [UPSC 2020] What is the importance of using Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines in India?
(1) These vaccines are effective against pneumonia as well as meningitis and sepsis. (2) Dependence on antibiotics that are not effective against drug-resistant bacteria can be reduced. (3) These vaccines have no side effects and cause no allergic reactions.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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