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Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

[14th August 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: The Ceding of Academic Freedom in Universities

op-ed snap | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2014] Should the premier institutes like IITs/IIMs be allowed to retain premier status, allowed more academic independence in designing courses and also decide mode/criteria of selection of students? Discuss in light of the growing challenges.

Linkage: This PYQ directly links to the article’s core theme of academic autonomy by addressing whether premier institutions should have greater freedom in curriculum design, student selection, and governance. The article highlights how over-regulation, political interference, and funding control erode such freedoms across Indian universities. Answering this PYQ can draw on the article’s arguments for institutional autonomy, diversity, and the dangers of one-size-fits-all regulation.

Mentor’s Comment

Academic freedom is central to nurturing innovation, fostering critical thought, and sustaining democratic accountability in higher education. It ensures that universities remain spaces for questioning, debate, and independent research, free from undue political or bureaucratic interference. In the Indian context, constitutional guarantees under Articles 19(1)(a) and 21, along with policy frameworks like the NEP 2020, lay a foundation for such autonomy, yet over-regulation and ideological pressures often undermine it. This article illustrates these challenges vividly, linking them to global patterns and emphasising the need for reforms that safeguard autonomy while ensuring institutional accountability.

Introduction

Academic freedom is the lifeblood of higher education, enabling questioning, debate, and independent thought. Any restriction on this freedom undermines knowledge creation, weakens the teaching–learning process, and, in the long run, hampers the nation’s intellectual, social, and economic progress.

Core Arguments in Favour of Academic Freedom in Universities

  1. Universities as Centres of Critical Inquiry:
    1. Universities must be spaces where students and faculty can challenge existing ideas, debate openly, and explore new perspectives.
    2. Questioning is not rebellion, it is the foundation of knowledge development.
    3. Freedom for Students & Faculty: Students need the right to ask questions without fear. Faculty must have autonomy to challenge conventional wisdom in their fields.
  2. Institutional Autonomy:
    1. Universities must independently decide curriculum and pedagogy.
    2. External political or bureaucratic interference in academic content dilutes intellectual rigour.
    3. Universities contribute ideas for science, technology, economic policy, and social reform.
    4. Act as “conscience-keepers” through public intellectual engagement.
    5. Autonomy fosters accountability but accountability should be through transparent institutional mechanisms, not political intervention
    6. Rankings, despite flaws, can help ensure performance-based accountability
  3. Impact on Innovation & Society:
    1. Restricting academic discourse narrows creativity in research and stifles innovation.
    2. Over time, the economy, society, and polity bear the cost through diminished problem-solving capacity.
  4. Open Intellectual Spaces:
    1. Universities should freely invite diverse voices and speakers.
    2. Restricting platforms for dialogue harms learning outcomes and social progress.

Erosion of Academic Autonomy: Challenges and Way Forward

  1. Freedom in Research:
    1. Universities and faculty must set research priorities and agendas free from political or ideological bias.
    2. Funding should be based on peer review, not prejudice or preference.
    3. Fundamental research needs time, resources, and tolerance for dissenting views.
    4. Lack of such an environment partly explains why Indian universities have not produced Nobel laureates in recent decades.
  2. The Indian Reality:
    1. Curricula are regulated and straitjacketed; reading lists are often politically vetted.
    2. Promising non-mainstream research, especially in humanities and social sciences, is discouraged.
    3. Government-controlled funding bodies can indirectly dictate research themes.
    4. Even private universities self-censor to avoid antagonising political authorities.
  3. Regulation and Autonomy:
    1. UGC Act, 1956 grants regulation powers but often centralises control.
    2. NEP 2020 proposes Higher Education Commission of India to streamline governance but risks uniformity over diversity.
    3. Autonomy must be administrative, financial, and academic with accountability ensured via transparent governance systems, not political directives.

Case in Point – Academic Freedom Under Strain in India

  1. JNU Reading List Controversy (2019): Certain texts removed from syllabi for “ideological bias.”
  2. IIT-Madras Student Group Derecognition (2015): Suspension after alleged criticism of government policies.
  3. Ashoka University Resignations (2021 & 2023): Faculty exits over lack of institutional support for academic freedom.
  4. UGC Advisory (2022): Urged avoidance of events critical of government policies.

Global Context

  1. Restrictions in democracies (Argentina, Hungary, TĂĽrkiye) and authoritarian states (China, Russia, Vietnam).
  2. The US faced funding cuts under the Trump administration, risking erosion of its innovation edge.
  3. China limits social sciences freedom but maintains merit-based appointments in top institutions.

Conclusion

Academic freedom is not a privilege, it is a necessity for national growth. Curtailing it is an attack on the very roots of innovation, democratic engagement, and societal advancement.

Value Addition

India’s Academic Freedom Snapshot

  1. Academic Freedom Index 2023: Low score; declining trend since 2013
  2. QS World University Rankings – Few Indian universities in global top 200; autonomy cited as a factor
  3. NAAC Accreditation: Less than 35% of HEIs accredited
  4. UGC Autonomy Regulations: 82 universities granted autonomy (2018–2023)
  5. Global Comparison: US, UK, Germany ranked significantly higher in academic freedom

Regulation of Indian Universities

  1. University Grants Commission (UGC) Act, 1956: regulates standards, allocates funds, recognises institutions.
  2. AICTE: governs technical education institutions
  3. NAAC: accredits higher education institutions
  4. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 proposes:
    1. Higher Education Commission of India (single regulator)
    2. Academic, administrative, and financial autonomy
    3. Flexibility in curriculum and interdisciplinarity
  • Challenges:
    1. Political interference in appointments and syllabus
    2. Over-centralisation vs. institutional diversity
    3. Risk of self-censorship in private institutions

Mapping Micro Themes

GS Paper Topic/Theme Micro Theme Example
GS Paper II Education & Rights Academic freedom as a democratic necessity Art. 19(1)(a) & 21 protecting campus speech
GS Paper II Higher Education Regulation UGC, NEP 2020, institutional autonomy IIT autonomy reforms
GS Paper III Innovation & R&D Freedom boosting research productivity Correlation between autonomy and patents

Practice Mains Question

Essay: “The quest for uniformity is the worst enemy of creativity.”

  1. Evaluate the relationship between academic freedom and democratic accountability in India.

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J&K – The issues around the state

Aid and advice: On Jammu and Kashmir and the Lieutenant-Governor’s Assembly member nominations

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has told the J&K High Court that the Lieutenant-Governor (L-G) can nominate five Assembly members without the “aid and advice” of the elected government. This position has sparked a constitutional debate over democratic accountability in a politically sensitive Union Territory where such nominations could alter the balance of power. This is significant because these nominations could decide the majority in a 119-member House, potentially overturning the people’s electoral verdict. The High Court is examining whether this undermines the Constitution’s basic structure.

Core issues before the J&K High Court

  1. Constitutional question: Whether the 2023 amendments to the J&K Reorganisation Act, allowing the L-G to nominate five members, violate the Constitution’s basic structure.
  2. Potential impact: These five voting members could “convert a minority government into a majority government and vice versa,” influencing governance stability.
  3. Judicial scope: Goes beyond statutory interpretation into democratic essence.

Provisions of the 2023 amendments

  1. Sections 15A & 15B of the Jammu and Kashmir Reorganisation Act, 2019: Allows nomination of two Kashmiri migrants (including one woman) and one from Pakistan-occupied J&K, in addition to two women if inadequately represented.
  2. Total seats: Creates five nominated members in the 119-member Assembly.
  3. Voting rights: These nominees have full voting powers.

Centre’s justification of this power

  1. MHA’s submission: Nominations fall outside the elected government’s remit, citing K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India (Puducherry).
  2. Legal references: Invokes “sanctioned strength” concept, including elected + nominated members, and Section 12 of the 1963 Union Territories Act on voting procedures.
  3. Approach: Focuses on legal technicalities rather than broader constitutional implications.

Concerns over democratic implications

  1. Risk of mandate distortion: In a tight Assembly, nominees could decide government stability.
  2. Precedent in Puducherry: In 2021, nominated members plus defectors contributed to the collapse of the Congress-led government.
  3. UT context: J&K’s downgrade from State to UT in 2019 happened without consultation with elected representatives, making accountability critical.

Supreme Court jurisprudence on L-G’s powers

  1. Delhi Services Cases (Government of NCT of Delhi vs. Union of India (2018), Government of NCT of Delhi vs. Union of India & Anr. (2023)): SC held that the L-G should act on the “aid and advice” of the elected government, with discretion as the exception.
  2. Contradiction: MHA’s stance that nominations lie outside the elected government’s domain runs counter to this jurisprudence.

Conclusion

The J&K nominations issue highlights the tension between administrative authority and the democratic mandate. In politically sensitive regions, bypassing elected governments in decisions that can shift Assembly majorities risks undermining public trust and the constitutional promise of representative governance.

Value Addition
  • Basic Structure Doctrine: It evolved through landmark cases such as Kesavananda Bharati vs State of Kerala (1973), which holds that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution in a way that damages its essential features. Representative democracy and federalism are recognised as part of this basic structure.
  • Lakshminarayanan Case (2019): In K. Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India, the Supreme Court upheld the Centre’s power to nominate MLAs in Puducherry without consulting the elected government. While constitutionally valid, the aftermath showed that nominated members could be politically aligned with the Centre, leading to destabilisation of the elected government. This precedent is now central to the J&K dispute, as similar powers are being exercised by the L-G.
  • Delhi vs L-G Jurisprudence: Through Government of NCT of Delhi vs Union of India (2018) and Government of NCT of Delhi vs Union of India & Anr. (2023), the Supreme Court emphasised that the L-G should act on the “aid and advice” of the elected Council of Ministers, except in explicitly stated matters of discretion. This jurisprudence reinforces the principle that administrative authority should not override the electoral mandate, making the MHA’s argument in J&K appear contrary to evolving constitutional norms.
  • Union Territory Governance Model: Union Territories with legislatures (like Delhi, Puducherry, and now J&K) operate under a hybrid governance system where the Centre retains significant control while local governments have legislative powers. This model inherently contains tensions between central authority and local democratic accountability. In politically sensitive UTs like J&K, such tensions are magnified, especially when powers like nominations can shift legislative majorities.

Mapping Micro Themes for GS Paper II

Topic Micro Theme Example
Centre–State Relations Constitutional role of L-G in UTs & states J&K L-G nominations without elected govt’s aid and advice
Electoral Process Integrity Impact of nominated members on Assembly majority Puducherry 2021 govt collapse case
Basic Structure Doctrine Threat to democratic accountability HC challenge to J&K Reorganisation Act amendments
Comparative Jurisprudence Lakshminarayanan vs Union of India precedent Puducherry nominated MLAs case
Federalism in Special Regions J&K statehood restoration debate SC acknowledgement & public demand

PYQ RELEVANCE

[UPSC 2016] Discuss the essentials of the 69th Constitutional Amendment Act and the controversies regarding the powers of the Lieutenant Governor vis-Ă -vis the elected government in the NCT of Delhi.

Linkage: The 69th Constitutional Amendment Act created a legislative assembly for Delhi and defined the relationship between the L-G and the elected government, leading to recurring disputes over whether the L-G must act on the “aid and advice” of the Council of Ministers.

The J&K nominations case mirrors this constitutional tension—while Delhi’s dispute involved administrative control and services, J&K’s controversy centres on the L-G’s power to nominate voting members without elected government concurrence. Both situations raise a common constitutional question: Can the L-G exercise discretionary powers in a manner that can override or alter the democratic mandate? This makes Delhi’s precedent and Supreme Court rulings directly relevant to interpreting J&K’s case.

Practice Mains Question

Discuss the constitutional implications of granting the Lieutenant-Governor of Jammu & Kashmir the power to nominate Assembly members without the aid and advice of the elected government. In your answer, examine its impact on the democratic process in light of Supreme Court jurisprudence.

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

Africa is challenging China’s mining hegemony

Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Effect Of Policies & Politics Of World On India'S Interests

For two decades, China has led Africa’s mining sector, securing vast stakes in cobalt, lithium, copper, and iron ore. Now, African governments and civil society are challenging opaque contracts, environmental damage, and lack of value addition. The old “raw resources for infrastructure” model is giving way to demands for local processing, transparency, and economic sovereignty.

Significance

For the first time in decades, China’s unchallenged hold on African mining is weakening. Nations like the DRC, Namibia, and Zimbabwe are renegotiating deals, banning raw mineral exports, and holding Chinese firms accountable for environmental and labour violations. The scale is significant, in 2024 alone, DRC lost $132 million due to tax exemptions for Chinese companies. These actions could reshape global cobalt and lithium supply chains essential for the green economy.

China’s Long-standing Dominance in Africa’s Mining

  1. Control over critical minerals: DRC produces 80% of the world’s cobalt; China controls ~80% of that output via deals like Sicomines.
  2. Infrastructure-for-resources model: Chinese firms exchanged infrastructure for mining rights, but local benefits have been minimal.

Drivers of the Pushback Against Chinese Projects

  1. Civil society pressure: Groups like Congo Is Not for Sale exposed $132 million revenue loss in 2024.
  2. Market-linked risks: Contracts tied to commodity prices risk leaving nations with no investment in downturns.
  3. Government renegotiations: DRC raising stake in joint venture with Sinohydro & China Railway Group from 32% to 70%.

African Nations Taking Assertive Measures

  1. DRC: Cancelled Chemaf Resources’ sale to China’s Norin Mining after state miner Gecamines’ opposition.
  2. Namibia: Alleged $50 million bribe by Xinfeng Investments; failure to build promised processing facilities.
  3. Zimbabwe: $300 million Huayou Cobalt lithium plant; benefits may flow back to China without safeguards.

Environmental and Social Concerns from Chinese Mining

  1. Pollution incidents: Acid spill in Zambia contaminated the Kafue River.
  2. Biodiversity protection: Hwange National Park coal permit blocked for ecological reasons.
  3. Community and heritage impacts: Cameroon’s Lobé-Kribi Iron Ore Project opposed by NGOs over health and cultural threats.

Policy Shifts for Economic Sovereignty

  1. Export bans: Zimbabwe (2022) and Namibia (2023) banned unprocessed lithium exports to promote local beneficiation.
  2. Retention of value: Policy aims to strengthen domestic processing, but risk of elite capture remains without broader reforms.

Conclusion

China remains Africa’s largest mining partner, but African nations are increasingly asserting control through renegotiations, environmental enforcement, and value addition. If sustained, these actions could reposition Africa from a raw material supplier to an active player in global green economy supply chains.

Value Addition

China’s Role in Mining in Africa (2000–2024)

Scale of Presence

  1. Largest external mining partner: Operates in over 15 African countries.
  2. Dominance in cobalt & lithium: Controls ~80% of DRC’s cobalt output; major stakes in lithium mines in Zimbabwe, Namibia.

Investment Model

  1. Infrastructure-for-resources deals: e.g., Sicomines agreement in DRC (mining rights in exchange for roads, hospitals, railways).
  2. High-value acquisitions: Purchase of mining stakes from global and local firms to secure long-term supply chains.

Strategic Objectives

  1. Securing supply for EV & battery industries: Critical minerals channelled to Chinese manufacturing hubs.
  2. Vertical integration: Ownership from extraction to processing facilities (mostly located in China).

Criticism & Concerns

  1. Limited local benefits: Minimal skills transfer, inadequate job creation.
  2. Environmental damage: Incidents like Zambia’s Kafue River acid spill.
  3. Opaque contracts: Alleged bribery (Namibia) and lack of transparency in revenue flows.

Shifts & Resistance

  1. Renegotiations and policy pushback: DRC increasing state stake in ventures; export bans in Zimbabwe and Namibia.
  2. Civil society pressure: Activist coalitions exposing revenue losses and demanding fairer contracts.

Critical Minerals Geopolitics

  1. Strategic importance: Minerals like cobalt, lithium, and copper are essential for EV batteries, renewable energy storage, and electronics manufacturing.
  2. Global competition: Control over their supply chains influences technological dominance in the clean energy transition.
  3. China’s leverage: By securing ~80% of DRC’s cobalt and significant lithium reserves, China holds a strategic advantage over rivals such as the US, EU, and Japan.
  4. UPSC linkage – Relevant for GS II (International Relations) and GS III (Economy, Technology), particularly in questions on energy security and global trade politics.

Resource Nationalism

  1. Definition: A policy stance where nations assert control over natural resources to maximise domestic benefit and reduce foreign dependency.
  2. African examples: Zimbabwe and Namibia banning export of unprocessed lithium; DRC renegotiating mining contracts to increase state ownership.
  3. Implications: Can boost domestic processing industries but may deter foreign investment if not paired with stable policy frameworks.

Mapping Micro Themes

GS Paper Theme/Topic Micro Theme Example
GS Paper II International Relations South-South cooperation & friction China-Africa mining ties
GS Paper II Governance Resource nationalism DRC renegotiation of Sicomines
GS Paper III Environment Ecological threats from mining Hwange NP permit denial, Kafue River spill

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] “The USA is facing an existential threat in the form of China, that is much more challenging than the erstwhile Soviet Union.” Explain

Linkage: While the question is US–China centric, Africa’s mining sector is a key arena of US–China competition. China’s dominance over Africa’s critical minerals gives it strategic leverage in global supply chains, posing long-term geopolitical and economic challenges to the US, a dimension comparable to Cold War-era resource and influence battles.

Practice Mains Question

Examine how Africa’s policy shift in mineral governance could alter global supply chains for critical minerals.

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Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has recently called returning sterilised stray dogs to the streets under the Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program as “unreasonable and absurd” and ordered they be moved to shelters.

About Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program:

  • Purpose: Humane, scientifically proven method to control stray dog populations and reduce rabies.
  • Legal Basis: First under Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001 (under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960); updated as Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
  • Development: Created with support from the World Health Organization (WHO).
  • Core Method: “Catch–sterilise–vaccinate–release” model; prohibits relocation or culling.
  • Implementation: Managed by municipalities, municipal corporations, and panchayats.
  • Authorisation: Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct programs.
  • Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023:
    • Implemented to comply with Supreme Court guidelines in Writ Petition No. 691 of 2009.
    • Assigns responsibility to local bodies (municipalities, corporations, panchayats) to conduct ABC programs for sterilisation and immunisation of stray dogs.
    • Prohibits relocation of stray dogs as a means of population control; instead, they must be sterilised and returned to the same area.
    • Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct ABC programs.

Key Features:

  • Sterilisation Target: Minimum 70% of stray dogs in an area within one reproductive cycle (~6 months).
  • Focus: Female sterilisation at a 70:30 female-to-male ratio.
  • Rabies Control: Mandatory rabies vaccination (ABC–ARV) for every sterilised dog.
  • Infrastructure: Kennels, veterinary facilities, vehicles, and hygienic shelters required.
  • Recordkeeping: Detailed records for catching, surgery, vaccination, and release.
  • Monitoring: State and local committees ensure compliance and handle complaints.
  • Legal Protection: Mass relocation or killing prohibited under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960.
[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

1. Every individual in the population is equally susceptible host for Swine Flu.

2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu

3. To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only  (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Tax Reforms

New Income Tax Bill, 2025

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Why in the News?

Parliament has passed the Income-tax Bill, 2025, replacing the 1961 law with a leaner, simpler version free of redundant provisions and archaic language, effective April 1, 2026.

About New Income Tax Bill, 2025:

  • Purpose: Replaces the Income Tax Act, 1961 after more than 60 years to simplify the law, remove redundant provisions, and modernise tax administration.
  • Effective Date: Comes into effect from April 1, 2026.
  • Structural Changes: Sections reduced from 819 to 536; chapters from 47 to 23.
  • Conciseness: Word count cut from 5.12 lakh to 2.6 lakh, with 39 tables and 40 formulas for clarity.
  • New Concept: Introduces “tax year” defined as April 1 to March 31.

Key Features:

  • Refunds: Restores refund claims on belated returns by removing the earlier restriction.
  • Tax Collected at Source (TCS) Clarity: Nil TCS for Liberalised Remittance Scheme (LRS) remittances for education funded by financial institutions.
  • Corporate Tax: Corrects errors in inter-corporate dividend deduction for companies opting for concessional tax rates.
  • Alternate Minimum Tax (AMT) Alignment: Aligns AMT provisions for Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs) with existing rates.
  • Nil-Tax Deducted at Source (TDS) Certificate: Permits taxpayers with no liability to obtain a nil-TDS certificate.
  • Transfer Pricing: Clarifies transfer pricing provisions, set-off of losses, and alignment with Section 79 on “beneficial owner.”
  • Non-Profit Organisation (NPO) Benefit: Expands exemption to 5% of total donations, instead of only anonymous donations.
  • House Property Income: Clarifies 30% standard deduction after municipal taxes.
  • Search Definition: Retains “virtual digital space” definition to include cloud storage, email, and social media accounts.
  • Data Handling: Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) to be issued for handling personal digital data seized in searches.
[UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements: Statement I: In India, income from allied agricultural activities like poultry farming and wool rearing in rural areas is exempted from any tax. Statement II: In India, rural agricultural land is not considered a capital asset under the provisions of the Income-tax Act, 1961.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

(a) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement II explains Statement I

(b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct but Statement II does not explain Statement I*

(c) Statement I is correct but Statement II is not correct

(d) Statement I is not correct but Statement II is correct

 

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Global Geological And Climatic Events

1950 Assam Earthquake and Future Seismic Risks in the Himalayas

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

75 years ago on August 15, 1950, a magnitude 8.6 earthquake — the strongest recorded on land — struck Northeast India and surrounding regions.

1950 Assam Earthquake and Future Seismic Risks in the Himalayas

About the Earthquake:

  • Magnitude: 8.6, the strongest recorded earthquake on land.
  • Impact Area: Tremors lasted 4–8 minutes, felt over 3 million sq. km in India, Myanmar, Bangladesh, Tibet, and South China.
  • Casualties: Over 1,500 deaths in India and 4,000+ in Tibet; heavy livestock losses and infrastructure destruction.
  • Secondary Disasters: Triggered landslides blocking rivers, followed by devastating flash floods.

Geological and Tectonic Setting:

  • Epicentre: 40 km west of Rima (Zayu), near India–Tibet border in the Mishmi Hills.
  • Tectonic Context: Located on Indian–Eurasian Plate boundary within Eastern Himalayan Syntaxis (EHS), influenced by the Sunda Plate.
  • Fault Type: Strike-slip motion with thrust faulting — atypical for Himalayan quakes.
  • Plate Convergence: Eastern Himalayas converge at 10–38 mm/year vs. ~20 mm/year elsewhere.
  • Aftershocks: Indicated activation of multiple faults from the Syntaxial bend to Himalayan thrust faults in Arunachal Pradesh.

Lessons and Future Risks:

  • Magnitude Potential: Confirms Himalayan segments can produce ≥8.6 magnitude events.
  • Central Himalayan Risk: Identified as likely site for similar future quake.
  • Vulnerability Today: Increased due to urbanisation and large infrastructure in seismic zones.
  • Infrastructure Safety: Necessitates strict norms for dams and high-risk projects in Eastern Himalayas.
  • Preparedness: Highlights need for seismic hazard mapping and disaster readiness.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following statements:

1. In a seismograph, P waves are recorded earlier than S waves.

2. In P waves, the individual particles vibrate to and fro in the direction of waves propogation whereas in S waves, the particles vibrate up and down at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) Program

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

The Trump administration seeks to end two NASA missions under the Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) program, which monitor global carbon dioxide emissions and plant health.

About Orbiting Carbon Observatories (OCO) Program:

  • Overview: A NASA Earth remote sensing initiative dedicated to monitoring atmospheric carbon dioxide (COâ‚‚) from space.
  • Objective: Designed to enhance understanding of climate change by precisely tracking COâ‚‚ sources and sinks.
  • Comprises three missions:
    • OCO-1: Launched in 2009 but failed shortly after launch.
    • OCO-2: Launched in July 2014 as a replacement.
    • OCO-3: Installed on the International Space Station in May 2019.

Key Features:

  • Precision Measurement: Provides high-resolution global COâ‚‚ data and maps of plant photosynthesis.
  • Dual Capability: Measures COâ‚‚ levels and solar-induced chlorophyll fluorescence to assess photosynthesis.
  • Applications: Detects drought, forecasts food shortages, identifies carbon sinks/sources, supports crop planning.
  • Global Reach: Tracks COâ‚‚ distribution over continents, oceans, and remote ecosystems like Amazon and boreal forests.
  • Major Discoveries: Amazon rainforest now emits more COâ‚‚ than it absorbs; boreal forests identified as major carbon sinks.
  • Policy Relevance: Supplies key data for climate treaties and greenhouse gas reporting.
[UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location

2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location

3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

 

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UNDP Equator Initiative Prize, 2025

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

Why in the News?

A women farmers’ collective from Karnataka has been recognised among the ten global winners of the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP) Equator Prize 2025.

About UNDP Equator Initiative Award:

  • Overview: Presented under the Equator Initiative of the UNDP.
  • Awarded biennially:  To community-led initiatives reducing poverty through biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
  • Significance: Often called the “Nobel Prize for Biodiversity Conservation”.
  • Award: Includes a cash prize of $10,000.
  • Eligibility:
    • Initiative must have existed for at least three years.
    • Must be a community-based group in a rural area of a UNDP-supported country, or an Indigenous Peoples’ community in a rural area.
    • Actions must be nature-based and benefit two or more SDGs.

Back2Basics: United Nations Development Programme (UNDP):

  • Established: 1966 by the UN General Assembly; Headquarters: New York, USA.
  • Mission: End poverty, promote democratic governance, rule of law, and inclusive institutions.
  • Focus Areas:
    • Sustainable development.
    • Democratic governance and peacebuilding.
    • Climate and disaster resilience.
  • Funding: Entirely from voluntary contributions of member states.
  • Role: Advocates for change, connects countries to knowledge, resources, and expertise for sustainable human development.
  • Key initiatives:
    • Human Development Index (HDI).
    • Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) Reports.
    • Gender Inequality Index (GII).
[UPSC 2012] The Multi-dimensional Poverty Index developed by Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative with UNDP support covers which of the following?

1. Deprivation of education, health, assets and services at household level

2. Purchasing power parity at national level

3. Extent of budget deficit and GDP growth rate at national level

Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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