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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    Piprahwa Relics of Buddha

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    The sacred Piprahwa relics of Lord Buddha have reached Thimphu, Bhutan, as a goodwill gift from India for the Global Peace Prayer Festival (GPPF).

    About the Piprahwa Relics:

    • Discovery: Unearthed in 1898 by William Claxton Peppe, a British engineer, at Piprahwa (Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh), near the Nepal border.
    • Historical Significance: Identified as ancient Kapilavastu, capital of the Shakya republic, where Prince Siddhartha (Buddha) lived before renunciation.
    • Findings at the Site: A buried stupa yielded a large stone coffer containing:
      • Bone fragments believed to be Buddha’s relics
      • Caskets made of soapstone and crystal
      • A sandstone coffer
      • Over 1,800 ornaments: pearls, rubies, sapphires, gold sheets
    • Legal Custody:
      • The British Crown claimed the relics under the Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878.
      • Most artifacts were transferred to the Indian Museum, Kolkata.

    Stupas with Buddha’s Relics:

    • After the Buddha’s death (Mahaparinirvana), his cremated relics were divided among 8 kingdoms and a Brahmin named Drona, who coordinated their distribution.
    • Each recipient built a Stupa to enshrine their share of the relics, creating important pilgrimage sites and early centers of Buddhist worship.
    • The 9 stupas were in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalivana.
    • Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) redistributed the relics from these stupas into thousands of new stupas across his empire.
    • The stupa at Ramagrama is unique because it is believed to remain untouched and still holds the original relics.
    • A typical early Buddhist stupa included a hemispherical mound (anda), a square railing (harmika), a central pillar (yashti) with umbrellas (chatra), and a path for circumambulation (pradakshinapatha).
    [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:

    1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.

    2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.

    3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

     

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  • Direct Benefits Transfers

    Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana  (PMUY)

    Schemes | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

    Why in the News?

    New Delhi CM has announced expanding Ujjwala Yojana to families using traditional stoves or coal heaters to improve air quality and promote clean cooking.

    About Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana (PMUY):

    • Overview: Introduced in 2016 by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas to provide clean cooking fuel (LPG) to poor and rural households.
    • Objective: Replace traditional cooking fuels like firewood, dung, and coal with LPG, improving women’s health, reducing indoor pollution, and promoting clean energy.
    • Target and Beneficiaries: Initially aimed to provide 8 crore LPG connections to deprived households by March 2020, with each connection issued in the name of an adult woman from the household.
    • Financial Support: Government provides ₹1,600 per connection, covering the security deposit, first refill, and stove (hotplate)– all free of cost.
    • Subsidy Entitlement: Beneficiaries eligible for up to 12 LPG cylinder subsidies per year (each of 14.2 kg).
    • Eligibility Criteria:
      • Adult woman from a poor household without an existing LPG connection.
      • Must belong to SECC 2011, SC/ST, PMAY, AAY, Forest Dweller, Most Backward Class, or Tea/Ex-Tea Garden Tribe categories.
      • Others can apply under “poor household” category by submitting a 14-point self-declaration.
    • Application Process: Available both online and offline through oil marketing companies.
    • Ujjwala 2.0: Announced in August 2021 to expand coverage by 1 crore new LPG connection, especially targeting migrant workers and urban poor.
      • Financial Assistance: Continued ₹1,600 per connection support with a free stove and first gas cylinder; subsequent refills paid by users.

    Achievements:

    • LPG Coverage Growth: Expanded national LPG coverage from 62% (2016) to 99.8% (April 2021).
    • Employment Generation: Created ~1 lakh jobs in the LPG distribution and logistics network.
    • COVID-19 Relief: Provided 14 crore free refills to PMUY households under the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Package (PMGKP).
    • Environmental Impact: Significant decline in biomass stove dependence, improving air quality and reducing household emissions.

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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    [8th November 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: A wider SIR has momentum but it is still a test case

    op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2024] Examine the need for electoral reforms as suggested by various committees with particular reference to the “One Nation-One Election” principle.

    Linkage: The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) ensures clean, verified, and inclusive voter rolls, a prerequisite for implementing “One Nation-One Election”. Both aim to reduce electoral fragmentation and enhance institutional credibility in India’s democracy.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The Election Commission of India (ECI) has initiated the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls across multiple States and Union Territories, the first such nationwide exercise after 21 years. This is a technical yet politically sensitive process, central to the integrity of India’s democratic machinery. The SIR’s rollout tests administrative preparedness, inclusivity, and transparency ahead of major elections, including those in Bihar. This article decodes the why, what, and how of the SIR, examining its implications for governance, political participation, and electoral legitimacy, all crucial themes for UPSC GS Paper II (Polity & Governance).

    Why in the News

    The Election Commission of India launched the Special Intensive Revision (SIR) on November 4, 2025, across nine States and three Union Territories, following its implementation in Bihar. This is the first SIR in 21 years and only the ninth in India’s 75-year electoral history.

    It marks a significant institutional reform aimed at updating 51 crore voter records of nearly half of India’s electorate across 321 constituencies and 1,843 Assembly segments. Given that the Bihar SIR was a test case plagued by logistical, legal, and political complexities, the pan-India rollout serves as a stress test for India’s electoral infrastructure and citizen inclusion mechanisms.

    Introduction

    The Special Intensive Revision (SIR) represents the most comprehensive voter list update since the early 2000s. It aims to eliminate duplications, include new electors, and ensure clean, verified rolls before upcoming elections. However, the process faces challenges related to citizenship verification, migration, and state-level customisation, revealing both the strengths and vulnerabilities of India’s electoral architecture.

    What is the Special Intensive Revision (SIR)?

    1. Definition: A systematic, state-wise verification and revision of electoral rolls conducted by the Election Commission of India (ECI).
    2. Objective: To ensure accuracy, transparency, and inclusivity in voter registration, enabling free and fair elections.
    3. Scale: Covers 51 crore electors across 321 constituencies involving 5.33 lakh polling stations and 7.64 lakh booth-level agents.
    4. Timeline: Draft roll on December 9, 2025; final roll on February 7, 2026.
    5. Precedent: First SIR in 21 years, after the last comprehensive revision in 2004.

    Why Was a Nationwide SIR Needed?

    1. Electoral Gaps: Regular annual updates failed to address mass migration, duplication, and exclusion errors.
    2. Bihar Experience: The Bihar SIR revealed outdated rolls, multiple entries, and dead voters, pushing ECI to extend the process nationwide.
    3. Inclusivity Goals: To bring marginalised and mobile populations (e.g., migrants, first-time voters) into the democratic fold.
    4. Supreme Court Concerns: Emphasised the need for ‘clean and transparent’ electoral rolls as foundational to electoral legitimacy.

    How is the SIR Different from Regular Roll Revision?

    1. Depth of Verification: Involves door-to-door enumeration and mandatory document verification.
    2. Decentralised Accountability: Booth Level Officers (BLOs) given fixed time frames for inclusion/exclusion decisions.
    3. Transparency Mandate: The term ‘document’ must be entered for each elector to ensure traceability.
    4. Technological Integration: ECI uses data analytics and cross-verification to detect duplication or absence.
    5. Flexibility: Though standardised nationally, procedures vary by State due to differing local challenges and citizenship laws (e.g., Assam).

    How Does the SIR Strengthen Electoral Legitimacy?

    1. Authenticity of Rolls: Builds a citizen-owned voter base, verified through both local and digital checks.
    2. Political Party Engagement: Booth-level agents of political parties ensure collective scrutiny and confidence in the system.
    3. Institutional Collaboration: States are required to provide dedicated staff and avoid officer transfers during the process.
    4. Error Minimisation: Reduction in ‘zero appeals’ cases, i.e., disputes over wrongful exclusions/inclusions.
    5. Legal Sanction: Backed by Supreme Court validation, strengthening constitutional trust in the ECI.

    What Are the Remaining Challenges?

    1. State-Specific Complexities: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and West Bengal express concerns over exclusion of eligible voters.
    2. Administrative Burden: Requires massive coordination across 21,000+ officers and State governments.
    3. Social Sensitivities: Citizenship verification in Assam and border districts remains politically charged.
    4. Public Trust Deficit: Needs sustained communication to avoid alienation of first-time or marginalised voters.
    5. Past Precedent: The Bihar experience showed that data errors and delayed grievance redress erode legitimacy.

    Conclusion

    The Special Intensive Revision marks a transformative shift in India’s electoral administration. While it reflects institutional momentum and transparency, its success depends on ground-level execution, inter-state coordination, and public confidence. The SIR is both a logistical challenge and a democratic opportunity, a crucial test for the ECI’s credibility in ensuring a clean, inclusive, and verifiable electoral base.

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    Climate change is driven by human need and greed

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Introduction

    Climate change has long been discussed in terms of rising temperatures and carbon emissions, but historian Sunil Amrith reframes it as a moral and historical crisis. His work The Burning Earth explores how human ambition, industrialisation, and inequality have shaped the Anthropocene. The interview highlights that solving the crisis requires not just technology, but a transformation in values, governance, and global justice.

    Central Ideas and Dimensions

    1. Human Ambition and the Roots of the Climate Crisis
      1. Moral Dimension: Amrith draws from Mahatma Gandhi’s dictum, “The world has enough for everyone’s need but not enough for everyone’s greed.” Industrialisation, driven by greed rather than necessity, transformed humanity’s relationship with nature.
      2. Historical Continuity: Post-industrial societies viewed nature as a source of endless exploitation; colonised nations inherited these extractive systems.
      3. Colonial Legacy: European colonial powers intensified extraction in Asia and Africa, embedding global inequalities in resource use and emissions.
    2. Industrialisation and Technological Faith: A Limited Solution
      1. Technological Optimism: Many assume industrial progress can “fix” climate problems through innovation and decarbonisation.
      2. Historical Warning: Industrialisation was never morally neutral; it was driven by moral ambition and economic expansion.
      3. Inequality in Transition: The Global South is now being asked to decarbonise rapidly despite having contributed less to historical emissions.
      4. Example: The ‘Green Transition’ narrative often benefits rich economies while transferring economic burdens to poorer ones.
    3. Climate Change as a Political, not Merely Technical, Problem
      1. Political Process: Climate negotiations are shaped by historical responsibility and inequality in emission shares.
      2. Distribution of Responsibility: Developed countries hold disproportionate responsibility, yet developing countries bear heavier adaptation costs.
      3. Injustice of Geography: Those least responsible like communities in the Global South face the worst climate impacts.
      4. Global Debate: The question of who should pay and who should adapt is as pressing as the question of how to reduce emissions.
    4. Humanities and the Ethics of Climate Discourse
      1. Beyond Science: Amrith calls for humanities’ involvement, history, anthropology, and moral philosophy, to interpret climate change as a human story.
      2. Changing Relationship with Nature: Understanding industrialisation’s moral and emotional roots can help reshape our relationship with the planet.
      3. Broader Lens: Integrating social, cultural, and ethical frameworks prevents oversimplified “technological salvation” narratives.
    5. The Limits of Techno-fixes and the Role of Human Values
      1. Bill Gates’ View: Technology can solve climate change even if temperatures rise by 1.5°C.
      2. Amrith’s Counterpoint: Even if emissions stopped tomorrow, warming would continue due to locked-in carbon cycles.
      3. Moral Reorientation: Sustainable future demands restraint, compassion, and fairness, not mere efficiency or profit.
      4. Systemic Realisation: Human welfare, not human power, should guide policy; prosperity cannot be measured by GDP alone.

    Conclusion

    Amrith’s argument reframes the climate crisis as a mirror to human civilization reflecting not just carbon levels, but our collective morality. The path ahead demands ethical reawakening, equitable governance, and historical responsibility, not just green technology. Climate change is not a scientific failure; it is a civilizational test of whether humanity can outgrow its own greed.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?
    Linkage: Climate change is a recurring UPSC theme in GS 3 and Essays. This article adds depth by linking human greed and moral failure to India’s climate vulnerability, especially in Himalayan and coastal regions.

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  • Goods and Services Tax (GST)

    Where states stand on revenue collections, before and after GST

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Introduction

    Introduced in 2017, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) replaced multiple indirect taxes at both Central and State levels, including excise duty, service tax, and VAT, creating a unified national tax framework. The recent data released by the Central Government for October 2025 indicates a 4.6% year-on-year increase in total revenue collection to ₹1,95,936 crore. However, the state-wise analysis has revealed an emerging concern: while some states have achieved strong revenue growth, others are struggling to reach even pre-GST revenue-to-GDP ratios.

    Why in the News

    The latest data on GST revenue collection highlights contrasting fiscal trajectories across Indian states. Despite record-high GST collections nationally, several states’ tax-to-GDP ratios remain lower than before 2017, indicating a possible erosion of state fiscal autonomy. The issue has gained attention because:

    1. Sixteen states and Union Territories now earn a smaller share of revenue from GST than pre-GST taxes.
    2. The aggregate revenue from subsumed taxes has declined from 6.1% of GDP in 2015-16 to 5.5% in 2023-24.
    3. The average GST-to-GDP ratio over the past seven years is 2.6%, below the pre-GST average of 2.8%.
    4. This reversal is significant as it questions the efficacy of India’s largest tax reform and the viability of fiscal federalism under GST.

    How did GST Change the Tax Landscape?

    1. Unified Tax Framework: GST subsumed indirect taxes such as excise duty, VAT, and service tax under a single national structure, simplifying compliance.
    2. Revenue Flow Shift: Revenue previously collected by states under independent taxes now flows through a shared GST mechanism, altering fiscal control.
    3. Increased Central Dependence: States became dependent on GST compensation cess and Centre’s transfers for revenue stability, altering fiscal autonomy.
    4. Short-term Gains: Initially, GST led to better compliance and formalization, resulting in short-term revenue surges.

    How Are States Performing After GST?

    1. Diverse Outcomes: According to PRS Legislative Research, state-level GST revenues continue to trail the pre-GST levels as a share of GSDP.
    2. Declining Tax-to-GDP Ratio: Aggregate revenue from subsumed taxes fell from 6.1% (2015-16) to 5.5% (2023-24).
    3. Below-Average GST Performance: The seven-year average GST-to-GDP ratio (2.6%) is lower than the pre-GST average (2.8%).
    4. Top Performers: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Haryana have shown robust post-GST growth in tax collection.
    5. Lagging States: J&K, Punjab, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha recorded revenue decline from subsumed taxes as a percentage of GSDP.

    Which States Have Been Worst Affected?

    1. Northeastern States: Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Meghalaya, and Manipur saw an improvement in tax-to-GSDP ratios.
    2. Northern and Central States: Jammu & Kashmir, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha saw a decline in subsumed tax revenues.
    3. Urban-Rural Divide: Industrial and service-oriented states benefited, while agrarian and resource-dependent states witnessed fiscal compression.
    4. GST Compensation End: After 2022, when the GST compensation guarantee ended, fiscal stress intensified for states heavily reliant on the compensation mechanism.

    What Does the Data Reveal About Fiscal Federalism?

    1. Centre-State Revenue Imbalance: 20 out of 36 states/UTs now collect less than 40% of their revenue from GST, deepening fiscal asymmetry.
    2. Medium-term Fiscal Impact: The 15th Finance Commission projected a GST-to-GDP ratio of 7%, but current data reflects underperformance.
    3. Long-term Fiscal Risks: Declining state revenue autonomy may affect social spending and capital expenditure, widening regional disparities.
    4. Compliance Inefficiency: Multiple tax slabs, refund delays, and compliance burdens continue to affect smaller states’ GST efficiency.

    Conclusion

    The GST has achieved its unification objective but has not yet ensured revenue equity across states. While high-compliance, industrial states have benefited, smaller and agrarian states remain fiscally strained. The data underscores the need for recalibrating the GST architecture, simplifying slabs, improving IT infrastructure, and enhancing fiscal transfers, to align with the spirit of cooperative federalism and fiscal balance.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017.

    Linkage: It evaluates the impact of GST on Centre-State revenue balance and indirect tax structure post-2017.

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  • [pib] National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP)

    Schemes | Social Justice | Mains Paper 1: Social Empowerment

    Why in the News?

    PIB has provided an update regarding the progress of National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP).

    About National Social Assistance Programme (NSAP):

    • Overview: Launched on 15 August 1995, NSAP is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme under the Ministry of Rural Development.
    • Objective: To provides financial and food security to individuals living below the poverty line (BPL), fulfilling the Directive Principles of State Policy (Article 41) by supporting the elderly, widows, persons with disabilities, and families suffering the loss of a breadwinner.
    • Coverage: It operates across rural and urban India, covering over 3.09 crore beneficiaries.
    • Components of NSAP:
      1. Indira Gandhi National Old Age Pension Scheme (IGNOAPS): Provides ₹200/month to citizens aged 60–79 and ₹500/month to those 80+, with States adding top-up support.
      2. Indira Gandhi National Widow Pension Scheme (IGNWPS): Offers ₹300/month to widows aged 40–79 and ₹500/month for those 80+.
      3. Indira Gandhi National Disability Pension Scheme (IGNDPS): Extends ₹300/month to persons aged 18–79 with severe disabilities; ₹500/month for those 80+.
      4. National Family Benefit Scheme (NFBS): Grants a one-time ₹20,000 to BPL families on the death of a breadwinner aged 18–59.
      5. Annapurna Scheme: Supplies 10 kg of free food grains/month to senior citizens eligible for IGNOAPS but not receiving pension.

    Implementation and Monitoring Framework:

    • Selection: Eligible beneficiaries identified by Gram Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies.
    • Disbursement: About 94% through Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) to bank or post office accounts; cash-at-doorstep allowed in special cases.
    • Monitoring: Each State/UT appoints a Nodal Secretary; quarterly progress reports are mandatory, and failure to submit can lead to withholding of funds.
    • Transparency Measures: Integration with Public Financial Management System (PFMS) ensures real-time tracking, Aadhaar linkage, and prevention of duplication.

    Recent Update (2024–25):

    • NSAP disbursed funds of ₹6,143.92 crore (IGNOAPS), ₹2,150.03 crore (IGNWPS), ₹243.74 crore (IGNDPS), and ₹394.29 crore (NFBS & Annapurna).
    • 2.5 crore+ beneficiaries have Aadhaar-linked accounts ensuring transparent payments.
    • Budget for 2025–26: ₹9,652 crore, with IGNOAPS receiving the largest share (₹6,645.9 crore).
    • Digital Life Certification (DLC) mobile app launched in July 2025, enabling Aadhaar-based verification and reducing manual procedures.
    • The programme continues to serve as a core pillar of India’s social safety net, enhancing welfare delivery and inclusion through digitisation, DBT, and Aadhaar authentication.

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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    Disclosure of Election Finance

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

    Why in the News?

    A recent report by the Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) revealed that over half of registered unrecognised political parties (RUPPs) linked to Bihar have failed to comply with mandatory financial disclosure norms for FY 2023–24.

    Key Findings of ADR Report:

    • Non-Compliance: Over 59% of registered unrecognised political parties (RUPPs) linked to Bihar failed to file either their audit reports or donation statements for FY 2023–24, violating Election Commission of India (ECI) norms.
    • Scope: Of 275 RUPPs reviewed, 184 were from Bihar and 91 from other states. Only 67 parties (24.36%) disclosed both audit and contribution reports.

    Political Funding in India:

    • Overview: Political funding refers to financial resources raised by political parties or candidates to sustain organisational operations and election campaigns.
    • Purpose: Ensures participation in democratic processes, electoral competitiveness, and mass outreach.
    • Sources of Funding:
      • Individuals: Citizens contribute voluntarily; deductions under Section 80GGB (Income Tax Act).
      • Corporates: Donations governed by Section 182 (Companies Act, 2013).
      • State Support: Indirect subsidies (media access, tax exemption) allowed; direct funding prohibited.
      • Electoral Trusts (2013): Channel corporate contributions transparently.
      • Electoral Bonds (2018): Introduced donor anonymity; struck down by Supreme Court (2024) for violating transparency and citizens’ right to information.

    Legal Framework for Political Funding:

    • Representation of the People Act, 1951 (RPA): Governs election conduct, contributions, and maintenance of accounts.
    • Income Tax Act, 1961:
      • Section 13A: Exempts tax only for parties maintaining audited accounts and disclosing donations.
      • Section 80GGB/GGC: Offers tax benefits to individual and corporate donors.
    • Companies Act, 2013:
      • Section 182: Limits corporate donations to 7.5% of average net profits of the last three years.
      • Mandates annual disclosure of political contributions.
    • Election Commission Guidelines: Mandate submission of audited accounts and contribution reports above ₹20,000.

    Mechanisms Governing Political Funding Disclosure:

    • Disclosure Requirements:
      • Under Section 29C (RPA, 1951): Political parties must disclose donations above ₹20,000 to the ECI annually.
      • Under Sections 77–78 (RPA, 1951): Candidates must submit true election expenditure accounts within 90 days (Lok Sabha) or 75 days (Assembly).
      • Violations invite disqualification up to three years (Section 10A).
    • Transparency Gaps:
      • Over 60% of party income from “unknown sources”, mainly due to inadequate enforcement and loopholes.
      • Frequent delays, incomplete disclosures, and absence of independent audits persist.
    • Judicial Oversight:
      • Supreme Court judgments (e.g., PUCL v. Union, 2003) and 2024 ruling on Electoral Bonds strengthened citizens’ right to know funding sources.
    • Reform Recommendations:
      • Bring political parties under the Right to Information (RTI) Act.
      • Lower disclosure threshold from ₹20,000 to ₹2,000.
      • Establish National Election Fund for equitable, state-audited funding.
      • Ensure real-time digital reporting and independent third-party audits.
    [UPSC 2021] Which one of the following effects of the creation of black money in India has been the main cause of worry to the Government of India?

    Options: (a) Diversion of resources to the purchase of real estate and investment in luxury housing

    (b) Investment in unproductive activities and purchase of precious stones, jewelry, gold, etc.

    (c) Large donations to political parties and the growth of regionalism

    (d) Loss of revenue to the State Exchequer due to tax evasion*

     

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Panel seeks higher protection for Rhesus Macaque under Wildlife Act

    Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Standing Committee of the National Board for Wildlife (SC-NBWL) chaired by Union Environment Minister has recommended reinstating the Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta) under Schedule II of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

    rhesus

    Back2Basics: Schedule II of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972

    • Objective: Provides legal protection to species requiring conservation monitoring but not critically endangered.
    • Protection Scope: Hunting, capture, or trade prohibited except under extraordinary conditions such as disease or threat to human life.
    • Legal Provision: Section 11 authorises Chief Wildlife Wardens to grant permissions for justified exceptions.
    • Penalties: Imprisonment up to 3 years, or fine up to ₹25,000, or both; slightly lower than Schedule I provisions.
    • Species Included: Assamese macaque, Indian fox, Himalayan black bear, Indian cobra, large Indian civet, etc.
    • Distinction from Schedule I: Offers near-equivalent protection but allows limited regulation and control measures.
    • Authority: Central Government empowered under Section 61 to amend species inclusion or exclusion

    About Rhesus Macaque:

    • Scientific Name: Macaca mulatta, a species of Old World monkey native to South, Central, and Southeast Asia.
    • Distribution: Widest-ranging non-human primate, found in India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, China, and Afghanistan.
    • Physical Traits: Brown or grey fur; body length 47–53 cm, tail 20–23 cm, weight 5–8 kg; strong sexual dimorphism.
    • Habitat: Highly adaptable; lives in forests, grasslands, riverine zones, agricultural lands, and even urban settlements.
    • Behaviour: Diurnal, semi-terrestrial, and social; organised in matrilineal troops (20–200 members) with complex vocal and gestural communication.
    • Diet: Omnivorous, feeds on fruits, seeds, roots, cereals, and occasionally invertebrates; uses cheek pouches for temporary food storage.
    • IUCN Status: Least Concern, due to wide distribution and high adaptability.
    • Legal Reclassification: Previously listed under Schedule II of the WPA, 1972, offering stringent protection against hunting, cruelty, illegal trade, and exploitation. After the 2022 amendments, it was shifted to Schedule IV (mid-level protection category with lesser punishments).
    • Scientific Relevance: Extensively used in biomedical research, instrumental in developing polio, rabies, smallpox vaccines, and in HIV/AIDS and neuroscience studies.
    • Human Conflict: Increasing crop raids, urban aggression, and food theft; declared vermin in Himachal Pradesh (2019) for selective culling in non-forest zones.

    How is the Culling of Vermin allowed in India?

    • Definition: Animals declared harmful or nuisance-causing, legally permitted for hunting to safeguard life, crops, or property.
    • Legal Provision: Section 62 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 empowers the Central Government to declare species (excluding Schedule I) as vermin for specific regions and timeframes.
    • Earlier Classification: Schedule V (pre-2022) listed vermins such as rats, fruit bats, and common crows.
    • 2022 Amendment: Schedule V removed; Centre can now issue direct notifications declaring vermin status.
    • Declaration Process:
      • State government submits request citing local damage or risk.
      • MoEFCC evaluates ecological and administrative justification.
      • Centre issues notification for specified region and duration.
    • Examples:
      • Wild boar (Uttarakhand, Kerala, Goa)
      • Nilgai (Bihar, Uttar Pradesh)
      • Rhesus macaque (Himachal Pradesh, 2019)
      • Fruit bats and crows (select farming regions)
    • Legal Consequence: Once notified, the species loses protection, and hunting incurs no penalty during the declared period.
    • Ecological and Ethical Concerns: Risks of ecosystem imbalance and animal cruelty; experts advocate contraception, relocation, and scientific management instead.
    [UPSC 2022] If a particular plant species is placed under Schedule VI of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, what is the implication?
    Options: (a) A licence is required to cultivate that plant. *
    (b) Such a plant cannot be cultivated under any circumstances.
    (c) It is a Genetically Modified crop plant.
    (d) Such a plant is invasive and harmful to the ecosystem.

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: United Nations

    Bangladesh’s accession to the UN Water Convention

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Important International Institutions

    Why in the News?

    In 2025, Bangladesh became the first South Asian nation to join the UN Water Convention (Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes).

    About UN Water Convention:

    • Overview: Convention on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes, adopted in Helsinki (1992) and enforced in 1996 under the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE).
    • Globalisation: Originally regional (Europe, Central Asia); opened to all UN Member States in 2016 after a 2013 amendment, becoming a global treaty for transboundary water governance.
    • Objective: Promotes sustainable management of shared water resources and conflict prevention through cooperative mechanisms.
    • Key Goals: Implements SDG-6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and SDG-16 (Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions) via equitable water sharing and joint management.
    • Obligations for Parties:
      • Prevent and reduce transboundary pollution and unsustainable extraction.
      • Use shared waters equitably and reasonably.
      • Coordinate national and transboundary water management policies.
      • Establish joint bodies or commissions for shared basins.
    • Institutional Mechanism: Managed by the UNECE Secretariat, which organises meetings, facilitates implementation, and promotes basin-level cooperation among signatories.
    • Legal Character: Functions as a framework convention, complementing rather than replacing bilateral treaties (e.g., Indus Waters Treaty, Ganga Treaty).
    • Significance: Serves as a legal and institutional mechanism for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), regional peacebuilding, and climate-resilient governance.
    • Related Instruments: Inspired the UN Watercourses Convention (1997); both operate in complementary scopes within international water law.

    Why did Bangladesh join (2025):

    • First in South Asia: Became the first South Asian nation to ratify the Convention amid escalating water stress and climate vulnerability.
    • Hydrological Dependence: Over 90% of river inflows come from outside Bangladesh, mainly India and China, making Dhaka highly vulnerable to upstream interventions.
    • Upstream Projects: Concerns over China’s Motuo Hydropower Project (Yarlung Tsangpo/Brahmaputra) and India’s unresolved Teesta water-sharing dispute drove the decision.
    • Environmental Risks: 60% of population exposed to floods; half live in drought-prone areas, heightening need for cooperative governance.
    • Legal Context: Bangladesh’s 2019 High Court ruling granting rivers legal personhood reinforced its institutional focus on water rights.
    • Strategic Motivation: Seeks global legal recourse, access to data-sharing mechanisms, and international funding for climate adaptation and water security.

    Implications for India:

    • Shift from Bilateralism: India prefers bilateral river treaties (e.g., Indus, Ganga). Bangladesh’s multilateral engagement introduces scope for third-party mediation, contrary to India’s stance.
    • Ganga Treaty Renewal (2026): Bangladesh may invoke “equitable utilisation” to seek a higher share of Ganga waters under Convention norms.
    • Teesta River Pressure: The stalled Teesta agreement could face renewed international pressure, citing fairness and sustainability principles.
    • Regional Domino Effect: Likely to motivate Nepal and Bhutan to join, potentially transforming South Asia’s hydro-diplomatic architecture.
    • Strategic Concerns: Bangladesh’s simultaneous trilateral cooperation with China and Pakistan raises apprehensions of a Beijing-influenced hydro-bloc.

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  • What is Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program?

    Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has ordered all States and Union Territories to remove stray dogs from public areas and relocate them to shelters after sterilisation and vaccination under the Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.

    About Animal Birth Control (ABC) Program:

    • Purpose: Humane, scientifically proven method to control stray dog populations and reduce rabies.
    • Legal Basis: First under Animal Birth Control (Dogs) Rules, 2001 (under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960); updated as Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023.
    • Development: Created with support from the World Health Organization (WHO).
    • Core Method: “Catch–sterilise–vaccinate–release” model; prohibits relocation or culling.
    • Implementation: Managed by municipalities, municipal corporations, and panchayats.
    • Authorisation: Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct programs.
    • Animal Birth Control Rules, 2023:
      • Implemented to comply with Supreme Court guidelines in Writ Petition No. 691 of 2009.
      • Assigns responsibility to local bodies (municipalities, corporations, panchayats) to conduct ABC programs for sterilisation and immunisation of stray dogs.
      • Prohibits relocation of stray dogs as a means of population control; instead, they must be sterilised and returned to the same area.
      • Only organisations recognised by the Animal Welfare Board of India (AWBI) can conduct ABC programs.

    Key Features:

    • Sterilisation Target: Minimum 70% of stray dogs in an area within one reproductive cycle (~6 months).
    • Focus: Female sterilisation at a 70:30 female-to-male ratio.
    • Rabies Control: Mandatory rabies vaccination (ABC–ARV) for every sterilised dog.
    • Infrastructure: Kennels, veterinary facilities, vehicles, and hygienic shelters required.
    • Recordkeeping: Detailed records for catching, surgery, vaccination, and release.
    • Monitoring: State and local committees ensure compliance and handle complaints.
    • Legal Protection: Mass relocation or killing prohibited under the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PCA) Act, 1960.
    [UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

    1. Every individual in the population is equally susceptible host for Swine Flu.

    2. Antibiotics have no role in the primary treatment of Swine Flu

    3.To prevent the future spread of Swine Flu in the epidemic area, the swine (pigs) must all be culled.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only  (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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