Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Delhi’s Ancient Secrets: Recent Excavations at Purana Qila
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Findings at Purana Qila
Mains level : Not Much
Central Idea
- Delhi’s Purana Qila, also known as the Old Fort, is a historic site with a rich and diverse past.
- Recent excavations have shed light on its continuous history since the pre-Mauryan era.
About Purana Qila
- The origins of Purana Qila date back to antiquity, with the exact foundation period unknown.
- It was later rebuilt by Sher Shah Suri and Mughal emperor Humayun.
- The fort holds immense cultural and historical importance, and many believe it to be the site of Indraprastha mentioned in the Mahabharata.
- The fort, believed to be the location of the ancient city of Indraprastha, showcases architectural remnants from various periods, including the Mughal and Rajput eras.
Architectural marvels at Purana Qila
- Purana Qila’s architectural features include walls that rise to a height of 18 meters, spanning approximately 1.5 kilometers.
- It boasts three arched gateways, including the Bara Darwaza, the south gate (Humayun Gate), and the Talaqi Gate.
- The fort’s Qila-i-Kuhna Mosque, built by Sher Shah Suri in 1541, showcases pre-Mughal architecture with its pointed arches and elegant prayer niches.
- The Sher Mandal, a double-storeyed octagonal tower, served as Humayun’s private observatory and library.
- It features decorative plaster-work and remnants of stone shelving for books.
Recent excavation discoveries
- Excavations have uncovered significant artifacts, including shards of Painted Gray Ware pottery dating from 1200 BC to 600 BC, indicating the pre-Mauryan period.
- Other discoveries include a 900-year-old Vaikuntha Vishnu from the Rajput period, a terracotta plaque of Goddess Gaja Lakshmi from the Gupta period, and a 2,500-year-old terracotta ring well from the Mauryan period.
- Numerous beads, seals, copper coins, and a bone needle have also been found, highlighting the site’s role as a center for trade activities.
Cultural chronology and preservation
- The ongoing excavation aims to establish a complete chronology of the site, spanning different historical periods from the Kushan to the Mughal era.
- The remains of Purana Qila will be preserved, conserved, and transformed into an open-air museum to showcase the rich historical legacy of Delhi.
- The excavated artifacts will also be displayed to delegates attending the G-20 summit, further promoting the cultural heritage of the site.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Historic ‘Sengol’ to be installed in new Parliament
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Sengol
Mains level : Not Much
Central Idea
- Prime Minister is set to install the ‘Sengol,’ a historical sceptre from Tamil Nadu, in the new Parliament building, which will be inaugurated on May 28, 2023.
What is Sengol?
- Sengol is a historical sceptre that holds significant cultural and historical value in Tamil Nadu.
- Derived from the Tamil word “Semmai,” meaning “Righteousness,” Sengol represents a symbol of justice and good governance.
- In the Chola era, the transfer of power from one king to another was sanctified with the sceptre being handed over as a symbol of authority and the responsibility to rule with fairness and justice.
- It gained prominence during the transfer of power from the British to the Indian people at the time of India’s independence.
History: Traditional Chola Practice and Symbolism
- Historical Practice: The presentation of the Sengol aligns with a traditional Chola practice where Samayacharyas (spiritual leaders) led the coronation of kings, sanctifying the transfer of power and symbolically recognizing the ruler.
- Symbol of Justice and Good Governance: The Sengol, a symbol of justice and good governance, holds cultural significance as recorded in ancient Tamil texts like Silapathikaram and Manimekalai.
Sengol’s recent context and creation
- Lord Mountbatten’s Question: Prior to Independence, Lord Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of India, asked Nehru about the ceremony that should symbolize the transfer of power.
- Inspiration from Chola Dynasty: Rajagopalachari, the last Governor-General of India, suggested a ceremony from the Chola dynasty, where the transfer of power was sanctified and blessed by high priests.
- Manufacturing the Sengol: Rajagopalachari approached Thiruvaduthurai Atheenam, a renowned Shaivite mutt in Tamil Nadu’s Tanjore district, which commissioned the creation of the Sengol from Chennai-based jewellers, “Vummidi Bangaru Chetty.”
- Craftsmanship: Vummidi Ethirajulu and Vummidi Sudhakar skillfully crafted the five-foot-long Sengol, featuring a symbolic ‘Nandi’ bull representing justice.
Significance of the ‘Sengol’
- Symbolic importance: Derived from the Tamil word “Semmai,” meaning “Righteousness,” the ‘Sengol’ represents a significant historical symbol of Independence.
- Marks Transfer of Power: On August 14, 1947, Pandit Nehru, the first PM, received the ‘Sengol’ from the Adhinam of Tamil Nadu, marking the shift of power from the British to the Indian people.
The Handover Ceremony
- Arrival of the Sengol: Three individuals, including the deputy high priest of the Adheenam, a Nadaswaram player, and an Oduvar (singer), brought the newly made Sengol from Tamil Nadu.
- The Ceremony: On August 14, 1947, the Sengol was handed over to Lord Mountbatten during a procession, and later taken to Jawaharlal Nehru’s house, where it was officially presented to him.
- Sacred Song and Attendees: A special song composed by the 7th-century Tamil saint Tirugnana Sambandar, as specified by the high priest, accompanied the ceremony. Dr. Rajendra Prasad, India’s first president, and other dignitaries were present during the event.
Ceremonial Procession and Tamil Traditions
- Grand Procession: The Sengol will be ceremoniously transported to the House in a grand procession.
- Musical Ensemble: Traditional Nadaswaram musicians, playing Tamil Nadu’s iconic instrument, will lead the procession, and PM is expected to walk alongside them, embracing Tamil culture.
- Adheenams and Sanctification: Adheenams, priests from Shaivite mutts in Tamil Nadu, will be present in the Lok Sabha’s Well. They will sanctify the Sengol with holy water after Prime Minister Modi greets them, honoring Tamil traditions.
- Oduvars and Sacred Recitation: Tamil temple singers known as Oduvars will recite the “Kolaru Padhigam” lyrically, while the Nadaswaram musicians enchant with their soulful music.
Conclusion
- The Sengol continues to be revered as a representation of India’s independence and serves as a tangible reminder of the country’s rich cultural heritage and the values it upholds.
- Its installation in the new Parliament building further emphasizes its importance and aims to educate and inspire people about this historical event and the principles it embodies.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
What is Carbon Dating? How does it work?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Carbon Dating
Mains level : Not Much
Central Idea: Allahabad high court ordered the ASI to conduct the carbon dating process of the ‘Shivling’ found in the premises of the Gyanvapi mosque, without causing any damage to the structure.
What is Carbon Dating?
- Carbon dating is a widely-used method for determining the age of organic materials that were once living.
- The method is based on the radioactive decay of Carbon-14 (C-14), an isotope of carbon with an atomic mass of 14.
- It works by measuring the ratio of C-12 to C-14 in the atmosphere, as well as in plants and animals that acquire carbon through photosynthesis or food consumption.
The half-life concept
- Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the radioisotope present at any given time will undergo spontaneous disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years.
- Because carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an organism died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon.
Limitations of Carbon Dating
- Carbon dating has certain limitations and cannot be applied in all circumstances.
- It is not suitable for determining the age of non-living things such as rocks.
- Carbon dating becomes less accurate for objects older than 40,000-50,000 years, as the amount of detectable C-14 becomes significantly small.
- Other radiometric dating methods are employed to determine the age of inanimate objects, which rely on the decay of radioactive elements present in the material.
- Examples of such methods include potassium-argon dating and uranium-thorium-lead dating, which analyze the ratios of specific isotopes to estimate the age of rocks.
Other Dating Methods
In addition to radiometric dating, there are alternative methods to determine the age of objects.
- Cosmogenic nuclide dating: CRN is one such method that utilizes radioactive decay to estimate age and is commonly used to study the age of ice cores in Polar Regions.
- Potassium-argon dating: A radiometric dating method that measures the ratio of potassium to argon isotopes in rocks to determine their age.
- Uranium-thorium-lead dating: A radiometric dating method that analyses the ratios of uranium, thorium, and lead isotopes in rocks to estimate their age.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Copper plates decoded reveal new info on Shilabhattarika
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Shilabhattarika
Mains level : NA
Central idea: The article talks about the discovery of new information on the celebrated ancient Sanskrit poetess Shilabhattarika through the decoding of copper plates by the Pune-based Bhandarkar Institute.
Who was Shilabhattarika?
- Shilabhattarika was a 9th-century Sanskrit poet from India.
- She lived near the Narmada River and the Vindhya mountains.
- Her poetic skills were praised by medieval Sanskrit literary critics.
- It is speculated that she may be the same as Shilamahadevi, the queen of 8th-century Rashtrakuta ruler Dhruv.
- According to recent research, she was the daughter of Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin II.
Her literary works
- Shilabhattarika is known to have written at least 46 poems on various topics, such as love, morality, politics, nature, beauty, the seasons, insects, anger, indignation, codes of conduct, and the characteristic features of various kinds of heroines.
- Shilabhattarika is considered a leading figure of the Panchali literary style, which maintains “a balance between words and meaning”.
- According to Rajashekhara, the Panchali style can be traced to the works of Shilabhattarika, and possibly in some of the works of the 7th-century poet Bana.
- Sharangadhara-paddhati, a 14th-century anthology, praises her and three other female poets for their great poetic genius and erudition.
- One of the most iconic songs of the noted Marathi poetess Shanta Shelke, “toch chandrama nabhat” (it is the same moon in the sky), draws inspiration from the verses of Shilabhattarika.
Key findings of the recent research
- The research analyzed a copperplate charter consisting of 5 copper plates dating back to the reign of Badami Chalukyan ruler Vijayaditya (696-733 CE).
- The plates were held together by a copper ring that bore the varaha (boar) seal, which is the trademark of the Badami Chalukyas.
- The Sanskrit text inscribed in late-Brahmi script contained a total of 65 lines.
- The charter revealed that King Vijayaditya Chalukya had donated the village of Chigateri to a scholar named Vishnu Sharma, based on the recommendation of Mahendravarma, Shilabhattarika’s son.
- Shilabhattarika’s husband, Dadiga, was deputed as the governor of Kogali, while his elder brother Polavira succeeded their father Mokkara as the ruler of the Western Ganga dynasty, which acted as subordinates to the Chalukyas of Badami and fought against the Pallavas of Kanchi.
- The plates also mentioned the names of Shilabhattarika’s father-in-law, Mokkara (or Mushkara), and his father, Durvinita, who was a proficient composer and had patronized Bharavi, the author of the classical epic Kiratarjuniya.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Conservation work at Delhi’s Zafar Mahal to begin
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Zafar Mahal
Mains level : Not Much
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) is set to initiate conservation works at Zafar Mahal in south Delhi’s Mehrauli.
Zafar Mahal
- Zafar Mahal, located in Mehrauli village, South Delhi, India, is considered the last monumental structure built during the fading years of the Mughal era.
- The palace was built in the 18th and 19th centuries, with a forlorn history due to the deportation of the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II, by the British.
- The monument is now in a neglected and ruined state and locals often play cricket and gamble inside the protected monument.
History
- The Mughal dynasty ended after 332 years when the last Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II (1837–1857) was deported to Rangoon, Burma, now Myanmar from the imperial city of Delhi.
- The palace had graves in the precincts of Zafar Mahal built within a marble screen enclosure by Jahandar Shah for his father Bahadur Shah I and others who followed, and is a minor reflection of the history of the place.
- Bahadur Shah Zafar II, who wished to be buried in the precincts of the palace, was buried in Rangoon.
- The palace used to be visited by Bahadur Shah Zafar II for hunting during the monsoon season, and he was honoured here during the Phool Walon Ki Sair festival held in February/March.
Key Structures
- Zafar Mahal consists of the Mahal or the palace, built in the 18th century, and the entrance gate, reconstructed in the 19th century.
- The palace is a three-storied structure in red sandstone embellished with marble, and the gate is imposing with an 11.75 feet opening at the entrance.
- A masjid called the Moti Masjid, built by Bahadur Shah I, was also located within the palace precincts.
- The palace now sits in a dilapidated condition and its restoration is limited by the inadequate documents to deduce the original construction details.
Demolished or Illegally Occupied Structures
- Zafar Mahal used to be a huge palace consisting of many other structures that are no longer present or occupied by local residents.
- These structures include the Diwan-e-Khaas of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the house of Mirza Babur, the Baoli of Aurangzeb, the house of Mirza Nili, the Thana of Bahadur Shah Zafar, the house of Mirza Salim, and the Khwas Pura.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Places in news: Thirunelly Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Thirunelly Temple
Mains level : NA
The Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage (INTACH) has urged the government to conserve the historically significant structures, including the 600-year-old ‘Vilakkumadom’, an exquisite granite structure, at the Sree Mahavishnu Temple at Thirunelly in Wayanad district.
About Thirunelly Temple
- The temple is dedicated to Lord Vishnu and is also known as Sahyamala Kshetram.
- It is also referred to as the ‘Kashi of the South’ and is considered as an important pilgrimage center for Hindus.
- It is located at the confluence of three rivers – Papanasini, the holy river, which is believed to have the power to wash away sins, Kudamurutti, and Koothappuzha.
- The temple has a unique circular structure made of granite stones, which is believed to have been constructed by Lord Brahma himself.
- It has beautiful architecture and features intricate carvings, mural paintings, and sculptures.
- The temple celebrates several festivals throughout the year, including Vishu, Navaratri, and Thirunelli festival.
Renovation plan
- The renovation works include the reconstruction of the chuttambalam or the structure around the sanctum sanctorum, except for the balikkalpura structure on the front side.
- The renovation work also includes the completion of the vilakkumadam, an exquisite granite structure that has a history dating back to the 15th century AD.
- The renovation works also include the renovation of the panchatheertham pond and the pathway to the papanasini bath ghat where devotees perform the bali ritual.
Why in news?
- The temple structure has a history dating back to the 15th century AD, and stories related to the architecture and style of the temple are associated with it.
- In guise of renovation, there is a concern over the loss of valuable precincts and the destruction of heritage.
- The incomplete structure that stood as testimony to a rich cultural heritage has been remodelled in an insensitive way.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Uthirameur Inscription: Ancient Tamil proof of Democratic Provisions
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Uthiramerur inscriptions
Mains level : Democracy since Indian Civilizations
PM Modi referred to an over 1,100-year-old inscription found in Uthirameur, Tamil Nadu, which talks about rules for a local body, including provisions for disqualifying a member.
What are Uthiramerur inscriptions?
- Uthiramerur inscriptions are a set of ancient Tamil inscriptions found in Uthiramerur, a town in the Kanchipuram district of Tamil Nadu.
- These inscriptions date back to the 10th century CE and were created during the reign of the Chola dynasty, which ruled over a large part of South India.
- It was crafted under the rule of Parantaka Chola I (907 – 956 AD.)
What does the inscription say?
The temple inscriptions of Uthiramerur provide historical descriptions of rural self-governance.
(1) Sabha and Ur
- Uthiramerur had two village assemblies: Gram Sabha and Ur.
- Sabha was exclusively a Brahmin assembly, while the Ur was made up of people belonging to all classes.
- Sabha managed land sales, endowment fund for dredging a tank, and assigned duties to the Ur for managing deserted land.
- Sabha assembled in the hall of the local temple and was summoned through beating of the drums.
- The inscriptions contained references to variyars, the executive officers subordinate to the Sabha.
(2) Administrative System
- The executive powers were given to committees called Variyams during the Chola king Parantaka I’s reign (907–955).
- Each variyam constituted 6 to 12 members, depending on the importance of its functions.
- The first inscription (dated 919 CE) described the rules for electing committee members.
- The second inscription (dated 921 CE) described some amendments to these rules to make them more practical.
(3) Committees and Qualifications
- The village had 30 kudumbus or wards, from which the members of various committees were selected annually.
- The inscription lays down the qualifications for a nominee, including ownership of tax-paying land, residence on self-owned land, age between 35 and 70 years, knowledge of mantras and the Brahmanas, and not being associated with certain offenses or activities.
- The candidates were selected via Kudavoloi (pot of palm leaf tickets) system.
- The tenure of a committee member was 360 days.
- Anyone found guilty of an offense was immediately removed from the office.
(4) Punishments
- The Uthiramerur inscriptions indicate that parading on a donkey was a punishment for offenses such as incest, adultery, theft, and forgery.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Antiquities abroad: What Indian, international laws say
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Antiquities
Mains level : Not Much
Central idea: Indian authorities are pushing for restitution of stolen antiquities and ancient religious artefacts.
What is an antiquity?
- An antiquity is defined by the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 as-
- Any coin, sculpture, painting, epigraph or other work of art or craftsmanship;
- Any article, object or thing detached from a building or cave;
- Any article, object or thing illustrative of science, art, crafts, literature, religion, customs, morals or politics in bygone ages;
- Any article, object or thing of historical interest that has been in existence for not less than one hundred years.
- For manuscripts, records or other documents of scientific, historical, literary or aesthetic value, this duration is not less than seventy-five years.
What do international conventions say?
- The UNESCO 1970 Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property defined “cultural property” as the property designated by countries having “importance for archaeology, prehistory, history, literature, art or science.”
- The Convention further stated that “the illicit import, export and transfer of ownership of cultural property is one of the main causes of the impoverishment of the cultural heritage of the countries of origin of such property and that international co-operation constitutes one of the most efficient means of protecting each country’s cultural property.”
- The General Assembly of the UN and the UN Security Council in 2015 and 2016 also raised concerns about the illicit international traffic of cultural items and related offenses.
- An INTERPOL report in 2019 indicated that almost 50 years after the UNESCO convention, the illicit international traffic of cultural items and related offenses is increasingly prolific.
What do Indian laws say?
- In India, Item-67 of the Union List, Item-12 of the State List, and Item-40 of the Concurrent List of the Constitution deal with the country’s heritage.
- The Antiquities (Export Control) Act was passed in April 1947 to ensure that no antiquity could be exported without a license.
- The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act was enacted in 1958.
- The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972 (AATA) was implemented on April 1, 1976, after an uproar in Parliament over the theft of a bronze idol from Chamba and some important sandstone idols from other places.
- Under the AATA, it is not lawful for any person other than the Central Government or any authorized agency to export any antiquity or art treasure, and no person shall carry on the business of selling or offering to sell any antiquity except under and in accordance with the terms and conditions of a license granted by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
What is the provenance of an antiquity?
- Provenance includes the list of all owners from the time the object left its maker’s possession to the time it was acquired by the current owner.
How is ownership proved?
- The requesting party needs to furnish, at its expense, the documentation and other evidence necessary to establish its claim for recovery and return, according to the UNESCO 1970 declaration.
- In India, the first thing in order to prove ownership is the complaint (FIR) filed with the police. In many cases, there is no FIR for missing antiquities.
- However, other proof such as details mentioned by reputed scholars in research papers can also be helpful.
How to check for fake antiquities?
- Every person who owns, controls or is in possession of any antiquity shall register such antiquity before the registering officer and obtain a certificate in token of such registration under section 14(3) of the AATA.
- The National Mission on Monuments and Antiquities, launched in March 2007, has registered
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Assam’s Maidams meet UNESCO technical requirements for heritage centre
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Charaideo Maidams, Ahom Kingdom
Mains level : Not Much
Assam’s pyramid-like structures known as moidams or maidams have met all the technical requirements of UNESCO’s World Heritage Centre.
Charaideo Maidams
- The Charaideo maidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
- The Ahoms preferred to place the departed family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
- The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
- The Charaideo Maidams enshrine the mortal remains of the members of the Ahom royalty, who used to be buried with their paraphernalia.
- After the 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
- Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.
Architecture details
- Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
- It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
- At the top of the mound a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
- An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.
Ahoms Dynasty
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Hidden corridor discovered in Pyramid of Giza using Cosmic-Ray Muon Radiography
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Pyramids of Giza, Cosmic-Ray Muon Radiography
Mains level : Not Much
A hidden corridor has been unearthed by scientists inside the Great Pyramid of Giza using a non-invasive technique called cosmic-ray muon radiography.
What is Cosmic-Ray Muon Radiography (CMR)?
- CMR is a technique used to study the density and composition of materials hidden within large and dense objects, such as geological formations, archaeological sites, and industrial facilities.
- The technique involves using muons, a type of cosmic-ray particle, to generate images of the interior of such objects.
- Muon particles are created when cosmic rays, mostly protons and atomic nuclei, collide with atoms in the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
- These muons travel through the atmosphere and penetrate deep into the ground, passing through objects along their path.
- Muons are highly penetrating particles that can penetrate several meters of rock or other materials, making them ideal for imaging the internal structure of objects.
Working principle
- The principle behind CMR is to measure the flux of muons passing through an object and compare it to the expected flux based on the object’s geometry and composition.
- Differences in the measured and expected flux indicate variations in the object’s density or composition, which can be used to create an image of the object’s internal structure.
Applications
Some key applications of cosmic-ray muon radiography include:
- Volcano monitoring: By using muon radiography to create images of the interior of volcanoes, scientists can better understand their structure and potential eruption hazards.
- Archaeology: Muon radiography can be used to explore the interior of pyramids and other ancient structures without damaging them.
- Nuclear reactor monitoring: Muon radiography can be used to detect the presence of nuclear materials within reactors and to monitor their condition over time.
Great Pyramid of Giza
- The Great Pyramid is the largest of the three pyramids in Giza, originally standing roughly 147 m above the Giza plateau.
- Construction was started in 2550 BC, during the reign of Khufu, often considered the greatest pharaoh of Egypt’s old kingdom.
- It is estimated that the pyramid was built using 2.5 million stone blocks, each weighing between 2.5 and 15 tonnes.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
ASI finds 1,300-yr-old Buddhist Stupa in Odisha
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Stupa Architecture
Mains level : Ancient Buddhist Architecture
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) stumbled upon a 1,300-year-old stupa right in the middle of a Khondalite mining site in Odisha’s Jajpur district.
About the Stupa
- The stupa could be 4.5-meter tall and initial assessment showed it may belong to the 7th or 8th
- It was found at Parabhadi which is situated near Lalitagiri, a major Buddhist complex, having a large number of stupas and monasteries.
- The newly discovered stupa was possibly disfigured in an earlier period.
Khondalite
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Back2Basics: Lalitagiri Buddhist Complex
- Lalitagiri is a major Buddhist complex in the state of Odisha.
- The complex is home to stupas, ‘esoteric’ Buddha images, and monasteries (viharas), which is the oldest site in the region.
- Significant finds at this complex include Buddha’s relics. Tantric Buddhism was practiced at this site.
- Together with the Ratnagiri and Udayagiri sites a short distance away, Lalitagiri is part of the “Diamond Triangle”.
- It used to be thought that one or all of these were the large Pushpagiri Vihara known from ancient records, but this has now convincingly located at a different site.
Stupa Architecture
In the most basic sense, as an architectural representation of a sacred burial site, a stupa — no matter where it is located in the world or when it was built — has three fundamental features.
- A hemispherical mound (anda) The anda’s domed shape (green highlights) recalls a mound of dirt that was used to cover the Buddha’s remains. As you might expect, it has a solid core and cannot be entered. Consistent with their symbolic associations, the earliest stupas contained actual relics of the Buddha; the relic chamber, buried deep inside the anda, is called the tabena. Over time, this hemispherical mound has taken on an even grander symbolic association: the mountain home of the gods at the center of the universe.
- A square railing (harmika) The harmika (red highlights) is inspired by a square railing or fence that surrounded the mound of dirt, marking it as a sacred burial site.
- A central pillar supporting a triple-umbrella form (chattra) The chattra, in turn, was derived from umbrellas that were placed over the mound to protect it from the elements (purple highlights). Just as the anda’s symbolic value expanded over time, the central pillar that holds the umbrellas has come to represent the pivot of the universe, the axis along which the divine descends from heaven and becomes accessible to humanity. And the three circular umbrella-like disks represent the three Jewels, or Triantha, of Buddhism, which are the keys to a true understanding of the faith: (a) Buddha; (b) dharma (Buddhist teachings or religious law); and (c) sangha (monastic community).
Around these three core building blocks were added secondary features.
- Enclosure wall with decorated gateways (toranas) at the cardinal directions The wall — with its trademark three horizontal stone bars (in the top image) — surrounds the entire structure. The wall is marked in light blue highlights and the toranas in yellow.
- A circular terrace (medhi) The terrace — surrounded by a similar three-bar railing — supports the anda and raises it off the ground (black highlights); it likely served as a platform for ritual circumambulation.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Key findings about Keeladi Excavation
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Keeladi Civilization, Sangam Age
Mains level : Major civilizations
Central idea: Keeladi is an archaeological site that has been excavated by the Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology since 2014. Recent excavations here has pushed the Sangam age further back.
About Keeladi
- Keeladi is a tiny hamlet in the Sivaganga district in south Tamil Nadu.
- It is about 12 km south-east to the temple city of Madurai and is located along the Vaigai River.
- The excavations here from 2015 prove that an urban civilisation existed in Tamil Nadu in the Sangam age on the banks of the Vaigai River.
How is Keeladi linked to Sangam age?
- The Sangam age is a period of history in ancient Tamil Nadu which was believed to be from the third century BCE to the third century CE.
- The name is derived from the renowned Sangam poets of Madurai from that time.
Recent findings
- In 2019, a TNSDA report dated the unearthed artefacts from Keeladi to a period between sixth century BCE and first century BCE.
- Some samples sent for carbon dating in the US, dated back to 580 BCE.
- The findings placed Keeladi artefacts about 300 years earlier than the previously believed third century BCE.
Significance of the findings
- Older than perceived: Recent finding at Keeladi has pushed the Sangam age to 800 BCE based on these archaeological findings.
- Literary evidences: Keeladi, along with other Tamil Nadu sites which have over a thousand inscribed potsherds, clearly suggest the long survival of the script.
- Substantial evidence to Sangam Age: It comes across as an industrious and advanced civilisation and has given evidence of urban life and settlements in TN during the Early Historic Period.
- Another major civilisation: The unearthed Keeladi artefacts have led academics to describe the site as part of the Vaigai Valley Civilisation. It has all the characteristics of an urban civilisation, with brick structures, luxury items and proof of internal and external trade.
- Filling in the cultural gaps: This could provide crucial evidence for understanding the missing links of the Iron Age (12th century BCE to sixth century BCE) to the Early Historic Period (sixth century BCE to fourth century BCE) and subsequent cultural developments.
Links with Indus Valley
Ans. A lot of digging and study has to be done to establish the links between these two civilisations.
- The findings have invited comparisons with the Indus Valley Civilisation while acknowledging the cultural gap of 1,000 years between the two places.
- Till now, the gap is filled with Iron Age material in south India, which serve as residual links.
- However, some of the symbols found in pot sherds of Keeladi bear a close resemblance to Indus Valley signs.
What has been unearthed so far?
- Pottery: Unearthing of heaps of pottery suggest the existence of a pottery making industry, mostly made of locally available raw materials.
- Inscriptions: Over 120 potsherds containing Tamil Brahmi inscriptions have been found.
- Jewellery: There also existed a dyeing industry and a glass bead industry. Gold ornaments, copper articles, semi-precious stones, shell bangles, ivory bangles and ivory combs reflect the artistic, culturally rich and prosperous lifestyle of the Keeladi people.
- Import of semiprecious stones: Agate and carnelian beads suggest import through commercial networks while terracotta and ivory dice, gamesmen and evidence of hopscotch have been unearthed revealing their pastime hobbies.
Recent politicization of the excavation
- The Keeladi site, since its discovery has been shrouded in controversies with several Dravidian and Left ideologues.
- They claim that the archaeological finds prove that the Indus Valley Civilisation was a “Dravidian” culture and an independent “secular” Tamil civilisation.
- The attempt to define the finds in narrow and racial terms is ideologically motivated to one, pump up Tamil exclusivist sentiments, and two, and challenge the view that sees India as one— unity in diversity.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Dickinsonia Fossil found in Bhimbetka turns out to be decayed beehive
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Bhimbetka, Dickensonia
Mains level : NA
A Dickinsonia fossil found at Bhimbetka, previously believed to be one of the world’s earliest animals, and has been identified as a decayed beehive.
About Bhimbetka
- The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the prehistoric Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period.
- It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times.
- It is located in the Raisen District in Madhya Pradesh about 45 kilometres (28 mi) south-east of Bhopal.
- It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that consists of seven hills and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 km (6.2 mi).
- At least some of the shelters were inhabited more than 100,000 years ago.
- Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings and the earliest are about 10,000 years old (c. 8,000 BCE), corresponding to the Indian Mesolithic.
- These cave paintings show themes such as animals, early evidence of dance and hunting.
- The Bhimbetka rock shelters were found by V S Wakankar 64 years ago. Since then, thousands of researchers have visited the site, but this rare fossil went undetected.
What is Dickinsonia?
- Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, Russia and Ukraine.
- The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval.
- Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi or even an “extinct kingdom”.
- The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.
Cambrian Explosion and Dickinsonia
- The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ is the term given to the period of time in history when complex animals and other macroscopic organisms such as molluscs, worms, arthropods and sponges began to dominate the fossil record.
- Researchers from Australian found the Dickinsonia fossil since its tissue contained molecules of cholesterol a type of fat that is the hallmark of animal life.
Try this PYQ:
Q. Which one of the following statements is correct?
(a) Ajanta Caves lie in the gorge of Waghora River
(b) Sanchi Stupa lies in the gorge of Chambal River
(c) Pandu-lena Cave Shrines lie in the gorge of Narmada River
(d) Amaravati Stupa lies in the gorge of Godavari River
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Geo-heritage Sites and Geo-relics Bill, 2022
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : NA
Mains level : Geo-heritage conservation in India
The draft Geo-heritage Sites and Geo-relics (Preservation and Maintenance) Bill, 2022, aimed at protecting India’s geological heritage that includes fossils, sedimentary rocks, natural structures, has raised alarm in India’s geo-sciences and palaeontology community.
Geo-heritage Sites and Geo-relics Bill, 2022
Objectives
- Protect and preserve the geo-heritage sites and geo-relics of national importance in India.
- Empower the central government to identify, declare, acquire, preserve, and maintain geo-heritage sites and geo-relics.
- Ensure that the valuable geological specimens and formations are not damaged or destroyed by human activity or natural disasters.
- Promote research, education, and awareness about the significance and value of geo-heritage sites and geo-relics.
- Provide a legal framework for the protection and management of geo-heritage sites and geo-relics, to ensure their long-term preservation and maintenance.
Key Features
- Declaration of geoheritage sites: The central government may declare a site as a geoheritage site of national importance. Geoheritage sites must contain features of geological significance, such as geo-relics or natural rock sculptures. Geo-relics are movable relics such as fossils or meteorites.
- Protection of geoheritage sites: The draft Bill empowers the central government to acquire, preserve, and maintain geoheritage sites. The Director General of the Geological Survey of India will be given powers for this purpose, such as surveying and excavation. Construction on these sites will be prohibited. However, it may be authorised by the Director General to preserve the site or to repair a structure that predates the declaration of the site.
- Protection of geo-relics: The central government may declare that a geo-relic cannot be moved from its site, by notification, unless permitted by the Director General. The Director General may direct the acquisition of a geo-relic to protect it.
- Offences and penalties: Offences under the Bill include (i) destruction or misuse of a geoheritage site, (ii) illegal construction, and (iii) damaging or illegally moving a geo-relic. These offences are punishable with a fine of up to five lakh rupees or imprisonment of up to six months, or both.
Issues raised with this legislation
- Narrow definition of “geo-relics”: The bill defines “geo-relics” as movable geological specimens, but does not include other important geological features, such as geological formations or landscapes.
- No academic participation: The bill gives exclusive powers to the Geological Survey of India (GSI) for identifying, declaring, acquiring, preserving, and maintaining geo-heritage sites and geo-relics, without any role for state geological departments or universities.
- Excessive powers vested to GSI: Experts have criticized the draft bill for vesting exclusive powers in the GSI, without any role for state geological departments or universities. The GSI will be responsible for identifying, declaring, acquiring, preserving, and maintaining geo-heritage sites and geo-relics.
- Lack of public participation: The bill has been criticized for lacking any legal framework for the involvement of local communities or civil society organizations in the protection and management of geo-heritage sites.
- Lacks transparency: The bill has been criticized for lacking transparency and public consultation, with some experts suggesting that it should be redrafted to ensure a more participatory and inclusive approach to the protection and management of geo-heritage sites.
Way forward
- Inclusion of state geological departments and universities: The bill should include the participation of state geological departments and universities in the identification, declaration, acquisition, preservation, and maintenance of geo-heritage sites and geo-relics.
- Public participation: The bill should be amended to include a legal framework for the participation of local communities and civil society organizations in the protection and management of geo-heritage sites.
- Accountability and oversight: The bill should be revised to include provisions for greater accountability and oversight of the GSI, to ensure that its powers are not misused or abused.
- Expanded definition of “geo-relics”: The bill should be amended to include a broader definition of “geo-relics” that encompasses a wider range of important geological features.
- Wider consultation: The drafting and implementation of the bill should be made more transparent and inclusive, with greater consultation with all stakeholders to ensure that their interests are adequately represented.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
In news: Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : ASI
Mains level : Not Much
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has decided to form a special committee to trace and certify 24 protected monuments that have gone “missing”.
Why in news?
- PMO has in a report last month said there was an urgent need to “rationalise” the list of monuments of national importance.
Sites in news
- Barakhamba Cemetery temple ruins, Mirzapur (UP) dating to 1000 AD
- Kos Minars – one at Faridabad’s Mujesar and
- Inchla Wali Gumti at Mubarakpur Kotla in the capital
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
- Founded by Alexander Cunningham, who is also revered as the “Father of Indian Archaeology”
- He was the protege of James Prinsep.
- It was Lord Canning who helped pass a statute for ASI’s establishment in 1861.
- Post-Independence, it is a Statutory body that now works under Ancient monuments and archaeological sites and remains act (AMASR Act), 1958.
- It works as an attached Office of the Ministry of Culture.
- ASI has 3678 protected monuments and Archaeology sites of National Importance + 29 cultural under the World Heritage List by UNESCO.
Initiatives by ASI
- Museums
- ASI’s museums are customarily located right next to the sites that their inventories are associated with “so that they may be studied amid their natural surroundings and not lose focus by being transported”.
- A dedicated Museums Branch maintains a total of 44 museums spread across the country.
- Publications by ASI
- Epigraphia Indica
- Ancient India
- Indian Archaeology: A Review (Annually)
- Library
- Central Archaeological Library in the National Archives building in Janpath, New Delhi
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Places in news: Jatar Deul Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Jatar Deul
Mains level : NA
Jatar Deul- an ancient terracotta temple in West Bengal’s Sundarbans, which has survived the ravages of time for a millennia, is now facing erosion threat due to increase in air salinity.
Jatar Deul
- Jatar Deul also called tower temple (rekha-deul), is located in the numerous rivers criss-crossed by stone-free alluvial and bush landscape of the southern Sundarbans settlements in West Bengal.
- The temple has a curvilinear tower similar to temple architecture of the Nagara order of Odisha temples.
- However, this type of brick temple we can see at Nebia Khera, Uttar Pradesh.
- There is neither a cult nor any other sculptural or inscriptional evidence available also the consecration of the temple is unclear.
- Some believe it was originally for a Buddhist structure; others see it as a building in honor of the Lord Shiva), whose colorful image, is visible at the interior of the Cella (garbhagriha).
How old is it?
- The ASI website states that Jatar Deul is traditionally connected to an inscription, no longer traceable, by one Raja Jayantachandra, purported to have been issued in 975 AD.
- The discovery of Jatar Deul dates back to the middle of the nineteenth century, when land surveyors stumbled upon a towering brick structure in the midst of the Sundarban.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Excavations reveal Buddhist monastery complex at Bharatpur of Bengal
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Various mudras of Buddha
Mains level : Ancient Buddhist Architecture
Recent excavations at Bharatpur in West Bengal’s Paschim Bardhaman district have revealed the presence of a Buddhist monastery.
Bharatpur Buddhist Monastery Complex
- The Kolkata Circle of the Archeological Survey of India (ASI) started excavating the site in the second week of January and a structural complex of a monastery has now been partially exposed.
- The site was initially excavated almost fifty years ago between 1972 and 1975 when archeologists from ASI found a Buddhist stupa at the site.
Uniqueness of this site
- This place hosts a large stupa along with a monastery complex and black and red ware pottery from the Chalcolithic or Copper Age.
- In other sites across West Bengal, such as Karnasubarna in Murshidabad, Moghalamari in Paschim Medinipur and Jagjivanpur in Malda, archeologists have found only smaller votive stupas.
- Further excavation is likely to shed more light to understand the earliest occupation of the site and its continuity till the establishment of a Buddhist monastery.
Key findings
- In the 1970s when the site was excavated along with the stupa, five beautiful seated sculptures of the Buddha in Bhumisparsha Mudra -with all five fingers of the right hand extended to touch the ground — were found.
- These miniature sculptures, each about 30 cm in height, were most likely used for worship in the monastery.
Back2Basics: Mudras of Buddha
(1) Dharmachakra Mudra
- It is also called as the gesture of ‘Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma’ that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha’s life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left facing inward, covering the right facing outward.
(2) Dhyan Mudra
- It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga Mudra.
- It is performed with the help of two hands, which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hand resting on each other.)
- This is the characteristic gesture of Buddha Shakyamuni, Dhyani Buddha Amitabh and the Medicine Buddha.
(3) Bhumisparsa Mudra
- This gesture is also known as ‘touching the Earth’, which represents the moment of the Buddha’s awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment.
- It is performed with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.
(4) Varada Mudra
- This mudra represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands in which palm of right hand is facing forward and fingers extended and left hand palm placed near centre with extended fingers.
(5) Karana Mudra
- It signifies the warding off of evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger, and folding the other fingers.
- It helps in reducing sickness or negative thoughts.
(6) Vajra Mudra
- This gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolises the five elements—air, water, fire, earth, and metal.
- It is performed with the help of right fist and left forefinger, which is placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the left forefinger.
(7) Vitarka Mudra
- It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha.
- It is performed by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like the Abhaya Mudra and Varada Mudra but in this mudra the thumbs touch the index fingers.
(8) Abhaya Mudra
- It is a gesture of fearlessness or blessing that represents the protection, peace, benevolence, and dispelling of fear.
- It is performed with the help of right hand by raising to shoulder height with bent arm, and the face of palm will be facing outward with fingers upright whereas the left hand hanging down while standing.
(9) Uttarabodhi Mudra
- This denotes the supreme enlightenment through connecting oneself with divine universal energy.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands, which are placed at the heart with the index fingers touching and pointing upwards and the remaining fingers intertwined.
(10) Anjali Mudra
- It is also called Namaskara Mudra or Hridayanjali Mudra that represents the gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration.
- It is performed by pressing the palms of the hands together in which the hands are held at the heart chakra with thumbs resting lightly against the sternum.
Answer this PYQ from CSP 2014 in the comment box:
Q.Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with a hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes-
a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara
c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements ‘a’ and ‘b’ are correct in this context
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Assam’s Charaideo Maidams nominated for UNESCO tag
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Charaideo Maidams, Ahom Kingdom
Mains level : Medieval kingdoms of India
The Centre has decided to nominate Assam’s Charaideo Maidams — the Ahom equivalent of the ancient Egyptian pyramids — for the UNESCO World Heritage Centre this year.
Why in news?
- The nomination has attained significance at a time when the country is celebrating the 400th birth anniversary of Lachit Barphukan.
Charaideo Maidams
- The Charaideo maidams represents the late medieval (13th-19th century CE) mound burial tradition of the Tai Ahom community in Assam.
- The Ahoms preferred to place the departed family members at Charaideo where the first king Sukapha was laid to rest.
- The historical chronicles inform that wives, attendants, pet animals and huge quantity of valuables were buried with the departed kings.
- The Charaideo Maidams enshrine the mortal remains of the members of the Ahom royalty, who used to be buried with their paraphernalia.
- After the 18th century, the Ahom rulers adopted the Hindu method of cremation and began entombing the cremated bones and ashes in a Maidam at Charaideo.
- Out of 386 Maidams explored so far, 90 royal burials at Charaideo are the best preserved, representative of and the most complete examples of mound burial tradition of the Ahoms.
Architecture details
- Architecturally it comprises a massive underground vault with one or more chambers having domical superstructure.
- It is covered by a heap of earthen mound and externally it appears a hemispherical mound.
- At the top of the mound a small open pavilion chow-chali is provided.
- An octagonal dwarf wall encloses whole maidam.
Ahoms Dynasty
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Paigah Tombs of Hyderabad
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Paigah Tomb
Mains level : Not Much
The necropolis of noblemen dating from the Asaf Jahi era known as Paigah Tombs Complex in Hyderabad is set to be restored with funding by the US Ambassadors Fund for Cultural Preservation.
Who were the Paigahs?
- Paigah tombs are 200 years old and represent the final resting places of the Paigah Nobles of several generations.
- During the conquest of the Deccan region by Emperor Aurangzeb, the Paigahs came along with him.
- The House of Paigah was founded by Shams-ul-Umra I also known as Nawaz Abul Fatah Khan Tegh.
- Their ties with Nizams were further cemented through matrimonial alliances.
- They also constructed several palaces in the city and the notable amongst them are the famous Falaknuma Palace, Asman Garh Palace, Khursheed Jah Devdi and Vicar-ul-Umarahi palace.
- They were believed to be rich than the average Maharajah of the country.
Paigah Tombs
- Paigah Tombs are the tombs belonging to the nobility of Paigah family, who were fierce loyalists of the Nizams, served as statespeople, philanthropists and generals under and alongside them.
- They are among the major wonders of Hyderabad State which known for their architectural excellence as shown in their laid mosaic tiles and craftsmanship work.
Its architecture
- These tombs are made out of lime and mortar with beautiful inlaid marble carvings.
- It consists of marvelous carvings and motifs in floral designs and inlaid marble tile-works.
- It depicts Indo-Islamic architecture, a mix of both the Asaf Jahi and the Rajputana styles of architecture.
- There is fabulous stucco (plaster) work, representing the Mughal, Persian and Deccan style too.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
In news: Ratnagiri Prehistoric Geoglyphs
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Geoglyphs
Mains level : Prehistoric Rock Art
Experts and conservationists have raised concerns over the proposed location for a mega oil refinery in Barsu village of Maharashtra’s Ratnagiri district.
What are geoglyphs?
- Geoglyphs are a form of prehistoric rock art, created on the surface of laterite plateaus.
- They are made by removing a part of the rock surface through an incision, picking, carving or abrading.
- They can be in the form of rock paintings, etchings, cup marks and ring marks.
Ratnagiri’s geoglyphs
- Clusters of geoglyphs are spread across the Konkan coastline in Maharashtra and Goa, spanning around 900 km.
- Porous laterite rock, which lends itself to such carving, is found on a large scale across the entire region.
- Ratnagiri district has more than 1,500 pieces of such art, also called “Katal shilpa,” spread across 70 sites.
- The figures depicted in the geoglyphs include humans and animals such as deer, elephant, tiger, monkey, wild boar, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, cattle, pig, rabbit, and monkey.
- Moreover, they also include a high number of reptilian and amphibian creatures such as tortoises and alligators, aquatic animals such as sharks and sting rays, and birds like peacocks.
Why are they significant?
- Tourism potential: Ratnagiri’s prehistoric sites are among three Indian attractions that may soon become World Heritage Sites. The other two include Jingkieng Jri, the living root bridge in Meghalaya, and Sri Veerabhadra Temple in Andhra Pradesh’s Lepakshi.
- Evolution of art: The geoglyph clusters also are examples of advanced artistic skills, showing the evolution of techniques of etching and scooping in rock art.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
India’s experience under colonial rule: A study by Dylan Sullivan and Jason Hickel
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Census in colonial rule
Mains level : Impact of colonial rule
Context
- A recent study of India’s experience under colonial rule by Dylan Sullivan and Jason Hickel concludes that data from the Census of India reveal that between 1880 and 1920 approximately 100 million Indians died due to British policy in India. Their method is to calculate the excess mortality, being the difference between the actual deaths and the deaths that may be expected.
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What are assumptions made by their study?
- Mortality rate before colonial rule: Before colonial rule, the mortality rate of India is unlikely to have been very different from that of contemporary England.
- Deaths due to colonial policies during the period of 1880-1920: The resulting estimates for excess deaths during 1880-1920 are 50 million in the first case and 160 million in the second one, respectively. The authors settle for the midway figure of approximately 100 million for the deaths caused in India due to colonial policy.
- Figure is greater than deaths from famine in other countries: For perspective, they point out that this figure is greater than the death from famine in “the Soviet Union, Maoist China, North Korea, Pol Pot’s Cambodia, and Mengistu’s Ethiopia”. In their view, this provides a direct assessment of the consequences of the Raj for India.
Study quantifying the impact of colonial rule in India
- Change in national income as a basis to quantify impact of colonial rule is non-existent: Attempts to quantify the impact of colonial rule in India have mostly relied on the change in national income. But reliable income data for the nineteenth century are almost non-existent. Population figures, though, are available from the time of the first Census of India in 1871.
- Steady rise in mortality rate: The mortality rate in British India is seen to rise steadily after 1881, recording an increase of close to 20% by 1921. As it is unusual for the mortality rate of a country to rise continuously due to natural causes, this suggests that the living conditions worsened during this period.
- Mortality rate dipped in last census in British India but famine is not recorded: The mortality rate dipped in 1931, which was the last census conducted in British India, but the last famine recorded in the country was yet to come. It took place in Bengal in 1943, in the last five years of the close to two centuries of British colonial rule.
How recurring famines are recorded?
- British arguments for the empire: Arguments include “English forms of land tenure, the English language, banking, the common law, Protestantism, team sports, the limited state, representative assemblies, and the idea of liberty”, have been advanced by the Harvard historian Niall Ferguson.
- No mention of the famines: There is no mention of the famines which started almost at the onset of rule by the East India Company in Bengal, the de-industrialisation of India in the nineteenth century, the drain of wealth, or the worsening food security as India’s peasants were forced to grow commercial crops for export so that Britain could balance its trade.
- Population explosion but the life expectancy increased: The belief that British policy in India caused repeated famines is bolstered by the fact that there has not been a single famine since 1947. This is despite a population explosion following a sharp fall in death rates. The decline in the mortality rate surely signals improved living conditions. The Census shows that in the 1950s, life expectancy at birth of Indians increased by more than it did in the previous seventy years.
Census as a double-edged sword
- Worsening gender inequality in India after 1947: It points to a worsening gender inequality in India. A simple indicator of this would be the ratio of females to males in the population. It is believed that in the absence of factors that lower the life chances of women, including foeticide, this ratio would tend to one. The Census of India shows that we have not attained that level in our recorded history, except in pockets within the country.
- Trend in gender inequality: While this is disturbing in itself what is more so is that this ratio has steadily declined after 1947. After declining for four decades from 1951 it started inching up in 1991. But in 2011, it was yet lower than what it was in 1951.
- Life expectancy faster for man than women: So, even though life expectancy increased soon after Independence, in the early years at least it increased faster for men than it did for women.
Conclusion
- The Census of India not only helps understand the perils of British rule, but also flags the roadblocks lying ahead. As India chants Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam at the G-20, implying that the nations of the world are a family, it behooves us to ensure that all the persons in our own family enjoy the same freedoms.
Mains Question
Q. According to the census of the time discuss the impact of colonial rule in India. The Census of India not only helps understand the perils of British rule, but also flags the roadblocks lying ahead. Discuss.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
India’s experience under colonial rule: A study by Dylan Sullivan and Jason Hickel
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Census in colonial rule
Mains level : Impact of colonial rule
Context
- A recent study of India’s experience under colonial rule by Dylan Sullivan and Jason Hickel concludes that data from the Census of India reveal that between 1880 and 1920 approximately 100 million Indians died due to British policy in India. Their method is to calculate the excess mortality, being the difference between the actual deaths and the deaths that may be expected.
Click and get your FREE Copy of CURRENT AFFAIRS Micro Notes
What are assumptions made by their study?
- Mortality rate before colonial rule: Before colonial rule, the mortality rate of India is unlikely to have been very different from that of contemporary England.
- Deaths due to colonial policies during the period of 1880-1920: The resulting estimates for excess deaths during 1880-1920 are 50 million in the first case and 160 million in the second one, respectively. The authors settle for the midway figure of approximately 100 million for the deaths caused in India due to colonial policy.
- Figure is greater than deaths from famine in other countries: For perspective, they point out that this figure is greater than the death from famine in “the Soviet Union, Maoist China, North Korea, Pol Pot’s Cambodia, and Mengistu’s Ethiopia”. In their view, this provides a direct assessment of the consequences of the Raj for India.
Study quantifying the impact of colonial rule in India
- Change in national income as a basis to quantify impact of colonial rule is non-existent: Attempts to quantify the impact of colonial rule in India have mostly relied on the change in national income. But reliable income data for the nineteenth century are almost non-existent. Population figures, though, are available from the time of the first Census of India in 1871.
- Steady rise in mortality rate: The mortality rate in British India is seen to rise steadily after 1881, recording an increase of close to 20% by 1921. As it is unusual for the mortality rate of a country to rise continuously due to natural causes, this suggests that the living conditions worsened during this period.
- Mortality rate dipped in last census in British India but famine is not recorded: The mortality rate dipped in 1931, which was the last census conducted in British India, but the last famine recorded in the country was yet to come. It took place in Bengal in 1943, in the last five years of the close to two centuries of British colonial rule.
How recurring famines are recorded?
- British arguments for the empire: Arguments include “English forms of land tenure, the English language, banking, the common law, Protestantism, team sports, the limited state, representative assemblies, and the idea of liberty”, have been advanced by the Harvard historian Niall Ferguson.
- No mention of the famines: There is no mention of the famines which started almost at the onset of rule by the East India Company in Bengal, the de-industrialisation of India in the nineteenth century, the drain of wealth, or the worsening food security as India’s peasants were forced to grow commercial crops for export so that Britain could balance its trade.
- Population explosion but the life expectancy increased: The belief that British policy in India caused repeated famines is bolstered by the fact that there has not been a single famine since 1947. This is despite a population explosion following a sharp fall in death rates. The decline in the mortality rate surely signals improved living conditions. The Census shows that in the 1950s, life expectancy at birth of Indians increased by more than it did in the previous seventy years.
Census as a double-edged sword
- Worsening gender inequality in India after 1947: It points to a worsening gender inequality in India. A simple indicator of this would be the ratio of females to males in the population. It is believed that in the absence of factors that lower the life chances of women, including foeticide, this ratio would tend to one. The Census of India shows that we have not attained that level in our recorded history, except in pockets within the country.
- Trend in gender inequality: While this is disturbing in itself what is more so is that this ratio has steadily declined after 1947. After declining for four decades from 1951 it started inching up in 1991. But in 2011, it was yet lower than what it was in 1951.
- Life expectancy faster for man than women: So, even though life expectancy increased soon after Independence, in the early years at least it increased faster for men than it did for women.
Conclusion
- The Census of India not only helps understand the perils of British rule, but also flags the roadblocks lying ahead. As India chants Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam at the G-20, implying that the nations of the world are a family, it behooves us to ensure that all the persons in our own family enjoy the same freedoms.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Who was Srimanta Sankardeva?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Sankaradeva
Mains level : Bhakti Movement
‘Gurujana’ a musical tribute to 15th–16th century Assamese polymath Srimanta Sankardeva was recently released by the PIB.
Srimanta Sankardeva (1449–1568)
- Sankardeva was a 15th–16th century Assamese polymath; a saint-scholar, poet, playwright, dancer, actor, musician, artist social-religious reformer and a figure of importance.
- He is widely credited with building on past cultural relics and devising-
- New forms of music (Borgeet)
- Theatrical performance (Ankia Naat, Bhaona),
- Dance (Sattriya)
- Literary language (Brajavali)
Literary works
- He has left extensive literary trans-created scriptures (Bhagavat of Sankardev), poetry and theological works written in Sanskrit, Assamese and Brajavali.
Political influence
- The Bhagavatic religious movement he started, Ekasarana Dharma and also called the Neo-Vaishnavite movement, influenced two medieval kingdoms – Koch and the Ahom kingdom.
- His influence spread even to some kingdoms as the Matak Kingdom founded by Bharat Singha, and consolidated by Sarbananda Singha in the latter 18th century endorsed his teachings.
- The assembly of devotees he initiated evolved over time into monastic centers called Sattras, which continue to be important socio-religious institutions in Assam and to a lesser extent in North Bengal even today.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Ram Setu and The Sethusamudram Project (SSCP)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project (SSCP)
Mains level : Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project (SSCP) and its impact on the marine ecosystem
Context
- On November 10, the Supreme Court gave the Centre four weeks’ time to file a response clarifying its stand on a plea seeking national heritage status for the ‘Ram Setu’.
Ram Setu
- Also known as Adam’s bridge, Ram Setu is a 48-km long bridge-like structure between India and Sri Lanka.
- It finds mention in the Ramayana but little about its formation is known or proven, scientifically.
Interesting Research on “Ram Setu”
- Conclusion by the researchers that Ram Setu is not man-made:
- In 2003, space-based investigations, using satellite remote sensing imagery, by researchers at the Space Applications Centre in Ahmedabad concluded that Ram Setu is not man-made, but comprises 103 small patch reefs lying in a linear pattern with reef crest, sand cays and intermittent deep channels.
- Cays, also known as keys, refer to low-elevation islands situated on surfaces made of coral reef.
- Reasoning behind the conclusion:
- It is reasonable to assume that Ram Setu is a linear ridge made of coral reefs and forms a shallow part of the ocean that is being constantly impacted by sedimentation processes.
- Like the Great Barrier Reef, the Ram Setu is also a continuous stretch of limestone shoals that runs from Pamban Island near Rameswaram to the Mannar Island on the northern coast of Sri Lanka.
- During glaciation period: During a global glaciation period that began around 2.6 million years ago and ended 11,700 years ago, the Indian coast, including parts of the Sethusamudram, may have been raised above water.
- Post glaciation: The post-glaciation period witnessed a steady rise in sea levels around the world and coral polyps could once again have grown higher on the newly submerged platforms. And in time, the platforms may have been used by migrants to cross oceans.
- Ramayana belief: The Ramayana refers to a putative land bridge in this region; believers hold it as the structure that Lord Rama and his army built to reach Lanka. This ridge may have been used in the distant past as a migratory route.
Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project (SSCP)
- Sethusamudram Ship Channel Project (SSCP) can be traced back to the British, who Proposed as channel to link the Palk Strait with the Gulf of Mannar.
- It was only in 2005 that the project was inaugurated.
- Separating the shallow sea consisting of the Gulf of Mannar in the south and Palk Bay in the north is a somewhat linear coral ridge called Adam’s Bridge or Ram Setu.
- This runs between Rameswaram in Tamil Nadu and Thalaimannar in Sri Lanka.
- The SSCP, if completed, is expected to considerably reduce the navigation time between the east and west coasts of India.
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Memory shot
- “The Sethusamudram project envisages dredging of a channel across the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka to allow ships to sail between the east and west coasts of India, instead of circumventing the island nation.”
What are the Concerns raised about the project?
- High energy waves may bring sediments: Computer models suggest that the central, eastern and north-eastern parts of the Palk Bay may be impacted by waves of higher energy. This means that these areas also receive more sediment, rendering them more turbid.
- Alignment is not easy: The models also indicate that waves enter the Bay from its north and south, corresponding to how the channel is aligned.
- High frequency of cyclonic storms: The area is also vulnerable to cyclonic storms. A cyclone in 1964 was so powerful that it wiped out the town of Dhanushkodi. Such storms can cause the local sedimentary dynamics to go haywire.
- Dumping of dredged material may harm marine ecosystem: Finding safe places for dumping dredged material without harming terrestrial or marine ecosystems is therefore a big challenge.
- Air and water pollution by the ships: Emissions from ships traversing the narrow channel will pollute the air and water. And if a rogue ship carrying oil or coal is grounded or strays from its course within the canal, it could cause an ecological disaster.
- Religious belief of Significant Ram Setu: While environmental groups have been protesting against the project for the huge environmental cost it would entail, religious groups have been opposing it as they believe that the structure, which is mentioned in the Ramayana, is of religious significance.
What is the need of protection?
- Marine biosphere reserves: The coral reef platforms between Thoothukudi and Rameswaram in the Gulf of Mannar were notified as a marine biosphere reserve in 1989.
- Biodiversity rich area:
- More than 36,000 species of flora and fauna reportedly live there, flanked by mangroves and sandy shores which are considered conducive for turtles to nest.
- This is also a breeding ground for fish, lobsters, shrimps and crabs.
- Of the 600 recorded varieties of fish in the region, 70 are said to be commercially important.
- Area is already under stress:
- This area is already threatened by discharge from thermal plants, brine run-off from salt pans, and illegal mining of corals.
- The SSCP, if it becomes a reality, will be the final blow to this sensitive environment and to the livelihoods of the people there.
Perspective: Area is not only a religious belief but also a “Geo heritage site”.
- While considering this issue from a believer’s point of view, it is also important to consider this feature from a ‘geoheritage’ perspective.
- The geoheritage paradigm is used in nature conservation to preserve the natural diversity of significant geological features.
- The value of abiotic factors like geology, soils and landforms is also recognised for their roles in supporting habitats for biodiversity.
- Geodiversity here consists of varied landforms and features representative of dynamical natural processes, is under threat from human activities and needs protection.
Do you Know Underwater archaeological project at Ram Setu?
- The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) will undertake a three-year scientific project.
- The idea is to see whether Ram Setu is a man-made structure or not.
- The most important aspect of the project is to establish its age, scientifically.
- The explorers will apply a number of scientific techniques while attempting to date the Ram Setu, study its material composition, outline the sub-surface structure along with attempting to excavate remnants or artefacts, if any, from the site.
- Once it is known, the information can be verified and co-related with its mention in the Ramayana and similar scriptures.
Conclusion
- The Ram Setu carries the unique geological imprints of an eventful past. Therefore, it needs to be preserved not just as a national heritage monument, but also as a Geoheritage structure as defined from a scientific perspective.
Mains Question
Q. What is Sethusamudram Ship channel project? Discuss the Concerns raised over the stability of the project.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Lothal: ‘Oldest Dock in the World’, to get heritage complex
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Lothal, Indus Valley Civilization
Mains level : Heritage tourism
Prime Minister has reviewed the construction of the National Maritime Heritage Complex (NMHC) site at Gujarat’s Lothal via video conferencing.
Where is Lothal?
- Lothal was one of the southernmost sites of the Indus Valley civilization, located in the Bhal region of what is now the state of Gujarat.
- The port city is believed to have been built in 2,200 BC. Lothal was a thriving trade centre in ancient times, with its trade of beads, gems and ornaments reaching West Asia and Africa.
- The meaning of Lothal (a combination of Loth and (s) thal) in Gujarati is “the mound of the dead”.
- Incidentally, the name of the city of Mohenjo-daro (also part of the Indus Valley Civilisation, now in Pakistan) means the same in Sindhi.
- In the region, it can be compared with other Indus port towns of Balakot (Pakistan), Khirasa (in Gujarat’s Kutch) and Kuntasi (in Rajkot).
When was it discovered?
- Indian archaeologists started the search for cities of the Harappan Civilisation post-1947 in Gujarat’s Saurashtra.
- Archaeologist SR Rao led the team which discovered a number of Harappan sites at the time, including the port city of Lothal.
- Excavation work was carried out in Lothal between February 1955 and May 1960.
- Adjacent to the excavated areas stands the archaeological site museum, where some of the most prominent collections of Indus-era antiquities in India are displayed.
How was it identified as port city?
- The National Institute of Oceanography in Goa discovered marine microfossils and salt, gypsum crystals at the site, indicating that sea water once filled the structure and it was definitely a dockyard.
- It had the world’s earliest known dock, connecting the city to an ancient course of the Sabarmati river.
- A metropolis with an upper and a lower town had in on its northern side a basin with vertical wall, inlet and outlet channels which has been identified as a tidal dockyard.
- Satellite images show that the river channel, now dried, would have brought in considerable volume of water during high tide, which would have filled the basin and facilitated sailing of boats upstream.
What heritage value does it hold?
- Lothal was nominated in April 2014 as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, and its application is pending on the tentative list of UNESCO.
- It is the only port-town of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
- Its heritage value is comparable to following ancient port-towns around the world-
- Xel Ha (Peru)
- Ostia (Port of Rome)
- Carthage (Port of Tunis) in Italy
- Hepu in China,
- Canopus in Egypt
- Gabel (Byblos of the Phoenicians),
- Jaffa in Israel,
- Ur in Mesopotamia
- Hoi An in Vietnam
Building up of Heritage Complex
- The project began in March 2022, and is being developed at a cost of Rs 3,500 crore.
- It will have several innovative features such as Lothal mini-recreation, which will recreate Harappan architecture and lifestyle through immersive technology.
- It has four theme parks – Memorial theme park, Maritime and Navy theme park, Climate theme park, and Adventure and Amusement theme park.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
What is Carbon Dating?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Carbon Dating
Mains level : Not Much
A Varanasi district court has rejected the plea to conduct carbon-dating of the disputed structure known to have been found inside the premises of the Gyanvapi mosque.
What is Carbon Dating?
- Carbon dating, also called radiocarbon dating is method of age determination that depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (Carbon-14).
- This method was developed by the American physicist Willard F. Libby about 1946.
- Carbon-14 is continually formed in nature by the interaction of neutrons with nitrogen-14 in the Earth’s atmosphere.
- The neutrons required for this reaction are produced by cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere.
How it works?
- Radiocarbon present in molecules of atmospheric carbon dioxide enters the biological carbon cycle: it is absorbed from the air by green plants and then passed on to animals through the food chain.
- Radiocarbon decays slowly in a living organism, and the amount lost is continually replenished as long as the organism takes in air or food.
- Once the organism dies, however, it ceases to absorb carbon-14, so that the amount of the radiocarbon in its tissues steadily decreases.
The half-life concept
- Carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the radioisotope present at any given time will undergo spontaneous disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years.
- Because carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an organism died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon.
Its uses
- It has proved to be a versatile technique of dating fossils and archaeological specimens from 500 to 50,000 years old.
- The method is widely used by geologists, anthropologists, archaeologists, and investigators in related fields.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Ponniyin Selvan and the Cholas
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Ponniyin Selvan
Mains level : Not Much
In all the buzz around the Tamil film Ponniyin Selvan: 1 or PS1, a fictional period drama, a point of focus has been the Chola dynasty that the film is based on.
Why in news?
- A notable actor has spoke about the progressiveness of the Chola era.
- He mentioned the architectural marvels and temples, the social setup of the time, and how cities were named after women.
Behind the name- PS1
- The fictional account of the Chola kingdom appeared in a weekly journal in the early 1950s and garnered popularity.
- These were later compiled into a novel called ‘Ponniyin Selvan’, which became the inspiration for the movie, whose second part is due for release in 2023.
Who were the Cholas?
- The Chola kingdom stretched across present-day Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka around 9th to 12th century AD.
- The dynasty was founded by the king Vijaylaya, described as a “feudatory” of the Pallavas.
- Despite being a relatively minor player in the region among giants, Vijaylaya laid the foundation for a dynasty that would rule a major part of southern India.
Might of the Cholas
(1) Defense
- One of the biggest achievements of the Chola dynasty was its naval power, allowing them to go as far as Malaysia and the Sumatra islands of Indonesia in their conquests.
- The domination was such that the Bay of Bengal was converted into a “Chola lake” for some time.
(2) Economy
- While the extent of this domination is disputed, the Cholas had strong ties with merchant groups and this allowed them to undertake impressive naval expeditions.
- In general, even merchant guilds, which had close ties to the court, had to hire their own guards because roads could be dangerous.
(3) Culture
- Another feature is how the practice of building grand temples, common to the dynasties of the region around this time, was ramped up in an unprecedented way by the Cholas, according to Kanisetti.
- The grand Brihadeeswara temple of Thanjavur, built by the Cholas, was the largest building in India in that period.
- Additionally, artworks and sculptures were commissioned by Chola kings and queens, including the famous bronze Nataraja idols.
Women under the Cholas
- The role of women in the royal family is being brought to focus given their impact on public life.
- But that is not to suggest that ordinary women wielded equal power as men.
- The royal women’s proximity to male power was valued, rather than women in general.
Local annexations
- When the Chola King Rajadhiraja came to power in 1044, he was able to “subdue” Pandyan and Kerala kings, and presumably to celebrate these victories performed the Ashvamedha sacrifice.
- The Chola rulers sacked and plundered Chalukyan cities including Kalyani and massacred the people, including Brahmans and children.
- They destroyed Anuradhapura, the ancient capital of the rulers of Sri Lanka.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Pakistan floods may take away Mohenjo Daro’s World Heritage Tag
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Mohenjo Daro
Mains level : Not Much
Heavy floods in Pakistan has pushed the archeological site of Mohenjo Daro – near the bank of the Indus river – to the “brink of extinction”.
What is the news?
- Pakistan’s Department of Archaeology has said that Mohenjo Daro might be removed from the world heritage list, if urgent attention towards its conservation and restoration is not given.
About Mohenjo Daro
- Mohenjo Daro, a group of mounds and ruins, is a 5000-year-old archaeological site located about 80-km off the city of Sukkur.
- It comprises the remnants of one of two main centres of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, the other one being Harappa, located 640 km to the northwest, in Punjab province.
- Mohenjo Daro, which means ‘mound of the dead’, was one of the oldest cities of the world.
- Known to be a model planned city of the ancient civilisation, the houses here had bathrooms, toilets and drainage system.
- The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests a high level of social organization.
- Though in ruins, the walls and brick pavements in the streets are still in a preserved condition.
How did it came to prominance
- The ruins of the city remained undocumented for around 3,700 years, until 1920, when archaeologist RD Banerji visited the site.
- Its excavation started in 1921 and continued in phases till 1964-65.
- The site went to Pakistan during Partition.
Other Indus Valley sites
- The Indus Valley Civilisation spanned much of what is now Pakistan and the northern states of India (Gujarat, Haryana and Rajasthan), even extending towards the Iranian border.
- Its major urban centres included Harappa and Mohenjo Daro in Pakistan, and Lothal, Kalibangan, Dholavira and Rakhigarhi in India.
- Mohenjo Daro is considered the most advanced city of its time, with sophisticated civil engineering and urban planning.
- When the Indus Valley Civilisation went into sudden decline around 19th century BC, Mohenjo Daro was abandoned.
What next for the site
- According to media reports, many streets and sewerage drains of the historical ruins have been badly damaged due to the floods.
- However, the work of removing the sediments deposited due the flooding is still underway.
- But if this kind of flooding happens again, the heritage site may once again get buried under the ground, archaeologists say.
- It is expected that UN Secretary General Antonio Guterres will visit the site during his visit to Pakistan on September 11.
- The visit might provide some clarity on if the site has lost some of its attributes that are necessary for it to retain its prestigious world heritage tag.
Losing world heritage tag
- There are around 1,100 UNESCO listed sites across its 167 member countries.
- Last year, the World Heritage Committee decided to delete the property ‘Liverpool – Maritime Mercantile City’ (UK) from the World Heritage List.
- This was due to the irreversible loss of attributes conveying the outstanding universal value of the property.
- Liverpool was added to the World Heritage List in 2004 in recognition of its role as one of the world’s major trading centres in the 18th and 19th centuries – and its pioneering dock technology, transport systems and port management.
- Before that, the first venue to be delisted by the UNESCO panel was the Arabian Oryx Sanctuary in Oman, in 2007, after concerns over poaching and habitat degradation.
- Another site to be removed from the World Heritage list in 2009 was Elbe Valley in Dresden, Germany, after the construction of the Waldschloesschen road bridge across the Elbe River.
Back2Basics: UNESCO World Heritage Sites
- A World Heritage Site is a landmark or area, selected by the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) for having cultural, historical, scientific or other forms of significance, which is legally protected by international treaties.
- The sites are judged to be important for the collective and preservative interests of humanity.
- To be selected, a WHS must be an already-classified landmark, unique in some respect as a geographically and historically identifiable place having special cultural or physical significance (such as an ancient ruin or historical structure, building, city, complex, desert, forest, island, lake, monument, mountain, or wilderness area).
- It may signify a remarkable accomplishment of humanity, and serve as evidence of our intellectual history on the planet.
- The sites are intended for practical conservation for posterity, which otherwise would be subject to risk from human or animal trespassing, unmonitored/uncontrolled/unrestricted access, or threat from local administrative negligence.
- The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Program administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 “states parties” that are elected by their General Assembly.
UNESCO World Heritage Committee
- The World Heritage Committee selects the sites to be listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, including the World Heritage List and the List of World Heritage in Danger.
- It monitors the state of conservation of the World Heritage properties, defines the use of the World Heritage Fund and allocates financial assistance upon requests from States Parties.
- It is composed of 21 states parties that are elected by the General Assembly of States Parties for a four-year term.
- India is NOT a member of this Committee.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Heritage conservation
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : ASI
Mains level : heritage conservation
Context
- Despite all the public talk of the importance of conserving our national heritage, the budget of the ASI, the primary institutional guardian of monuments, in 2021-22 has been reduced by more than Rs 200 cr.
How do you define heritage?
- Heritage is the full range of our inherited traditions, monuments, objects, and culture. Most important, it is the range of contemporary activities, meanings, and behaviours that we draw from them.
Threats to Indian Heritage
- Theft: The incidents of thefts have been observed usually from unprotected monuments, ancient temples. The thefts cases have also been seen in the protected monuments and museums as well. It is due to negligence of security guards in museums, monuments etc.
- Smuggling: illicit traffic and smuggling in antiquities. Illicit traffic is motivated often by profit and sometimes by the demand for luxuries.
- Tourism: Unregulated tourism, tourist activities run by touts, private agents have affected the art heritage places. The Culture Ministry of India has reported that up to 24 Indian monuments have been declared “untraceable” or “missing” by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
- Issues with security of museums: Most of the museums are poorly guarded due to shortage of manpower leading to theft of artifacts, fire accidents etc.
- Duplication: Fakes paintings and art forms leading to threat to livelihoods of artists.
- Poor Maintenance: The state of the wall paintings in Ajanta caves is continuously getting worse, which can be attributed to humidity as well as to a lack of care.
- Encroachment on monuments: Another miss from the ministry has been encroachments of monuments. Over 278 centrally protected monuments have been encroached upon or have illegal occupants, as per government data.
Why should we protect our heritage?
- Evolution of human consciousness is a continuous process: History here serves as a laboratory and the past serves as a demarcation to understand the regional laws and social structures. This understanding helps in our progress towards an ideal society.
- Pride of country: The art heritage is the identity and pride of our country. It is duty of every citizen to protect, preserve and perpetuate the cultural richness.
- Tourism potential: for art monuments and museums is very high. Tourism generates revenue for the state as well as private artists due to the money-multiplier quality.
- Infrastructure development: takes place in and around the areas. Eg. Hampi despite being a small town has excellent infrastructure.
- Jobs: It creates jobs for a lot of people from art industry and tourism industry as well
- Sense of belonging: It creates a feeling of oneness and a sense of attachment by enhancing a sense of belonging to a culture or a region.
- Strengthen conviction: Every historical site has an important story to tell and these stories have inspired many people to strengthen their convictions and commitment to fight injustice and oppression.
- Soft power: Art and culture is also a part of soft power in world politics.
About Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
- The ASI is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture.
- It was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham who also became its first Director-General.
- Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers more than 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national importance.
- These can include everything from temples, mosques, churches, tombs, and cemeteries to palaces, forts, step-wells, and rock-cut caves.
Initiatives by ASI
- Museums: ASI’s museums are customarily located right next to the sites that their inventories are associated with “so that they may be studied amid their natural surroundings and not lose focus by being transported”. A dedicated Museums Branch maintains a total of 44 museums spread across the country.
- Publications by ASI: Epigraphia Indica, Ancient India, Indian Archaeology: A Review (Annually).
- Library: Central Archaeological Library in the National Archives building in Janpath, New Delhi.
Issues and Challenges ahead of ASI
- To restore or not: Issue is that technically speaking- ruins are seldom “restored” in original state. This is because in absence of documentation- archaeologists are left to conjecture what buildings may have looked like when they were originally built.
- Personnel Management Issues: Higher Authorities of ASI are traditionally from IAS Cadre. In-house specialist must be promoted for better coordination b/w technical and managerial aspects of restoration
- Issues explored in CAG Report: 92 monuments are untraceable with no database on artifacts. Poor Documentation of Protected Monuments/Artifacts. Paucity of funds (Eg- Red fort gardens lie unkempt).
Conclusion
- It is the duty of every citizen to value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture. Preservation and conservation of India’s rich cultural heritage and promotion of all forms of art and culture, both tangible and intangible, is essential and assumes a lot of importance.
Mains question
Q. Safeguarding the Indian heritage is the need of the moment. What are the challenges faced in safeguarding them? What steps would you suggest to protect them?
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Manusmriti: the controversial ancient Sanskrit text
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Manusmriti
Mains level : Not Much
The Vice Chancellor of a renowned university recently criticized the Manusmriti, the ancient Sanskrit text, over its gender bias.
What is the news?
- The VC said that the Manusmriti has categorised all women as shudras, which is extraordinarily regressive.
What is Manusmriti?
- The Mānavadharmaśāstra, also known as Manusmriti or the Laws of Manu, is a Sanskrit text belonging to the Dharmaśāstra literary tradition of Hinduism.
- Composed sometime between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE, the Manusmriti is written in sloka verses, containing two non-rhyming lines of 16 syllabus each.
- The text is attributed to the mythical figure of Manu, considered to be ancestor of the human race in Hinduism.
- There has been considerable debate between scholars on the authorship of the text.
- Many have argued that it was compiled by many Brahmin scholars over a period of time.
- However, Indologist Patrick Olivelle argues that Manusmṛiti’s “unique and symmetrical structure,” means that it was composed by a “single gifted individual,” or by a “strong chairman of a committee” with the aid of others.
What is the text about?
(A) Social aspects
- The Manusmriti is encyclopaedic in scope, covering subjects such as the social obligations and duties of the various castes and of individuals in different stages of life.
- It seeks to govern the suitable social and sexual relations of men and women of different castes, on taxes, the rules for kingship, on maintaining marital harmony and the procedures for settling everyday disputes.
- At its core, the Manusmriti discusses life in the world, how it is lived in reality, as well as how it ought to be.
(B) Political aspects
- They argue that the text is about dharma, which means duty, religion, law and practice.
- It also discusses aspects of the Arthashashtra, such as issues relating to statecraft and legal procedures.
- The aim of the text is to present a blueprint for a properly ordered society under the sovereignty of the king and the guidance of Brahmins.
- It was meant to be read by the priestly caste and Olivelle argues that it would likely have been part of the curriculum for young Brahmin scholars at colleges.
What is its significance?
- By the early centuries of the Common Era, Manu had become, and remained, the standard source of authority in the orthodox tradition for that centrepiece of Hinduism, varṇāśrama-dharma (social and religious duties tied to class and stage of life)”.
- Indologists argue that it was a very significant text for Brahmin scholars — it attracted 9 commentaries by other writers of the tradition, and was cited by other ancient Indian texts far more frequently than other dharmaśāstra.
How did colonists consider this text?
- European Orientalists considered the Manusmṛiti to be of great historical and religious significance as well. It was the first Sanskrit text to be translated into a European language, by the British philologist Sir William Jones in 1794.
- Subsequently, it was translated into French, German, Portuguese and Russian, before being included in Max Muller’s edited volume, Sacred Books of the East in 1886.
- For colonial officials in British India, the translation of the book served a practical purpose.
- In 1772, Governor-General Warren Hastings decided to implement laws of Hindus and Muslims that they believed to be “continued, unchanged from remotest antiquity.
- For Hindus, the dharmasastras were to play a crucial role, as they were seen by the British as ‘laws,’ whether or not it was even used that way in India.
Why is it controversial?
- The ancient text has 4 major divisions: 1) Creation of the world. 2) Sources of dharma. 3) The dharma of the four social classes. 4) Law of karma, rebirth, and final liberation.
- The third section is the longest and most important section.
- The text is deeply concerned with maintaining the hierarchy of the four-fold varna system and the rules that each caste has to follow.
- Then, the Brahmin is assumed to be the perfect representative of the human race.
- While Shudras, who are relegated to the bottom of the order, are given the sole duty of serving the ‘upper’ castes.
- Some verses also contain highly prejudicial sentiments against women on the basis of their birth.
- There are many verses in the text that are considered highly controversial.
Dr. Ambedkar and Manusmriti
- On December 25, 1927, Dr B R Ambedkar had famously burned the Manusmṛiti, which he saw as a source of gender and caste oppression.
- However, he widely acknowledged that Manusmriti is NOT a religious decree but a social doctrine, manipulated since centuries to normalize oppression of the population.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Sannati and Kanaganahalli Buddhist Sites
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Ashokan edicts, Stupa Architecture
Mains level : NA
Left almost unattended to for 20 years after excavation, the ancient Buddhist site on the bank of Bhima river near Kanaganahalli (forming part of Sannati site) in Kalaburagi district, has finally got some attention.
About Sannati
- Sannati is a small village on the banks of the River Bhima in Chittapur Taluka of Kalaburagi (Gulbarga).
- It came into prominence after the collapse of the roof of the Kali temple in Chandralamba temple complex in 1986.
- The collapse revealed the historically valuable Ashokan edicts written in Prakrit language and Brahmi script at the foundations of the temple, attracting historians from across India.
- While the Stupa is believed to be one of the largest of its time.
- The stone-portrait is considered to be the only surviving image of the Mauryan Emperor which had the inscription ‘Raya Asoko’ in Brahmi on it.
Significance of Sannati
- Further revelations led to the discovery of the magnificent Maha Stupa, which had been referred to as Adholoka Maha-Chaitya (The Great Stupa of the Netherworlds) in the inscriptions.
- More importantly, a sculpture-portrait of Ashoka seated on his throne with his queens was also discovered.
- Historians believe that the Sannati Ranamandal (war zone) was a fortified area spread over 210 acres, of which only a couple of acres have been excavated so far.
Try this PYQ:
In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashokan’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?
(a) Kanganahalli
(b) Sanchi
(c) Shahbazgarhi
(d) Sohgaura
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
ASI Act to be made more flexible
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), AMSAR Act
Mains level : Not Much
Union Culture Minister said the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was working on an amendment to make the law that provides for the preservation of monuments and archaeological sites “more flexible and people-friendly”.
What is the news?
- The ASI is working to amend Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (AMASR) Act 1958.
- It particularly seeks to change the current 100-metre prohibited area around protected monuments to site-specific limits.
What is the AMASR Act?
- The AMASR Act provides for the preservation of ancient and historical monuments and archaeological sites and remains of national importance.
- It also provides for the regulation of archaeological excavations and for the protection of sculptures, carvings and other like objects.
- The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) functions under the provisions of this act.
- The rules stipulate that area in the vicinity of the monument, within 100 metres is prohibited area.
- The area within 200 meters of the monument is regulated category. Any repair or modifications of buildings in this area requires prior permission.
About Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
- The ASI is an attached office of the Ministry of Culture.
- It was founded in 1861 by Alexander Cunningham who also became its first Director-General.
- Under the provisions of the AMASR Act of 1958, the ASI administers more than 3650 ancient monuments, archaeological sites and remains of national importance.
- These can include everything from temples, mosques, churches, tombs, and cemeteries to palaces, forts, step-wells, and rock-cut caves.
- The Survey also maintains ancient mounds and other similar sites which represent the remains of ancient habitation.
- The ASI is headed by a Director-General who is assisted by an Additional Director General, two Joint Directors General, and 17 Directors.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Ancient sculptures recovered from Australia, US
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Read the attached story
Mains level : NA
Ten antiquities (sculptures) retrieved from Australia and the United States were handed over to the Government of Tamil Nadu.
Some of the returned antiquities, and how they had gone missing:
(1) Dvarapala:
- Retrieved in 2020 from Australia, this stone sculpture belongs to the Vijayanagar dynasty dating to the 15th-16th century.
- He is holding a gada in one hand and has another leg raised up to the level of his knee.
- The sculpture was burgled from Moondreeswaramudayar Temple, Tiruneveli in1994.
(2) Nataraja:
- Retrieved in 2021 from the US, this image of Nataraja, a depiction of Shiva, in his divine cosmic dance form, is in tribhanga posture, standing on the lotus pedestal.
- It is dateable to the 11th-12th century. Possibly, ananda tandava or the Dance of Bliss is portrayed here.
- The sculpture was burgled from the strong room of Punnainallur Arulmigu Mariyamman Temple, Thanjavur, in 2018.
(3) Kankalamurti:
- Retrieved in 2021 from the US, Kankalamurti is depicted as a fearsome aspect of Lord Shiva and Bhairava.
- The sculpture is four-armed, holding ayudhas such as damaru and trishula in the upper hands and a bowl and a trefoil shaped object, as a treat for the playful fawn, in the lower right hand.
- The idol is dateable to the 12th-13th century, and was stolen from Narasinganadhar Swamy Temple, Tirunelveli in 1985.
(4) Nandikeshvara:
- Retrieved in 2021 from the US, this bronze image of Nandikeshvara is dateable to the 13th century.
- It is shown standing in tribhanga posture with folded arms, holding an axe and a fawn in the upper arms, with his forearms in namaskara mudra.
- This sculpture was stolen from Narasinganadhar Swamy Temple, Tirunelveli, in 1985.
(5) Four-armed Vishnu:
- Retrieved in 2021 from the US, dateable to the 11th century, and belonging to the later Chola period.
- The sculpture has Lord Vishnu standing on a padma pedestal holding attributes such as shankha and chakra in two hands; while the lower right hand is in abhaya mudra.
- It was stolen from Arulmigu Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Ariyalur, in 2008.
(6) Goddess Parvati:
- Retrieved in 2021 from the US, the image depicts a Chola-period sculpture dateable to the 11th century.
- She is shown holding a lotus in the left hand whereas the right is hanging down near her kati.
- This sculpture was also stolen from Arulmigu Varadharaja Perumal Temple, Ariyalur in 2008.
(7) Standing child Sambandar:
- Retrieved in 2022 from Australia. Sambandar, the popular 7th-century child saint, is one of the Muvar, the three principal saints of South India.
- The sculpture is dateable to the 11th century.
- The legend goes that after receiving a bowl of milk from Goddess Uma, the infant Sambandar devoted his life to composing hymns in praise of Lord Shiva.
- The sculpture displays the saint’s childlike quality, while also empowering him with the maturity and authority of a spiritual leader.
- It was stolen from Sayavaneeswarar Temple, Nagapattinam, between 1965 and 1975.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Buddhist heritage in Gujarat
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Places associated with Buddha
Mains level : Buddhist architecture
Prime Minister in Lumbini, on the occasion of Buddha Purnima, said that his birthplace Vadnagar in Gujarat’s Mehsana district had been a great centre for Buddhist learning centuries ago.
Vadnagar’s ties with Buddhism
- In 2014, the excavation work has brought up Buddhist relics and around 20,000 artefacts, some dating back to the 2nd century.
- Among these are an elliptical structure and a circular stupa along with a square memorial stupa of 2×2 metres and 130 centimetres in height with a wall enclosure.
- It is like a platform which has a chamber in the centre that resembles a pradakshina path.
- Further, bowls said to be used by monks have been found during the excavations, which have a terracotta sealing with inscriptions of namassarvagyaya and a face-shaped pendant with tritatva symbol.
- Sacred relics of the Buddha were even found in Devni Mori in Aravalli district of Gujarat.
In travellers record
- Vadnagar is mentioned often in the Puranas and even in the travelogue of the great Chinese traveler, Hiuen Tsang (7th century), as a rich and flourishing town.
- He is believed to have visited the state in 641 AD.
- It adds how some of the names attributed to Vadnagar in history are Chamatkarpur, Anandpur, Snehpur and Vimalpur.
- It also had snippets about other Buddhist heritage sites in Gujarat, such as Junagadh, Kutch and Bharuch.
Back2Basics: Places associated with Buddha
These are three of the few holiest sites in Buddhism:
- Bodh Gaya in Bihar, the site of the enlightenment of Gautama Buddha under a tree and top site in the list of world heritage sites in India.
- Kesaria stupa is a Buddhist stupa in Kesariya, located at a distance of 110 kilometres (68 mi) from Patna, in the Champaran (east) district of Bihar, India. The first construction of the Stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE. Kesariya Stupa has a circumference of almost 400 feet (120 m) and raises to a height of about 104 feet (32 m).
- Nalanda was a renowned Buddhist University in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (modern-day Bihar) in India.Buddhist texts describe it as a Mahavihara, a revered Buddhist monastery.
- Sarnath near Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh, the site of the first sermon (Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta), where Buddha taught about the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path.
- Kushinagar in Uttar Pradesh, the site of the Buddha’s parinirvana and home of many famous meditation & prayer offering sites in India.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Iron in Tamil Nadu 4,200 years ago: A new dating and its significance
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Iron Age
Mains level : Ancient Indian Civilizations
Carbon dating of excavated finds in Tamil Nadu pushes evidence of iron being used in India back to 4,200 years ago, the Tamil Nadu government announced this week on the basis of an archaeological report.
What is the news?
- Before this, the earliest evidence of iron use was from 1900-2000 BCE for the country, and from 1500 BCE for Tamil Nadu.
- The latest evidence dates the findings from Tamil Nadu to 2172 BCE! Much older.
- The results of dating, used accelerator mass spectroscopy.
Where were these objects found?
- The excavations are from Mayiladumparai near Krishnagiri in Tamil Nadu, about 100 km south of Bengaluru.
- Mayiladumparai is an important site with cultural material dating back between the Microlithic (30,000 BCE) and Early Historic (600 BCE) ages.
- The site is situated in the midst of several archaeological sites such as Togarapalli, Gangavaram, Sandur, Vedarthattakkal, Guttur, Gidlur, Sappamutlu and Kappalavadi.
Outcome: Varying span of Iron Age
- The dates when humans entered the Iron Age vary from one region of the world to another.
- In India, too, the date has been revised with successive findings over the decades.
When the Iron Age is considered in India?
- In 1979, use of iron was traced to 1300 BCE at Ahar in Rajasthan. This is what we have been reading in NCERTs.
- Later, samples at Bukkasagara in Karnataka, indicating iron production, were dated back to 1530 BCE.
- The date was subsequently pushed back to 1700-1800 BCE with excavations finding evidence of iron smelting at Raipura in the Mid-Ganga valley.
- It was then to 1900-2000 BCE based on investigations in sites at Malhar near Varanasi and Brahmagiri in North Karnataka.
- A series of dating results on finds from various parts in India have shown evidence of iron-ore technology before 1800 BCE.
- Before the latest discovery, the earliest evidence of iron use for Tamil Nadu was from Thelunganur and Mangadu near Mettur, dating back to 1500 BCE.
Historical significance
- Iron is not known to have been used in the Indus Valley, from where the use of copper in India is said to have originated (1500 BCE).
- But non-availability of copper for technological and mass exploitation forced other regions to remain in the Stone Age.
- When iron technology was invented, it led to the production of agricultural tools and weapons, leading to production required for a civilisation ahead of economic and cultural progress.
- While useful tools were made out of copper, these were brittle and not as strong as iron tools would be.
- With the latest evidence tracing our Iron Age to 2000 BCE from 1500 BC, we can assume that our cultural seeds were laid in 2000 BCE.
- And the benefit of socio-economic changes and massive production triggered by the iron technology gave its first fruit around 600 BCE — the Tamil Brahmi scripts.
Culture and politics
- The Tamil Brahmi scripts were once believed to have originated around 300 BCE, until a landmark finding in 2019 pushed the date back to 600 BCE.
- This dating narrowed the gap between the Indus Valley civilisation and Tamilagam/South India’s Sangam Age.
- This, and the latest findings, are politically significant.
- The dating of the scripts, based on excavations from sites including Keeladi near Madurai, became controversial when the ASI did not go for advanced carbon dating tests.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Rakhigarhi skeletons’ DNA samples sent for analysis
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Indus valley civilization and its decline
Mains level : Not Much
DNA samples collected from two human skeletons unearthed at a necropolis of a Harappan-era city site in Rakhigarhi, Haryana have been sent for scientific examination.
Why in news?
- DNA analysis might tell about the ancestry and food habits of people who lived in the Rakhigarhi region thousands of years ago.
About Rakhi Garhi
- The ancient site of Rakhi-Khas and Rakhi-Shahpur are collectively known as Rakhigarhi, located on the right bank of the now dried up Palaeo-channel of Drishadvati.
- It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain in the Hissar district of Haryana.
- Seven mounds are located here.
- The site has yielded various stages of Harappan culture and is by far one of the largest Harappan sites in India.
- The site shows the sequential development of the Indus culture in the now dried up Saraswati basin.
Major findings at Rakhi Garhi
- Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.
- Digging so far reveals a well-planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan.
- The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali.
- Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies.
- There are brick-lined drains to handle sewage from the houses.
- Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found.
- A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver.
- A granary belonging to the mature Harappan phase has been found here.
- Fire altars structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
How ancient megalithic jars connect Assam with Laos and Indonesia
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Megalithic Burials in India
Mains level : Not Much
The discovery of a number of megalithic stone jars in Assam’s Dima Hasao district has brought to focus possible links between India’s Northeast and Southeast Asia, dating back to the second millennium BC.
What is the news?
- According to a study in Asian Archaeology, the jars are a “unique archaeological phenomenon”.
- It calls for more research to understand the “likely cultural relationship” between Assam and Laos and Indonesia, the only two other sites where similar jars have been found.
About the Megalithic Jars
- The jars of Assam were first sighted in 1929 by British civil servants James Philip Mills and John Henry Hutton.
- They recorded their presence in six sites in Dima Hasao: Derebore (now Hojai Dobongling), Kobak, Kartong, Molongpa (now Melangpeuram), Ndunglo and Bolasan (now Nuchubunglo).
- More such sites were later discovered in 2016 and 2020.
- Researchers documented three distinct jar shapes (bulbous top with conical end; biconcial; cylindrical) on spurs, hill slopes and ridge lines.
Their significance
- While the jars are yet to be scientifically dated, the researchers said links could be drawn with the stone jars found in Laos and Indonesia.
- There are typological and morphological similarities between the jars found at all three sites.
- Dating done at the Laos site suggests that jars were positioned at the sites as early as the late second millennium BC.
- The other takeaway is the link to mortuary practices with human skeletal remains found inside and buried around the jars.
- In Indonesia, the function of the jars remains unconfirmed, although some scholars suggest a similar mortuary role.
Back2Basics: Megalithic Burials in India
- Megaliths were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials.
- The former are sites with actual burial remains, such as dolmenoid cists (box-shaped stone burial chambers), cairn circles (stone circles with defined peripheries) and capstones (distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers found mainly in Kerala).
- The urn or the sarcophagus containing the mortal remains was usually made of terracotta.
- Non-sepulchral megaliths include memorial sites such as menhirs. (The line separating the two is a bit blurry, since remains have been discovered underneath otherwise non-sepulchral sites, and vice versa.)
- Taken together, these monuments lend these disparate peoples the common traits of what we know as megalithic culture, one which lasted from the Neolithic Stone Age to the early Historical Period (2500 BC to AD 200) across the world.
- In India, archaeologists trace the majority of the megaliths to the Iron Age (1500 BC to 500 BC), though some sites precede the Iron Age, extending up to 2000 BC.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
In news: Ancient Tamil Civilization
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Tamiraparani Civilization
Mains level : Ancient Indian Civilizations
A reconnaissance survey in the sea off the coast of Korkai in Thoothukudi district where Tamiraparani River joins the sea, which finds mention in Sangam literature, will be undertaken by the Tamil Nadu Archaeology Department.
About Tamiraparani River
- The Thamirabarani or Tamraparni or Porunai is a perennial river that originates from the Agastyarkoodam peak of the Pothigai hills of the Western Ghats.
- It flows through the Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts of the Tamil Nadu state of southern India into the Gulf of Mannar.
- It was called the Tamraparni River in the pre-classical period, a name it lent to the island of Sri Lanka.
- The old Tamil name of the river is Porunai.
Its history
- Its many name derivations of Tan Porunai include Tampraparani, Tamirabarni, Tamiravaruni.
- Tan Porunai nathi finds mention by classical Tamil poets in ancient Sangam Tamil literature Purananuru.
- Recognised as a holy river in Sanskrit literature Puranas, Mahabharata and Ramayana, the river was famed in the Early Pandyan Kingdom for its pearl and conch fisheries and trade.
- The movement of people, including the faithful, trade merchants and toddy tapers from Tamraparni river to northwestern Sri Lanka led to the shared appellation of the name for the closely connected region.
- One important historical document on the river is the treatise Tamraparni Mahatmyam.
- It has many ancient temples along its banks. A hamlet known as Appankoil is located on the northern side of the river.
Back2Basics: Keeladi Civilization
- The Keeladi tale began to unravel in March 2015 when first round of excavation was undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).
- It unearthed antiquities providing crucial evidence to understanding the missing links of the Iron Age [12th century BCE to 6th century BCE] to the Early Historic Period [6th century BCE to 4th century BCE].
- Further excavations threw up strong clues about the existence of a Tamil Civilization that had trade links with other regions in the country and abroad.
- This civilization has been described by Tamil poets belonging to the Sangam period.
- Results of carbon dating of a few artifacts traced their existence to 2nd century BCE (the Sangam period).
Key findings in excavations
- These included brick structures, terracotta ring wells, fallen roofing with tiles, golden ornaments, broken parts of copper objects, iron implements, terracotta chess pieces, ear ornaments, spindle whorls, figurines.
- It also had black and redware, rouletted ware and a few pieces of Arretine ware, besides beads made of glass, terracotta and semi-precious stones.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Back in news: Aryan Invasion Theory
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Indus valley civilization and its decline
Mains level : Aryan Invasion Theory
The 2022 calendar of the IIT, Kharagpur on the theme of “evidence” for “rebutting the Aryan invasion myth” has caused controversy.
What is the Aryan Invasion Theory?
- It has always been understood that the Aryans migration from the Steppe happened after 2000 BCE.
- In 1953 Mortimer Wheeler proposed that the invasion of an Indo-European tribe from Central Asia, the “Aryans”, caused the decline of the Indus Civilization.
- As evidence, he cited a group of 37 skeletons found in various parts of Mohenjo-daro, and passages in the Vedas referring to battles and forts.
- However, scholars soon started to reject Wheeler’s theory, since the skeletons belonged to a period after the city’s abandonment and none were found near the citadel.
Basis of this theory
- This was first propounded when linguistic similarities between Sanskrit and the major European languages were discovered by European scholars during the colonial era.
- This tool was used by the colonizers to legitimize their rule in India.
- The theory hypothesizes that during 2000BC Aryans from Europe invaded or migrated into the Asian subcontinent.
- It states these ‘invaders’ killed the original Dravidians and set up the Aryan race in the South-Asian subcontinent.
- The Aryan Invasion Theory claimed that these ‘invaders’ were the root of modern Indian civilization, not the Harappan civilization.
Its rebuttal
- Recent studies have debunked the theory after DNA samples from 5000-year old Harappan remains were proven to be similar to modern Indians’ DNA as part of the Rakhigarhi Project.
Who were the Harappans then?
- The Harappans who created the agricultural revolution in northwestern India and then built the Harappan civilization were a mix of First Indians and Iranians who spoke a pre-Arya language.
- The Arya were central Asian Steppe pastoralists who arrived in India between roughly 2000 BCE and 1500 BCE, and brought Indo-European languages to the subcontinent.
- The new study says the Iranians arrived in India before agriculture or even herding had begun anywhere in the world.
- In other words, these migrants were likely to have been hunter-gatherers, which means they did not bring a knowledge of agriculture.
Try this PYQ:
Q With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements correct?
- Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
- Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
- Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) Only 1
(c) 1 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Places in news: Konark Sun Temple
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Konark Sun Temple
Mains level : Kalinga and other temple architecture
The Archaeological Survey of India is working on a preliminary roadmap to safely remove sand from the interiors of Odisha’s Sun Temple, which was filled up by the British 118 years ago to prevent it from collapsing.
Konark Sun Temple
- Konark Sun Temple is a 13th-century CE Sun temple at Konark about 36 kilometres northeast from Puri on the coastline of Odisha, India.
- The temple is attributed to king Narasinga Deva I of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty about 1250 CE.
- Declared a UNESCO world heritage site in 1984 it remains a major pilgrimage site for Hindus, who gather here every year for the Chandrabhaga Mela around the month of February.
Its architecture
- Dedicated to the Hindu Sun God Surya, what remains of the temple complex has the appearance of a 100-foot (30 m) high chariot with immense wheels and horses, all carved from stone.
- Its architecture has all the defining elements of the Kalinga architecture – it includes Shikhara (crown), Jagmohana (audience hall), Natmandir (dance hall), and Vimana (tower).
- Also called the Surya Devalaya, it is a classic illustration of the Odisha style of Architecture or Kalinga Architecture.
- Once over 200 feet (61 m) high, much of the temple is now in ruins, in particular the large shikara tower over the sanctuary; at one time this rose much higher than the mandapa that remains.
- The structures and elements that have survived are famed for their intricate artwork, iconography, and themes, including erotic kama and mithuna scenes.
- The Jagamohan is the only structure that is fully intact now.
Earlier restoration efforts
- It had been filled with sand and sealed by the British authorities in 1903 in order to stabilize the structure, a/c to ASI.
- The sand filled in over 100 years ago had settled, leading to a gap of about 17 feet.
- However, the structure was found to be stable.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
[pib] Chalcolithic sites in news: Eran and Tewar
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Chalcolithic culture in India
Mains level : Not Much
The Chalcolithic cultures of Central India are adequately investigated and studied informed the Ministry of Culture in particular reference to the sites of Eran and Tewar.
Major sites in Central India
[1] Eran (Dist. Sagar, MP )
- Eran (ancient Airikina) is situated on the left bank of the Bina (ancient Venva) river and surrounded by it on three sides.
- The recent excavation has unearthed a variety of antiquities including a copper coin, an iron arrowhead, terracotta bead, stone beads along with copper coins, stone celt, beads of steatite and jasper, etc.
- The occurrence of few specimens of plain, thin grey ware is noteworthy.
- The use of iron was evidenced by few metallic objects at the site.
[2] Tewar (Dist. Jabalpur, MP)
- Tewar (Tripuri) village is located 12 km west of Jabalpur district on Jabalpur – Bhopal highway.
- This excavation did not reach the natural soil and revealed four folds of cultural sequences i.e. Kushana, Shunga, Satvahana, and Kalachuri.
- Antiquarian remains in this excavation include viz remains of sculptures, hopscotch, terracotta balls, Iron nails, copper coins, terracotta beads, implements of Iron and terracotta figurine, ceramics red ware etc.
- It also revealed structural remains consist of brick wall and structure of sandstone columns.
Back2Basics: Chalcolithic Culture in India
- A completely different kind of culture known as Chalcolithic Culture was developed in central India and Deccan region by the end of the Neolithic period.
- It is characterized by the use of both stone and bronze implements.
Major Chalcolithic complexes in India
- Ahar culture c. 2,800-1,500 B.C.
- Kayatha culture c. 2,450-700 B.C.
- Malwa culture c. 1,900-1,400 B.C.
- Savalda culture c. 2,300-2,000 B.C.
- Jorwe culture c. 1,500 -900 B.C.
- Prabhas culture c. 2,000-1,400 B.C.
- Rangpur culture c. 1,700-1,400 B.C.
Important features
- The people of Chalcolithic culture had used unique painted earthenware usually black-on-red.
- The use of copper and bronze tools also evidenced on a limited scale.
- The economy was largely based on subsistence agriculture, stock-raising, hunting, and fishing.
- They, however, never reached the level of urbanization in spite they were using metal.
- They were contemporary of the Harappan culture, but some other were of later Harappan age.
Their locations
- The centers of Chalcolithic cultures flourished in semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
- The settlements of Kayatha culture were mostly located on the Chambal River and its tributaries.
- The settlements of Malwa culture are mostly located on the Narmada and its tributaries.
- The three best known settlements of Malwa culture are at Navdatoli, Eran, and Nagada.
- Navdatoli was one of the largest Chalcolithic settlements in the country spread in almost 10 hectares.
- The settlements of Rangpur culture are located mostly on Ghelo and Kalubhar rivers in Gujarat.
- More than 200 settlements of Jorwe culture are known. Greater numbers of these settlements are found in Maharashtra.
- The best known settlements of Jorwe culture are Prakash, Daimabad, and Inamgaon. Daimabad was the largest one that measured almost 20 hectares.
Development of Agriculture
- They cultivated both Kharif and Rabi crops in rotation and also raised cattle with it.
- They cultivated wheat and barley in Malwa region. Rice was cultivated in Inamgaon and Ahar.
- They also cultivated jowar, bajra, kulth, ragi, green peas, lentil, and green and black grams.
- Largely, the Chalcolithic cultures flourished in the black cotton soil zone.
Trade and Commerce
- The Chalcolithic communities traded and exchanged materials with other contemporary communities.
- A large settlement serves as the major centers of trade and exchange.
- Some of them were Ahar, Gilund, Nagada, Navdatoli, Eran, Prabhas, Rangpur, Prakash, Daimabad, and Inamgaon.
- The Ahar people settled close to the copper source and were used to supply copper tools and objects to other contemporary communities in Malwa and Gujarat.
- Identical marks embedded on most of the copper axes found in Malwa, Jorwe, and Prabhas cultures that might indicate that it may be the trademarks of the smiths who made them.
- It is found that Conch shell for bangles was traded from the Saurashtra coast to various other parts of the Chalcolithic regions.
- Gold and ivory come to Jorwe people from Tekkalkotta in Karnataka and semiprecious stones may have been traded to various parts from Rajpipla in Gujarat.
- Wheeled bullock carts were used for long distance trade, besides the river transport. The drawings of wheeled bullock carts have been found on pots.
Try this PYQ from CSP 2019. It is dicey, but you cannot escape such questions.
Q. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?
(a) Chanhudaro
(b) Kot Diji
(c) Sohgaura
(d) Desalpur
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Were there domestic horses in ancient India?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Indus valley civilization
Mains level : Not Much
A group of researchers has been able to collect bones and teeth samples of over 2,000 such ancient specimens from regions from where domestic horses could have originated.
Research on horse domestication
- The research has studied fossils from the Iberian Peninsula in the southwestern corner of Europe, or the western-most edge of Eurasia (Spain and its neighbours), Anatolia (modern Turkey), and the steppes of Western Eurasia and Central Asia.
- These collective data have led them to decide that until about 4200 BCE, many distinct horse populations inhabited various regions of Eurasia.
Key findings of the research
- A similar genetic analysis has found that horses with the modern domestic DNA profile lived in the Western Eurasian Steppes, particularly the Volga-Don River region.
- By around 2200–2000 BCE, these horses spread out to Bohemia (the Czech Republic of today and Ukraine), and Central Asia and Mongolia.
- These horses were bred by breeders from these countries to sell them to countries that demanded them.
- Riding on horses became popular in these nations by around 3300 BCE, and armies were built using them, for example, in Mesopotamia, Iran, Kuwait and the ‘Fertile Crescent’ or Palestine.
- The first spoke-wheeled chariots emerged around 2000-1800 BC.
Indian story
- Horses were never native to India.
- The only animals native to India were the Asian elephant, snow leopard, rhinoceros, Bengal tiger, Sloth bear, Himalayan wolf, Gaur bison, red panda, crocodile, and the birds peacock and flamingo.
- Thus, it seems clear from these sources that horse is not native to India.
- Horses must have come into India through inter-regional trading between countries.
- Indians might have traded their elephants, tigers, monkeys, birds to their neighbours and imported horses.
When did India get its horses?
- Horse-related remains and artefacts have been found in Late Harappan sites (1900-1300 BCE).
- Horses did not seem to have played an essential role in the Harappan civilization.
- This is in contrast to the Vedic Period, which is a little later (1500-500 BCE).
- The Sanskrit word for horse is Ashwa, which is mentioned in the Vedas and Hindu Scriptures.
- These are roughly towards the end of the late Bronze Age.
Try this PYQ:
Q. With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements correct?
- Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
- Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
- Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) Only 1
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Places in news: Mawsmai Cave
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Mawsmai Cave
Mains level : Not Much
A micro snail species named Georissa mawsmaiensis has recently been discovered from Mawsmai, a limestone cave in Meghalaya, 170 years after the last such discovery was made.
Georissa mawsmaiensis
- Georissa is found in soil or subterranean habitats in lowland tropical forest as well as high altitude evergreen forests or on rock surfaces rich in calcium.
- The members of the Georissa genus are widely distributed across and reported from Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.
- However, they are confined to microhabitats consisting of limestone caves or karst landscapes formed by the dissolution of limestone.
About Mawsmai Cave
- The Mawsmai cave is situated in the small village of Mawsmai, around four kilometres from Cherrapunjee (Sohra) in the East Khasi Hills district of Meghalaya.
- It is located at an altitude of 1,195 metres above sea level and is indirectly influenced by the streams of the Kynshi river originating from the East Khasi Hills.
- The term ‘Mawsmai’ means ‘Oath Stone’ in the Khasi language. The Khasi people use the local term ‘Krem’ for the cave.
- It is famous for its fossils, some which can be spotted looking at the walls and formations inside.
- The longest is Krem Liat Prah in the Jaintia Hills, which is 30,957 m (31 km approx.)
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Genetic proof for domestication of sheep in Indian subcontinent
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Indus valley civilization
Mains level : Key developments on IVC
Researchers at the Central University of Kerala (CUK) have found that domestication of sheep had taken place in the Indian subcontinent, especially in the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) regions in the 6th or 7th millennium BC.
Animal domestication in IVC
A number of domesticated animal species have been found in excavations at the Harappan cities.
- The Indian humped cattle (Bos indicus) were most frequently encountered, though whether along with a humpless variety, such as that shown on the seals, is not clearly established.
- The buffalo (B. bubalis) is less common and may have been wild.
- Sheep and goats occur, as does the Indian pig (Sus cristatus).
- The camel is present, as well as the ass (Equus asinus).
- Bones of domestic fowl are not uncommon; these fowl were domesticated from the indigenous jungle fowl.
- Finally, the cat and the dog were both evidently domesticated.
- Present, but not necessarily as a domesticated species, is the elephant.
- The horse is possibly present but extremely rare and apparently only present in the last stages of the Harappan Period.
Key findings of the study
- The study has found genetic evidence that sheep had been domesticated in the region in contrast to the general belief that they were domesticated then in West Asia alone.
- India ranks second in terms of sheep population, represented by as many as 44 well-described breeds in addition to several nondescript species.
- It highlights that genetic diversity and phylogeography of Indian sheep breeds remained poorly understood, particularly the south Indian breed.
How was the classification held?
- Researchers retrieved the mitochondrial DNA sequences of another 11 breeds for analysis, which further strengthened their study.
- The researchers analysed these sequences along with published data of domestic and wild sheep from different countries, including India.
- The haplotype diversity observed was relatively high in Indian sheep, which were classified into the three known major mitochondrial DNA lineages namely A, B, and C.
Diversity among Indian Sheeps
- It was found that lineage A was predominant among Indian sheep, whereas lineages B and C were observed at low frequencies.
- Particularly lineage C was restricted to the breeds of northern and eastern India.
- The study examined the south Indian breeds, provided strong genetic evidence that the Indian subcontinent was one of the domestication centres of the lineage A sheep.
- When DNA sequences were compared with other breeds across the world, it was found that the Indian sheep haplotypes were unique and highly diverse.
- The high genetic diversity and statistical analysis suggest that sheep was domesticated in the country.
- The wild Sheep, O. vignei blanfordi in Mehrgarh [Pakistan], may be a potential progenitor of domestic sheep lineage.
Breeds studied
- Among the south Indian breeds, except for Mandya, all others, notably Bellary, Coimbatore, Hassan, Katchaikatty Black, Nilgri, Ramnad White, and Vembur, were fully encompassed with lineage A.
- However, Kenguri Kilakarsal, Madras Red, Mecheri, and Tiruchy Black breeds, had very low occurrences of lineage B mitochondria.
- In contrast, a majority of individuals of Mandya and Sonadi breeds carried a relatively high frequency of lineage B.
- In terms of the conservation of sheep genetic resources, these two breeds are important with respect to maternal lineages.
Try answering this PYQ:
With reference to the difference between the culture of Rigvedic Aryans and Indus Valley people, which of the following statements is/are correct?
- Rigvedic Aryans used the coat of mail and helmet in warfare whereas the people of Indus Valley Civilization did not leave any evidence of using them.
- Rigvedic Aryans knew gold, silver and copper whereas Indus Valley people knew only copper and iron.
- Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal.
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1 only
(b) 2 and 3 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2 and 3
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Chola inscriptions on qualifications for civic officials
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Kudavolai System
Mains level : Chola Administration
In the Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu, some Chola-era inscriptions on Kanthaleeswarar Temple bear testimony to the qualifications required for members of the village administrative council.
Inscription details: Kudavolai System
- The Kudavolai system was very vital and unique feature of administration of villages of Cholas.
- In the system one representative is elected from each ward and every village had 30 wards.
- The village administrative committee was called as variyam.
- The election was unique as names of contestants were written on palm leaf and put in a pot.
Taxation details
- The rulers were considerate while taxing agricultural produce.
- For areca nuts, only 50% tax would be collected for the first 10 years after cultivation. Farmers would pay full tax only after the trees started yielding fruits.
- Similarly, 50% tax was imposed on banana crops until the yield.
Though a tough one, but try answering this PYQ:
Q.In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs:
Term: Description
- Eripatti: Land revenue from which was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank
- Taniyurs: Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins
- Ghatikas: Colleges generally attached to the temples
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
Post your answers here.
UPSC 2022 countdown has begun! Get your personal guidance plan now! (Click here)
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
What is Vishnuonyx?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Vishnuonyx neptuni
Mains level : NA
Between 12.5 million and 14 million years ago, members of a genus of otters called Vishnuonyx lived in the major rivers of southern Asia.
Vishnuonyx neptuni
- Vishnuonyx were mid-sized predators that weighed, on average, 10-15 kg.
- Before this, the genus was known only in Asia and Africa (recent findings show that Vishnuonyx reached East Africa about 12 million years ago, according to the release).
- Vishnuonyx depended on water and could not travel long distances over land.
Why in news?
- German researchers have discovered the fossil of a previously unknown species, which they have named Vishnuonyx neptuni, meaning ‘Neptune’s Vishnu’.
- Fossils of these now extinct otters were first discovered in sediments found in the foothills of the Himalayas.
- Now, a newly found fossil indicates it had travelled as far as Germany. ‘
- The dispersal of Vishnuonyx otters from the Indian subcontinent to Africa and Europe about 13 million years ago. ‘
- This is the first discovery of any member of the Vishnuonyx genus in Europe; it is also its most northern and western record till date.
How did it travel as far as Europe?
- According to the researchers, its travels over 6,000 km were probably made possible by the geography of 12 million years ago, when the Alps were recently formed.
- These Alps and the Iranian Elbrus Mountains were separated by a large ocean basin, which would have made it easier for the otters to cross it.
- Researchers believe ‘Neptune’s Vishnu’ first reached southern Germany, followed by Ancient Guenz and eventually, the Hammerschmiede.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Gupta Era Temple uncovered in UP
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Shankhlipi Script, Gupta Period
Mains level : Zenith of arts and cultural development during Gupta Period
Last week, the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) discovered remains of an ancient temple dating back to the Gupta period (5th century) in a village in Uttar Pradesh’s Etah district.
Findings of the excavation
- The Bilsarh site was declared ‘protected’ in 1928.
- Every year, the ASI undertakes scrubbing work at the protected sites.
- This year, the team discovered two decorative pillars close to one another, with human figurines resembling an ancient temple.
- The stairs of the temple had ‘shankhalipi’ inscriptions, which were deciphered by the archaeologists as saying, ‘Sri Mahendraditya’, the title of Kumaragupta I of the Gupta dynasty.
You will find tons of PYQs on Gupta Period. Try this recent one:
Q. With reference to the period of Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura and Chaula were well known as:
(a) ports handling foreign trade
(b) capitals of powerful kingdoms
(c) places of exquisite stone art and architecture
(d) important Buddhist pilgrimage centres
Post your answers here.
Who was Kumaragupta I?
- Kumaragupta I was an emperor of the Gupta Empire of Ancient India.
- A son of the Gupta emperor Chandragupta II and queen Dhruvadevi, he seems to have maintained control of his inherited territory, which extended from Gujarat in the west to Bengal region in the east.
- In the 5th century, Kumaragupta I ruled for 40 years over north-central India.
- Skandagupta, son and successor of Kumaragupta I is generally considered to be the last of the great Gupta rulers.
- He assumed the titles of Vikramaditya and Kramaditya.
What is the Shankhalipi script?
- Shankhalipi or “shell-script” is a term used by scholars to describe ornate spiral characters assumed to be Brahmi derivatives that look like conch shells or shankhas.
- They are found in inscriptions across north-central India and date to between the 4th and 8th centuries.
- Both Shankhalipi and Brahmi are stylised scripts used primarily for names and signatures.
- The inscriptions consist of a small number of characters, suggesting that the shell inscriptions are names or auspicious symbols or a combination of the two.
Chronology and meaning
- The script was discovered in 1836 on a brass trident in Uttarakhand’s Barahat by English scholar James Prinsep, who was the founding editor of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
- A year later, he came across two more similar scripts at Nagarjuna group of caves in the Barabar Hills near Gaya.
- Prominent sites with shell inscriptions include the Mundeshwari Temple in Bihar, the Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh, Mansar in Maharashtra and some of the cave sites of Gujarat and Maharashtra.
- In fact, shell inscriptions are also reported in Indonesia’s Java and Borneo.
- Scholars have tried to decipher shell script but have not been successful.
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Back2Basics: Gupta Empire
- The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian empire which existed from the early 4th century CE to late 6th century CE.
- This period is considered as the Golden Age of India by historians.
- The ruling dynasty of the empire was founded by the king Sri Gupta; the most notable rulers of the dynasty were Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II alias Vikramaditya.
- The 5th-century CE Sanskrit poet Kalidasa credits the Guptas with having conquered about twenty-one kingdoms, both in and outside India, including the kingdoms of Parasikas, the Hunas, the Kambojas, tribes located in the west and east Oxus valleys, the Kinnaras, Kiratas, and others.
- Many of the literary sources, such as Mahabharata and Ramayana, were canonized during this period.
- The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Vatsyayana who made great advancements in many academic fields.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
[pib] Hybodont Shark fossils found in Jaisalmer
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Hybodont Shark
Mains level : Not Much
In a rare discovery, teeth of new species of Hybodont shark of Jurassic age have been reported for the first time from Jaisalmer by a team of officers from the Geological Survey of India (GSI).
Hybodont Shark
- Hybodonts, an extinct group of sharks, was a dominant group of fishes in both marine and fluvial environments during the Triassic and early Jurassic time.
- However, hybodont sharks started to decline in marine environments from the Middle Jurassic onwards until they formed a relatively minor component of open-marine shark assemblages.
- They finally became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous time 65 million years ago.
Significance of the fossil
- The newly discovered crushing teeth from Jaisalmer represents a new species named by the research team as Strophodusjaisalmerensis.
- These sharks have been reported for the first time from the Jurassic rocks (approximately, between 160 and 168 million years old) of the Jaisalmer region of Rajasthan.
- The genus Strophodus has been identified for the first time from the Indian subcontinent and is only the third such record from Asia, the other two being from Japan and Thailand.
- It opens a new window for further research in the domain of vertebrate fossils.
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Back2Basics: Geological time-scale
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Thamirabarani Civilization is 3200 years old
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Thamirabarani Civilization
Mains level : Ancient Indian Civilizations
A carbon dating analysis of rice with soil, found in a burial urn at Sivakalai in Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu has yielded the date of 1155 BC, indicating that the Thamirabarani civilization dates back to 3,200 years.
About Thamirabarani River
- The Thamirabarani or Tamraparni or Porunai is a perennial river that originates from the Agastyarkoodam peak of the Pothigai hills of the Western Ghats.
- It flows through the Tirunelveli and Thoothukudi districts of the Tamil Nadu state of southern India into the Gulf of Mannar.
- It was called the Tamraparni River in the pre-classical period, a name it lent to the island of Sri Lanka.
- The old Tamil name of the river is Porunai.
Its history
- Its many name derivations of Tan Porunai include Tampraparani, Tamirabarni, Tamiravaruni.
- Tan Porunai nathi finds mention by classical Tamil poets in ancient Sangam Tamil literature Purananuru.
- Recognised as a holy river in Sanskrit literature Puranas, Mahabharata and Ramayana, the river was famed in the Early Pandyan Kingdom for its pearl and conch fisheries and trade.
- The movement of people, including the faithful, trade merchants and toddy tapers from Tamraparni river to northwestern Sri Lanka led to the shared appellation of the name for the closely connected region.
- One important historical document on the river is the treatise Tamraparni Mahatmyam.
- It has many ancient temples along its banks. A hamlet known as Appankoil is located on the northern side of the river.
Significance of the carbon dating
- This has provided evidence that there was a city civilisation in south India as long back as 3,200 years ago, the later part of the Indus Valley Civilisation.
- Vicinity to the ancient port of Muziris, now known as Pattanam, in Kerala add another significance to the trade history of this site.
- Now, research would be conducted at Quseir al-Qadim and Pernica Anekke in Egypt, which were once part of the Roman empire, as well as in Khor Rori in Oman, to establish the Tamils’ trade relations with these countries.
- Potsherds bearing Tamil scripts have been found in these countries.
- Studies would also be conducted in Southeast Asian countries, such as Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam, where King Rajendra Chola had established supremacy.
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Also read
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Visva-Bharati University
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Vishwa Bharati University
Mains level : Not Much
The Calcutta High Court has directed that there can be no protest by the students within 50 meters of academic buildings at Visva-Bharati University.
Visva-Bharati
- Visva-Bharati is a central research university and an Institution of National Importance located in Shantiniketan, West Bengal, India.
- It was founded by Rabindranath Tagore who called it Visva-Bharati, which means the communion of the world with India.
- Until independence, it was a college.
- Soon after independence, the institution was given the status of a central university in 1951 by an act of the Parliament.
Its history
- The origins of the institution date back to 1863 when Debendranath Tagore was given a tract of land by the zamindar of Raipur, zamindar of Kirnahar.
- He set up an ashram at the spot that has now come to be called chatim tala at the heart of the town.
- The ashram was initially called Brahmacharya Ashram, which was later renamed Brahmacharya Vidyalaya.
- It was established with a view to encouraging people from all walks of life to come to the spot and meditate.
- In 1901 his youngest son Rabindranath Tagore established a co-educational school inside the premises of the ashram.
- From 1901 onwards, Tagore used the ashram to organize the Hindu Mela, which soon became a center of nationalist activity.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Dinosaur Footprints found in Thar desert
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Dinosaur species mentioned
Mains level : Not Much
In a major discovery, footprints of three species of dinosaurs have been found in the Thar desert in Rajasthan’s Jaisalmer district.
Details of the footprints
- The footprints, made in the sediment or silt of the seashore, later become permanently stone-like.
- They belong to three species of dinosaurs — Eubrontes cf. giganteus, Eubrontes glenrosensis and Grallator tenuis.
- While the giganteus and glenrosensis species have 35 cm footprints, the footprint of the third species was found to be 5.5 cm.
- The dinosaur species are considered to be of the theropod type, with the distinguishing features of hollow bones and feet with three digits.
- All three species, belonging to the early Jurassic period, were carnivorous.
- Eubrontes could have been 12 to 15 metres long and weighed between 500 kg and 700 kg, while the height of the Grallator is estimated to have been two metres, as much as a human, with a length of up to three metres.
Key findings
- The discovery of dinosaur footprints prove the presence of the giant reptiles in the western part of the State, which formed the seashore to the Tethys Ocean during the Mesozoic era.
- Careful geological observations enabled the scientists to interpret ancient environments in which the rocks of the footprints, which were once soft sediments, were deposited.
- Geochemical analyses and calculation of weathering indices showed that the hinterland climate was seasonal to semi-arid during the deposition of the footprints.
- Fieldwork in the Kutch and Jaisalmer basins has suggested that after the main transgression during the early Jurassic period, the sea level changed several times.
- Spatial and temporal distribution of sediments and traces of fossils and post-depositional structures provided an indication to this phenomenon.
Significance
- These trace fossils are significant to ascertain how life started and evolved after the mass extinction of species, including dinosaurs, at the end of the cretaceous period around 65 million years ago.
- This research also illustrates the evidence of a fluvial freshwater palaeo-environment and tropical palaeo-climate, indicating the presence of a tropical forest and a huge network of rivers.
No matter what, try this PYQ:
Q.The term “sixth mass extinction/sixth extinction” is often mentioned in the news in the context of the discussion of (CSP 2018):
(a) Widespread monoculture Practices agriculture and large-scale commercial farming with indiscriminate use of chemicals in many parts of the world that may result in the loss of good native ecosystems.
(b) Fears of a possible collision of a meteorite with the Earth in the near future in the manner it happened 65million years ago that caused the mass extinction of many species including those of dinosaurs.
(c) Large scale cultivation of genetically modified crops in many parts of the world and promoting their cultivation in other Parts of the world which may cause the disappearance of good native crop plants and the loss of food biodiversity.
(d) Mankind’s over-exploitation/misuse of natural resources, fragmentation/loss, natural habitats, destruction of ecosystems, pollution, and global climate change.
Post your answers here.
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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Places in news: Kesaria Buddhist Stupa
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Kesaria Stupa
Mains level : Not Much
The world-famous Kesaria Buddha stupa in east Champaran district of Bihar is waterlogged following floods in some parts of the district after heavy rainfall in the catchment areas of river Gandak in neighbouring Nepal.
Kesaria Stupa
- The Kesaria stupa, located about 110 km from the State capital Patna, has a circumference of almost 400 feet and stands at a height of about 104 feet.
- The first construction of the nationally protected stupa is dated to the 3rd century BCE.
- It is regarded as the largest Buddhist stupa in the world and has been drawing tourists from across several Buddhist countries.
- The sputa’s exploration had started in the early 19th century after its discovery led by Colonel Mackenzie in 1814.
- Later, it was excavated by General Cunningham in 1861-62 and in 1998 an ASI team led by archaeologist K.K. Muhammad had excavated the site properly.
- The original Kesaria stupa is said to date back to the time of emperor Ashoka (circa 250 BCE) as the remains of an Ashokan pillar was discovered there.
In the accounts of foreign travellers
- The stupa mound may even have been inaugurated during the Buddha’s time, as it corresponds in many respects to the description of the stupa erected by the Licchavis of Vaishali to house the alms bowl the Buddha has given them.
- Interestingly, Chinese travellers Fa-Hien (5th century CE) and Hiuen Tsang (7th century CE), who travelled to India, also mention this stupa and the legend of Buddha and the Licchavis, in their records.
- While Fa-Hien talks of a pillar erected at the site, Hiuen Tsang mentions the stupa itself.
Try answering this question from CS Mains 2016:
Q.Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Skull found in China represents a new human species
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Stone age man and his evolution
Mains level : Not Much
Scientists have announced that a skull discovered in northeast China represents a newly discovered human species they have named Homo longi, or “Dragon Man”.
Answer this PYQ in the comment box:
Q.The word ‘Denisovan’ is sometimes mentioned in media in reference to (CSP 2019):
(a) fossils of a kind of dinosaurs
(b) an early human species
(c) a cave system found in North-East India.
(d) a geological period in the history of Indian subcontinent
Who is the “Dragon Man”, the latest Chinese discovery?
- The cranium found in China has been dubbed the “Dragaon Man” or Homo longi, a name that has been derived from the Long Jiang or Dragon River in the Heilongjiang province of China where the city of Harbin is located.
- The skull was reportedly discovered back in 1933, when a bridge was built over the Songhua River.
- For thousands of years, the skull remained buried in sediments.
- Because of the distinctive shape of the skull, which was found almost complete, some members of the team have suggested that it be declared a part of a new species of the genus Homo.
- Significantly, the size of the skull, which has a considerable brain capacity, is comparable to that of modern humans and Neanderthals.
Why is this discovery being considered significant?
- For one, it brings new knowledge about the evolution of Homo sapiens.
- It might help to bridge the gaps between our ancient ancestors called Homo erectus and us.
- This knowledge is important because there is very little consensus in the scientific community about how different human species are related, and which species are our immediate ancestors.
- Smithsonian for instance notes that some palaeontologists believe Homo heidelbergensis to be our immediate ancestors.
- This species was discovered in 1908, and lived about 700,000 to 200,000 years ago in Europe and possibly China and some parts of Africa.
Back2Basics: Species of Humans
- Modern humans are the only human species that exist in the world today.
- While the exact number of human species is a matter of debate, most scientists believe that there are at least 21 of them.
As per the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History, there are over 21 human species. Major among these are:
(1) Sahelanthropus tchadensis
- Sahelanthropus tchadensis is believed to be the oldest member of the human family tree.
- It lived about 7-6 million years ago somewhere around present-day Chad in Africa.
- It had both ape-like and human-like features and was bipedalled, an ability that may have increased its chances of survival.
(2) Homo erectus
- Homo erectus lived about 1.89 million-110,000 years ago, in Northern, Eastern, and Southern Africa and Western and East Asia.
- ‘Turkana Boy’ is the most complete fossil belonging to this species and is dated to be around 1.6 million years old.
(3) Modern man
- Homo neanderthalensis lived about 400,000-40,000 years ago and co-existed with Homo sapiens for a few thousand years.
- They lived in Europe and in southwestern and central Asia.
- Homo sapiens evolved about 300,000 years ago, and are found worldwide.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
New geometrical lines discovered in Thar Desert
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Boha Geoglyphs
Mains level : NA
Using satellite observations and field visits, two independent researchers from France have identified eight sites around Jaisalmer in the Thar Desert, that show linear features resembling geoglyphs.
What are geoglyphs?
- Geoglyphs are large, un-explained geometrical patterns on land usually proposed to be man-made features.
- The largest concentration of geoglyphs is reported from southern Peru, covering an area of about 1,000 square km.
- A new paper published notes that the identified geoglyphs in the Thar Desert cover an area of about 6 square km.
Boha Geoglyphs in Thar
- The authors’ main area of interest was Boha, a small village 40 km to the north of Jaisalmer where they noticed a series of concentric and linear features.
- They named these features Boha geoglyphs and suggested that the features could be at least 150 years old.
- It is however conceivable that they were built at the beginning of the British colonial period, in the middle of the 19th century.
How are they patterned?
- The Boha geoglyphs are clearly manmade as the main unit is a giant spiral, but they have been eroded due to the cars running over the lines lately.
- So, they are clearly not formed by weathering or another natural phenomenon.”
- The observed features might have been formed naturally, but degraded over time due to both natural and human-related causes.
Degraded over time
- The rocky terrain is home to a typical weathering feature, especially over the iron-rich sandstone and shale beds.
- Here, extreme aridity and high temperature lead to slow geochemical translocation of minerals for centuries, such that the heavier minerals like iron and manganese move away from the lighter minerals.
- This lead to the gradual formation of alternate bands of harder and softer mineral concentrations.
- With time the areas with softer materials get slowly eroded, while the harder ones stand out, producing the typical concentric or box-like geometric features.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Places in news: Pandav Leni Complex
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Pandav leni complex
Mains level : Ancient buddhist cave architecture
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has found three more caves in the Trirashmi Buddhist cave complex, also known as Pandav Leni, near Nashik, Maharashtra.
Answer this PYQ first, in the comment box:
Q.There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh caves
(b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
Pandav Leni Complex
- The Pandav Leni Complex or Nasik Caves are a group of 23 caves carved between the 1st century BCE and the 3rd century CE.
- Also called Trirashmi Buddhist caves, this complex was first documented in 1823 by Captain James Delamaine and is now an ASI- protected site.
- Though additional sculptures were added up to about the 6th century, it is a major landmark of changes in Buddhist devotional practices.
- Most of the caves are viharas except for Cave 18 which is a chaitya of the 1st century BCE.
- The style of some of the elaborate pillars or columns, for example in caves 3 and 10, is an important example of the development of the form.
- The “Pandavleni” name sometimes given to the Nasik Caves has nothing to do with the characters Pandavas, characters in the Mahabharata epic.
- Other caves in the area are Karla Caves, Bhaja Caves, Patan Cave, and Bedse Caves.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Thomas Hickey’s 19th century painting on smallpox vaccination
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Smallpox vaccination in colonial India
Mains level : Not Much
A 19th-century portrait of three women from Mysore has been going viral as “one of the most important scientific pictures in the history of medicine in India”.
What did the portrait depict?
- Believed to be painted in 1805 by Irish-born artist Thomas Hickey, the oil on canvas was initially thought to be portraits of “dancing girls or courtesans”.
- The painting depicted one of the first vaccine drives in India, with bejewelled women from the Wadiyar dynasty posing for Hickey.
- The canvas was commissioned to promote participation in the smallpox vaccination programme and the women posing with the scars.
What is smallpox?
- Smallpox is an acute contagious disease caused by the variola virus, a member of the orthopoxvirus family.
- It was one of the most devastating diseases known to humanity and caused millions of deaths before it was eradicated.
- It is believed to have existed for at least 3000 years.
How and when did the smallpox vaccine reach India?
- The smallpox vaccine, discovered by Edward Jenner in 1796, was the first successful vaccine to be developed.
- On June 14, 1802, Anna Dusthall, an Anglo-Indian toddler, was the first person in India to be successfully vaccinated against the virus that relied on the cowpox virus, “a mild cousin of smallpox” to trigger immunity.
- The “vaccine vesicle” that came on the arm of the receiver was a source of lymphatic fluid or pus that would act as a vaccine, leading to an arm-to-arm immunisation chain.
- The vaccine subsequently travelled to different parts of India, including Hyderabad, Cochin, Madras and Mysore.
How was the drive carried out?
- While the lymph was at times reportedly dried and sealed between glass plates to be transported, it often did not survive long journeys, due to which the British had to primarily rely on a human chain.
- There was also opposition from the domestic population on the introduction of the cowpox virus and also because some believed the goddess of smallpox would be angered by the vaccination.
- With Tipu Sultan defeated in Mysore, and the reinstatement of the Wadiyars, the East India Company was trying to strengthen its position in South India.
- It protected the ex-pat population from an epidemic, making vaccination essential.
- Queen Lakshmi Ammanni, who had lost her husband to smallpox, supported their cause and wanted to vaccine her population against the deadly virus.
- The painting was supposed to encourage participation in the vaccination drive.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Reclining Buddha and his various other depictions in art
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Reclining Buddha , Various Mudras
Mains level : Buddhist arts in India
On this Buddha Jayanti, Buddha Purnima, or Vesak — India’s largest statue of the Reclining Buddha was to have been installed at Bodh Gaya. The ceremony has been put off due to Covid-19 restrictions.
The Reclining Buddha
- A reclining Buddha statue or image represents The Buddha during his last illness, about to enter Parinirvana, the stage of great salvation after death that can only be attained by enlightened souls.
- The Buddha’s death came when he was 80 years old, in a state of meditation, in Kushinagar in eastern Uttar Pradesh, close to the state’s border with Bihar.
Answer this PYQ from CSP 2014 in the comment box:
Q.Lord Buddha’s image is sometimes shown with a hand gesture called ‘Bhumisparsha Mudra’. It symbolizes-
a) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to watch over Mara and to prevent Mara from disturbing his meditation
b) Buddha’s calling of the Earth to witness his purity and chastity despite the temptations of Mara
c) Buddha’s reminder to his followers that they all arise from the Earth and finally dissolve into the Earth and thus this life is transitory
d) Both the statements ‘a’ and ‘b’ are correct in this context
Significance of the position
- Buddha is lying on his right side, his head resting on a cushion or relying on his right elbow, supporting his head with his hand.
- After the Buddha’s death, his followers decide to build a statue of him lying down.
- It is a popular iconographic depiction in Buddhism and is meant to show that all beings have the potential to be awakened and be released from the cycle of death and rebirth.
Connection with Gandhara Art
- The Reclining Buddha was first depicted in Gandhara art, which began in the period between 50 BC and 75 AD, and peaked during the Kushana period from the first to the fifth centuries AD.
- Since the Buddha was against idol worship, in the centuries immediately following his Parinirvana (483 BC), his representation was through symbols.
- As the devotional aspect subsequently entered Buddhist practice, however, iconographic representations of The Buddha began.
Try this question from CS Mains 2016:
Q.Early Buddhist Stupa-art, while depicting folk motifs and narratives, successfully expounds Buddhist ideals. Elucidate.
Reclining Buddha outside India
- In Sri Lanka and India, the Buddha is mostly shown in sitting postures, while the reclining postures are more prevalent in Thailand and other parts of southeast Asia.
- There are several statues of the Reclining Buddha in China, Thailand, Japan, Indonesia, and Malaysia.
- The largest in the world is the 600-foot Winsein Tawya Buddha built-in 1992 in Mawlamyine, Myanmar.
- In the late 15th century, a 70-meter statue of the Reclining Buddha was built at the Hindu temple site of Baphuon in Cambodia’s Angkor.
- The Bhamala Buddha Parinirvana in Pakistan’s Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, which dates back to the 2nd century AD, is considered the oldest statue of its kind in the world.
Reclining Buddha in India
- Cave No. 26 of the UNESCO World Heritage Site of Ajanta contains a 24-foot-long and nine-foot-tall sculpture of the Reclining Buddha, believed to have been carved in the 5th century AD.
- It shows the Buddha reclining on his right side, and behind him are two sala trees.
- At the base of the sculpture are his begging bowl, a water pitcher and walking stick.
- While his disciples are shown sitting in mourning, celestial beings are shown on top, rejoicing in anticipation of the Buddha’s arrival in heaven.
Back2Basics: Mudras of Buddha
Dharmachakra Mudra
- It is also called as the gesture of ‘Teaching of the Wheel of Dharma’ that describes one of the most important moments in the Buddha’s life as he performed the Dharmachakra mudra in his first sermon in Sarnath after he attained enlightenment.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands which are held against the chest, the left facing inward, covering the right facing outward.
Dhyan Mudra
- It is also known as Samadhi or Yoga Mudra.
- It is performed with the help of two hands, which are placed on the lap and place the right hand on the left hand with stretched fingers (thumbs facing upwards and other fingers of both the hand resting on each other.)
- This is the characteristic gesture of Buddha Shakyamuni, Dhyani Buddha Amitabh and the Medicine Buddha.
Bhumisparsa Mudra
- This gesture is also known as ‘touching the Earth’, which represents the moment of the Buddha’s awakening as he claims the earth as the witness of his enlightenment.
- It is performed with the help of the right hand, which is held above the right knee, reaching toward the ground with the palm inward while touching the lotus throne.
Varada Mudra
- This mudra represents the offering, welcome, charity, giving, compassion and sincerity.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands in which palm of right hand is facing forward and fingers extended and left hand palm placed near centre with extended fingers.
Karana Mudra
- It signifies the warding off of evil which is performed by raising the index and the little finger, and folding the other fingers.
- It helps in reducing sickness or negative thoughts.
Vajra Mudra
- This gesture denotes the fiery thunderbolt that symbolises the five elements—air, water, fire, earth, and metal.
- It is performed with the help of right fist and left forefinger, which is placed by enclosing the erect forefinger of the left hand in the right fist with the tip of the right forefinger touching (or curled around) the tip of the left forefinger.
Vitarka Mudra
- It signifies the discussion and transmission of the teachings of the Buddha.
- It is performed by joining the tips of the thumb and the index fingers together while keeping the other fingers straight, which is just like the Abhaya Mudra and Varada Mudra but in this mudra the thumbs touch the index fingers.
Abhaya Mudra
- It is a gesture of fearlessness or blessing that represents the protection, peace, benevolence, and dispelling of fear.
- It is performed with the help of right hand by raising to shoulder height with bent arm, and the face of palm will be facing outward with fingers upright whereas the left hand hanging down while standing.
Uttarabodhi Mudra
- This denotes the supreme enlightenment through connecting oneself with divine universal energy.
- It is performed with the help of both the hands, which are placed at the heart with the index fingers touching and pointing upwards and the remaining fingers intertwined.
Anjali Mudra
- It is also called Namaskara Mudra or Hridayanjali Mudra that represents the gesture of greeting, prayer and adoration.
- It is performed by pressing the palms of the hands together in which the hands are held at the heart chakra with thumbs resting lightly against the sternum.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
[pib] Development of Rakhi Garhi Archaeological Site
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Iconic Archaeological sites
Mains level : Indus valley civilization
Rakhi Garhi is being developed as one of the five Identified Iconic Archaeological Sites, informed the Minister of Culture and Tourism.
Rakhi Garhi
- The ancient site of Rakhi-Khas and Rakhi-Shahpur are collectively known as Rakhigarhi, located on the right bank of the now dried up Palaeo-channel of Drishadvati.
- It is located in the Ghaggar-Hakra river plain in the Hissar district of Haryana.
- Seven mounds are located here.
- The site has yielded various stages of Harappan culture and is by far one of the largest Harappan sites in India.
- The site shows the sequential development of the Indus culture in the now dried up Saraswati basin.
Try this question from our AWE initiative
Major findings at Rakhi Garhi
- Findings confirm both early and mature Harappan phases and include 4,600-year-old human skeletons, fortification and bricks.
- Digging so far reveals a well-planned city with 1.92 m wide roads, a bit wider than in Kalibangan.
- The pottery is similar to Kalibangan and Banawali.
- Pits surrounded by walls have been found, which are thought to be for sacrificial or some religious ceremonies.
- There are brick-lined drains to handle sewage from the houses.
- Terracotta statues, weights, bronze artefacts, comb, copper fish hooks, needles and terracotta seals have also been found.
- A bronze vessel has been found which is decorated with gold and silver.
- A granary belonging to the mature Harappan phase has been found here.
- Fire altars structures were revealed in Rakhigarhi.
Back2Basics: Five Iconic Archaeological Sites
The government has proposed to develop five archaeological sites as “iconic sites” with onsite museums in Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Hastinapur (Uttar Pradesh), Sivsagar (Assam), Dholavira (Gujarat) and Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu) in the Union Budget 2020-21.
(1) Rakhigarhi
*discussed above*
(2) Hastinapur
Hastinapur in the Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh finds mention in the Mahabharata and the Puranas. One of the most significant discoveries made at this site was of the “new ceramic industry”, which was named the Painted Grey Ware, which as per the report represented the relics of the early Indo-Aryans.
(3) Sivasagar
In Sivasagar (Assam), excavations at the Karenghar (Talatalghar) complex between 2000 and 2003 led to the discovery of buried structures in the north-western and north-eastern side of the complex. Among the structural remains found at the site were ceramic assemblages including vases, vessels, dishes, and bowls, etc. Terracotta smoking pipes were also found.
(4) Dholavira
Dholavira in Gujarat is located in the Khadir island of the Rann of Kutch, and like Rakhigarhi is one of the sites where the remains of the Harappan civilization have been found. It is unique because the remains of a complete water system have been found here.
(5) Adichnallur
Adichnallur lies in the Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu. The urn-burial site was first brought to light during a “haphazard excavation” by a German archaeologist in 1876. Following this, an Englishman Alexander Rae excavated the site between 1889 and 1905.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Govt. reconstitutes panel for studying mythical Sarasvati River
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Rigvedic rivers
Mains level : Not Much
The Centre has reconstituted an advisory committee to chalk out a plan for studying the mythical Sarasvati River for the next two years after the earlier panel’s term ended in 2019.
Do you know?
Rigveda describes India as a land of Sapta Sindhavah.
There is a verse in Nadistuti sukta of Rigveda , hymn of praise of rivers which mentions the following 10 rivers: Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Sutudri, Parusni, Asikni, Marudvrdha , Vitasta , Arjikiya , Susoma.
The Shutudri was Sutlej, Parushni was Ravi, Asikni was Chenab and Vitasta was Jhelum.
Sarasvati River
- The Sarasvati River is an extinct river mentioned in the Rig Veda and later Vedic and post-Vedic texts.
- As a physical river, it is described as a small river ending in “a terminal lake (Samudra).
- As the goddess Sarasvati, the main referent for the term “Sarasvati” which developed into an independent identity in post-Vedic times, she is described as a powerful river and mighty flood.
- The Sarasvati is also considered by Hindus to exist in a metaphysical form, in which it formed a confluence with the sacred rivers Ganges and Yamuna, at the Triveni Sangam.
Vedic reference of the river
- Rigvedic and later Vedic texts have been used to propose identification with present-day rivers, or ancient riverbeds.
- The Nadistuti hymn in the Rigveda (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the Yamuna in the east and the Sutlej in the west.
- Later Vedic texts like the Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahmanas, as well as the Mahabharata, mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert.
What led to its extinction?
- Since the late 19th-century, scholars have proposed to identify the Rig Vedic Saraswati river with the Ghaggar-Hakra river system.
- This flows through northwestern India and eastern Pakistan, between the Yamuna and the Sutlej.
- Recent geophysical research suggests that the Ghaggar-Hakra system was glacier-fed until 8,000 years ago, and then became a system of monsoon-fed rivers.
- ISRO has observed that major Indus Valley Civilization sites at Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Banawali and Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat) lay along this course.
- The Indus Valley Civilisation may have declined as a result of climatic change when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished at around the time civilisation diminished some 4,000 years ago.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
10th century Buddhist Monastery uncovered in Jharkhand’s Hazaribagh
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Buddha's Mudra, Vajrayana Sect
Mains level : Read the attached story
The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has unearthed a Buddhist monastery, believed to be at least 900 years old, buried under a mound in a village situated in a hilly area of Hazaribagh district of Jharkhand.
Details of the excavation
- The findings were significant since the monastery is on the old route to Varanasi, 10 km from Sarnath, where the Buddha gave his first sermon.
- Archaeologists found four statues of the deity Tara in Varad Mudra and six statues of the Buddha in bhumisparsa Mudra
- So it is a significant finding as deity Tara’s statues mean this was an important centre of the Vajrayana sect of Buddhism.
- Vajrayana is a form of Tantric Buddhism, which flourished in India from the 6th to 11th century.
Tap to read more about Buddhism at:
Learning: Various Mudra of Buddha
PC: Pinterest
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Inscription on Krishnadevaraya’s death discovered
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Krishnadevaraya
Mains level : Vijayanagara empire
The first-ever epigraphical reference to the date of death of Vijayanagara king Krishnadevaraya has been discovered in the Tumakuru district of Karnataka.
Try this question from CS Mains 2016:
Q.Krishnadevaraya, the King of Vijayanagara was not only an accomplished scholar himself, but was also a great patron of learning and literature. Discuss.
Who was Krishnadevaraya?
- Krishna Devaraya was the emperor of the Vijayanagara Empire during 1509–1529. He was the third ruler of the Tuluva Dynasty and is considered to be its greatest ruler.
- He possessed the largest empire in India after the decline of the Delhi Sultanate.
- Krishnadevaraya earned the titles Kannada Rajya Rama Ramana (lit, “Lord of the Kannada empire”), Andhra Bhoja (lit, “Andhra Bhoja(Scholar) King”) and Mooru Rayara Ganda (lit, “King of Three Kings”).
- He became the dominant ruler of the peninsula of India by defeating the Sultans of Bijapur, Golconda, the Bahmani Sultanate and the Gajapatis of Odisha, and was one of the most powerful Hindu rulers in India.
- Indeed, when the Mughal Emperor Babur was taking stock of the potentates of north India, Krishnadevaraya was rated the most powerful and had the most extensive empire in the subcontinent.
- Portuguese travellers Domingo Paes and Fernao Nuniz also visited the Vijayanagara Empire during his reign.
His literary work
- The rule of Krishnadevaraya was an age of prolific literature in many languages, although it is also known as a golden age of Telugu literature.
- He was fluent in many languages like Kannada, Marathi, Sanskrit, Telugu and Tamil.
- Eight Telugu poets were regarded as eight pillars of his literary assembly and known as Ashtadiggajas. He himself composed an epic Telugu poem Amuktamalyada.
- He took the title of Abhinava-Bhoja and Sakala-Kala-Bhoja (“Bhoja of all the arts”) in honour of Parmara emperor Bhoja who was a polymath, a master of 64 arts and a military genius.
What does the inscription say?
- As per the inscription, Krishnadevaraya died on October 17, 1529, Sunday.
- Incidentally, this day was marked by a lunar eclipse.
- The inscription also registers the gift of village Honnenahalli in Tumakuru for conducting worship to the god Veeraprasanna Hanumantha of Tumakuru.
- The Kalahasti inscription refers to the date of Achyutaraya’s (his successor) coronation as October 21, 1529 AD.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Dickinsonia fossil discovered in Bhimbetka
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Dickensonia, Bhimbetka
Mains level : Stone age paintings in India
Researchers have found the first-ever fossil in India of a Dickinsonia —the Earth’s ‘oldest animal’, dating back 570 million years — on the roof of what’s called the ‘Auditorium Cave’ at Bhimbetka.
Dickinsonia
- Dickinsonia is an extinct genus of basal animal that lived during the late Ediacaran period in what is now Australia, Russia and Ukraine.
- The individual Dickinsonia typically resembles a bilaterally symmetrical ribbed oval.
- Its affinities are presently unknown; its mode of growth is consistent with a stem-group bilaterian affinity, though some have suggested that it belongs to the fungi or even an “extinct kingdom”.
- The discovery of cholesterol molecules in fossils of Dickinsonia lends support to the idea that Dickinsonia was an animal.
What are the new findings?
Like the awe-inspiring rock shelters themselves, this fossil was discovered by chance.
- Dickinsonia fossils have shown that they could exceed four feet in length but the one found in Bhimbetka is 17 inches long.
- Eleven feet above the ground, almost blending with the rock and easily mistaken by laymen for prehistoric rock art, they found imprints of the Dickinsonia.
- It is believed to be one of the key links between the early, simple organisms and the explosion of life in the Cambrian Period, about 541 million years ago.
Cambrian Explosion and Dickinsonia
- The ‘Cambrian Explosion’ is the term given to the period of time in history when complex animals and other macroscopic organisms such as molluscs, worms, arthropods and sponges began to dominate the fossil record.
- Researchers from Australian found the Dickinsonia fossil since its tissue contained molecules of cholesterol a type of fat that is the hallmark of animal life.
Do you know?
Cosmogenic nuclide dating is deployed to determine time of earliest human culture. India’s oldest stone-age tools, up to 1.5 million years old, are at a prehistoric site near Chennai.
About Bhimbetka
- The Bhimbetka rock shelters are an archaeological site in central India that spans the prehistoric Paleolithic and Mesolithic periods, as well as the historic period.
- It exhibits the earliest traces of human life in India and evidence of Stone Age starting at the site in Acheulian times.
- It is located in the Raisen District in Madhya Pradesh about 45 kilometres (28 mi) south-east of Bhopal.
- It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that consists of seven hills and over 750 rock shelters distributed over 10 km (6.2 mi).
- At least some of the shelters were inhabited more than 100,000 years ago.
- Some of the Bhimbetka rock shelters feature prehistoric cave paintings and the earliest are about 10,000 years old (c. 8,000 BCE), corresponding to the Indian Mesolithic.
- These cave paintings show themes such as animals, early evidence of dance and hunting.
- The Bhimbetka rock shelters were found by V S Wakankar 64 years ago. Since then, thousands of researchers have visited the site, but this rare fossil went undetected.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Expedition to Ram Setu
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Adam's Bridge
Mains level : NA
In possibly a first, Indian scientists will undertake a scientific expedition to date the chain of corals and sediments forming the Ram Setu.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which of the following have coral reefs?
- Andaman and Nicobar Islands
- Gulf of Kachchh
- Gulf of Mannar
- Sunderbans
Select the correct answer using the code given below:
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 2 and 4 only
(c) 1 and 3 only
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4
Ram Setu
- Also known as Adam’s bridge, Ram Setu is a 48-km long bridge-like structure between India and Sri Lanka.
- It finds mention in the Ramayana but little about its formation is known or proven, scientifically.
What is the underwater archaeological project at Ram Setu?
- The National Institute of Oceanography (NIO) will undertake a three-year scientific project.
- The idea is to see whether Ram Setu is a man-made structure or not.
- The most important aspect of the project is to establish its age, scientifically.
- The explorers will apply a number of scientific techniques while attempting to date the Ram Setu, study its material composition, outline the sub-surface structure along with attempting to excavate remnants or artefacts, if any, from the site.
- Once it is known, the information can be verified and co-related with its mention in the Ramayana and similar scriptures.
How is the project planned?
- An initial survey will make use of underwater photographs to check if any habitation remains inundated in the area. A geophysical survey will be performed to understand the structure.
- Over the years, several kinds of depositions, including sand, have covered the actual structure. Initially, only physical observation, and no drilling, will be done.
- NIO operates two oceanographic vessels – RV Sindhu Sankalp (ability to go up to and remain 56 metres underwater) and RV Sindhu Sadhana (ability to go up to and remain 80 metres underwater).
- For collecting core samples at greater depths and for bathymetry purposes, Sindhu Sadhana will be deployed for the Ram Setu project.
Two of the planned tests:
- Side-scan SONAR — Will provide bathymetry which is similar to studying the topography of a structure on land. Soundwaves signals will be sent to the structure which will provide an outline of the physical structure of the Ram Setu.
- Silo seismic survey – Mild earthquake-like tremor shocks will be sent at shallow depths close to the structure. These energized shockwaves are capable of penetrating into the structure. The reflected or refracted signals will be captured by instruments that will provide sub-surface structure.
Significance of such exploration
- India has a vast coastline of over 7,500 kilometres.
- Oceans are a treasure trove of the past records — climate, evolutionary changes of the underwater fauna, coastal lives, habitations, settlements and civilizations.
- Of these, the sea-level changes remain the most significant of all with respect to climate studies.
- History has records of sailors who set out on unknown voyages to later discover new lands and islands.
- They ventured into deep seas even before the advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS).
- Using such underwater exploration studies, scientists say that it is possible to trace numerous ship-wreckages and remains from the past.
- Studies of ship wreckage, artefacts or remains could reveal a lot of information.
Recently a 60000 YO submerged forest was explored off the Alabama coast in the USA.
Has India undertaken underwater archaeological explorations?
- A part of Dwarka, along with coastal Gujarat, is underwater, confirming the sea-level rise.
- The NIO has been studying this site, and so far, traced large amounts of scattered stones which were retrieved at the depth between three to six metres beneath.
- Stone anchors, too, were found at the site, suggesting it to be part of an ancient harbour.
- In the past, NIO had initiated studies to trace the missing shore temples of Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu.
- Presently, several ship wreckage studies, including the one-off the Odisha coast, are going on.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Sulawesi Cave Paintings
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Sulawesi Cave Paintings
Mains level : Not Much
A team of archaeologists in Indonesia has discovered what may be the world’s oldest known cave painting dating back to more than 45,000 years.
Try this PYQ:
Q.There are only two known examples of cave paintings of the Gupta period in ancient India. One of these is paintings of Ajanta caves. Where is the other surviving example of Gupta paintings?
(a) Bagh caves
(b) Ellora caves
(c) Lomas Rishi cave
(d) Nasik caves
Sulawesi Cave Paintings
- The cave painting depicts a wild boar endemic to the Sulawesi island of Indonesia, where the painting was found.
- The central Indonesian island, which occupies an area of over 174,000 sq. km, is situated between Asia and Australia.
- It has a long history of human occupation.
Significance of the painting
- The archaeologists’ note that the dated painting of the Sulawesi warty pig seems to be the world’s oldest surviving representational image of an animal.
- The painting was made using red ochre pigment and depicts a pig with a short crest of upright hairs and a pair of horn-like facial warts in front of the eyes.
- These pigs have been hunted by humans for tens of thousands of years and are the most commonly depicted animal in the ice age rock art of the island.
- It suggests that they have long been used as food and form a “focus of creative thinking and artistic expression” for people of that time.
Must read:
Chapter 1 | Stone Age – Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic
How did the archaeologists date it?
- The painting was first discovered in 2017 as part of surveys the team was carrying out with the Indonesian authorities.
- For these painting archaeologists used a method called U-series isotope analysis, which uses calcium carbonate deposits that form naturally on the cave wall surface to determine its age.
- They used a calcium carbonate deposit, also referred to as “cave popcorn” that had formed on the rear foot of one of the pig figures.
- They were able to figure out a minimum age for the painting at around 45,500 years, which means the painting was made before this.
Sulawesi: Oldest human habitat
Try memorizing these Islands of the Indo-Pacific in their East-West alternations.
- Sulawesi island contains some of the oldest directly dated rock art in the world and also some of the oldest evidence for the presence of hominins beyond the southeastern limits of the Ice Age Asian continent.
- Hominins include modern humans, extinct human species and our immediate ancestors.
- Homo sapiens are the first modern humans who evolved from their hominid predecessors between 200,000-300,000 years ago.
- It is estimated that these modern humans started migrating outside of Africa some 70,000-100,000 years ago.
- Even so, it is not yet clear as to when modern humans first colonised Sulawesi.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Cattle meat residue found in Indus Valley vessels
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Various IVC sites
Mains level : IVC
A new study has found the presence of animal products, including cattle and buffalo meat, in ceramic vessels dating back about 4,600 years at seven Indus Valley Civilization sites in present-day Haryana and Uttar Pradesh.
The Karnataka Assembly has passed the controversial Karnataka Prevention of Slaughter and Preservation of Cattle Bill, 2020, amid protests.
Beef politics has always gained traction in India being a cheap source of protein for masses versus religious sentiments of the fundamentalists.
How was the study conducted?
- The study is the first to look into the absorbed lipid residues in pottery from multiple sites, including Rakhigarhi, Farmana and Masudpur.
- Lipids are relatively less prone to degradation and have been discovered in pottery from archaeological contexts around the world.
Key findings
- The high proportions of cattle bones suggest a cultural preference for beef consumption across Indus populations, supplemented by the consumption of mutton/lamb.
- The study found little evidence of dairy products. However, there could be regional differences as a recent study of vessels in Gujarat had found evidence of dairy products.
- About 50-60% of domestic animal bones found at Indus Valley sites come from cattle/buffalo.
- It says that at Harappa, 90% of the cattle were kept alive until they were three or three-and-a-half years, suggesting that females were used for dairying production, whereas male animals were used for traction.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
In new: Annapurna Idol
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Annapurna idol
Mains level : Not Much
PM has announced that an ancient idol of the goddess Annapurna, stolen from India about a century ago, is being brought back from Canada.
Must revise: Gandhara and Mathura school of Art
[Static Revision] Chapter 6 | Post Mauryan Period (200BC to 300AD)
Annapurna Idol
- Annapurna, also spelt Annapoorna, is the goddess of food.
- This 18th-century idol, carved in the Benares was stolen from a temple of Varanasi and smuggled out around 100 years ago somewhere around 1913.
- Now is part of the University of Regina, Canada’s collection at the MacKenzie Art Gallery.
- The idol holds a bowl of kheer in one hand and a spoon in the other.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Dairy production in the Indus Valley Civilization
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : IVC
Mains level : Dairy production in IVC
A new study has shown that dairy products were being produced by the Harappans as far back as 2500 BCE.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Which one of the following is not a Harappan site?
(a) Chanhudaro
(b) Kot Diji
(c) Sohgaura
(d) Desalpur
Dairy production in IVC
- By analysing residues on ancient pots, researchers show the earliest direct evidence of dairy product processing, thus throwing fresh light on the rural economy of the civilization.
- The studies were carried out on 59 shards of pottery from Kotada Bhadli, a small archaeological site in present-day Gujarat.
How did they find it?
- The team used molecular analysis techniques to study the residues from ancient pottery.
- Pots are porous. The pot preserves the molecules of food such as fats and proteins. Using techniques like C16 and C18 analysis we can identify the source of lipids.
- Traces were seen in cooking vessels indicating that milk may have been boiled and consumed.
Significant outcome of the study
- The study has found residues in a bowl showing that either heated milk or curd could have been served.
- There are also remains of a perforated vessel, and similar vessels were used in Europe to make cheese.
- The Harappans did not just use dairy for their household.
- The large herd indicates that milk was produced in surplus so that it could be exchanged and there could have been some kind of trade between settlements.
- This could have given rise to an industrial level of dairy exploitation.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Sawantwadi Toy (PIB)
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Sawantwadi toys
Mains level : NA
Context- Online Release of Picture Postcard on Sawantwadi Toy by India Post.
What are Sawantwadi toys ?
- Sawantwadi toys refers to hand made works of art made of wood in Sawantwadi a town in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra. Most of these toys are made in the village of Kolgaon in Sawantwadi taluka.
- These toys are made from the wood of the Indian Coral tree (Erythrina variegata).
- Craftsmen who make these toys belong to the Chittari community who came to Sawantwadi from Karwar and Goa.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Renati Chola Era Inscription
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Renati Cholas, Chola Administration
Mains level : Not Much
A rare inscription dating back to the Renati Chola era has been unearthed in a remote village of Kadapa district of Andhra Pradesh.
Try this PYQ:
Q.In the context of the history of India, consider the following pairs:
Term: Description
- Eripatti: Land revenue from which was set apart for the maintenance of the village tank
- Taniyurs: Villages donated to a single Brahmin or a group of Brahmins
- Ghatikas: Colleges generally attached to the temples
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
(a) 1 and 2
(b) 3 only
(c) 2 and 3
(d) 1 and 3
Who are the Renati Cholas?
- The Telugu Cholas of Renadu (also called as Renati Cholas) ruled over Renadu region, the present-day Kadapa district.
- They were originally independent, later forced to the suzerainty of the Eastern Chalukyas.
- They had the unique honour of using the Telugu language in their inscriptions belonging to the 6th and 8th centuries.
- The earliest of this family was Nandivarman (500 AD) who claimed descent from the family of Karikala and the Kasyapa gotra.
- He had three sons Simhavishnu, Sundarananda and Dhananjaya, all of whom were ruling different territories simultaneously.
- The family seems to have had its origin in Erigal in the Tunmkur district, situated in the border between Pallava and Kadamba regions.
About the inscription
- The inscription so found was engraved on a dolomite slab and shale.
- The inscription was written in archaic Telugu which is readable in 25 lines — the first side with eleven lines and the remaining on the other side.
- It was assigned to the 8th Century A.D. when the region was under the rule of Chola Maharaja of Renadu.
- The inscription seems to throw light on the record of a gift of six Marttus (a measuring unit) of land gifted to a person Sidyamayu, one of the Brahmins serving the temple at Pidukula village.
- It says the people who safeguard this inscription for future generations will acquire the status of conducting Aswamedha Yajna and those destroying it will incur sin equivalent to causing death in Varanasi.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
[pib] Historic City of Hampi
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Hampi
Mains level : Vijayanagara Architecture
The Ministry of Tourism organised their latest webinar titled Hampi- Inspired by the past; Going into the future under Dekho Apna Desh Webinar series.
Try this PYQ:
Q.Building ‘Kalyaana Mandapas’ was a notable feature in the temple construction in the kingdom of-
(a) Chalukya
(b) Chandela
(c) Rashtrakuta
(d) Vijayanagara
Facts about Hampi
- Its name is derived from Pampa which is the old name of the Tungabhadra River on whose banks the city is built.
- In 1336 CE, the Vijayanagara Empire arose from the ruins of the Kampili kingdom.
- It grew into one of the famed Hindu empires of South India that ruled for over 200 years.
- The Vijayanagara rulers fostered developments in intellectual pursuits and the arts, maintained a strong military and fought many wars with sultanates to its north and east.
- They invested in roads, waterworks, agriculture, religious buildings and public infrastructure.
- The site used to be multi-religious and multi-ethnic; it included Hindu and Jain monuments next to each other.
- The buildings predominantly followed South Indian Hindu arts and architecture dating to the Aihole-Pattadakal styles.
- The Hampi builders also used elements of Indo-Islamic architecture in the Lotus Mahal, the public bath and the elephant stables.
Major attractions
- One of the major attractions of Hampi is the 15th Century Virupaksha temple which is one of the oldest monuments of the town.
- The main shrine is dedicated to Virupaksha, a form of Lord Shiva.
- Hemkunta Hill, south of the Virupaksha temple contains early ruins, Jain temples and a monolithic sculpture of Lord Narasimha, a form of Lord Vishnu.
- At the eastern end, there is the large Nandi in stone; on the southern side is the larger than life Ganesha.
- Large single stone carvings seem to have been the fashion of the day in Hampi, for there is a large image of Narasimha (6.7m high), the half-lion half-man incarnation of God, as well as a huge linga.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
[pib] Mongolian Kanjur Manuscripts
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Mongolian Kanjur
Mains level : Buddhist literature
The Ministry of Culture has taken up the project of reprinting of 108 volumes of Mongolian Kanjur under the National Mission for Manuscripts (NMM). The first sets of five volumes were presented to the President of India.
Try this question from CSP 2011:
Q.India maintained its early cultural contacts and trade links with Southeast Asia across the Bay of Bengal. For this preeminence of early maritime history of Bay of Bengal, which of the following could be the most convincing explanation/explanations?
(a) As compared to other countries, India had a better ship-building technology in ancient and medieval times.
(b) The rulers of southern India always patronized traders, Brahmin priests and Buddhist monks in this context.
(c) Monsoon winds across the Bay of Bengal facilitated sea voyages.
(d) Both (a) and (b) are convincing explanations in this context.
Mongolian Kanjur
- Mongolian Kanjur, the Buddhist canonical text in 108 volumes is considered to be the most important religious text in Mongolia.
- In the Mongolian language ‘Kanjur’ means ‘Concise Orders’- the words of Lord Buddha in particular. It has been translated from Tibetan.
- It is held in high esteem by the Mongolian Buddhists and they worship the Kanjur at temples and recite the lines of Kanjur in daily life as a sacred ritual.
- The Kanjur is kept almost in every monastery in Mongolia.
- The language of the Kanjur is Classical Mongolian and it is a source of providing a cultural identity to Mongolia.
About National Mission for Manuscripts
- The Mission was launched in February 2003 under the Ministry of Tourism and Culture, with the mandate of documenting, conserving and disseminating the knowledge preserved in the manuscripts.
- One of the objectives of the mission is to publish rare and unpublished manuscripts so that the knowledge enshrined in them is spread to researchers, scholars and the general public at large.
- Under this scheme, reprinting of 108 volumes of Mongolian Kanjur has been taken up by the Mission.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Kodumanal Megalithic Burial Site
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Megaliths
Mains level : Not Much
The Kodumanal excavation in Erode Dist. of Tamil Nadu has threw light on burial rituals and the concept of afterlife in megalithic culture.
Must read:
Chapter 1 | Stone Age – Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic
About these sites
- The researchers have identified 250 cairn-circles at the village in Erode district.
- Earlier excavations revealed that the site served as a trade-cum-industrial centre from 5th century BCE to 1st century BCE.
- The rectangular chambered cists, each two metres long and six metres wide, are made of stone slabs, and the entire grave is surrounded by boulders that form a circle.
- The grave could be of a village head or the head of the community as the size of two boulders, each facing east and west, are bigger than other boulders.
- Believing that the deceased person will get a new life after death, pots and bowls filled with grains were placed outside the chambers.
What are Megaliths?
- Megaliths are the earliest surviving man-made monuments we know of—derived from the Latin mega (large) and lith (stone).
- Megaliths were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative (non-sepulchral) memorials.
- The former are sites with actual burial remains, such as dolmenoid cists (box-shaped stone burial chambers), cairn circles (stone circles with defined peripheries) and capstones (distinctive mushroom-shaped burial chambers found mainly in Kerala).
- The urn or the sarcophagus containing the mortal remains was usually made of terracotta.
- Non-sepulchral megaliths include memorial sites such as menhirs. (The line separating the two is a bit blurry, since remains have been discovered underneath otherwise non-sepulchral sites, and vice versa.)
- In India, archaeologists trace the majority of the megaliths to the Iron Age (1500 BC to 500 BC), though some sites precede the Iron Age, extending up to 2000 BC.
Megaliths in India
- Megaliths are spread across the Indian subcontinent, though the bulk of them are found in peninsular India, concentrated in the states of Maharashtra (mainly in Vidarbha), Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.
- According to archaeologists around 2,200 megalithic sites can be found in peninsular India itself, most of them unexcavated.
- Even today, a living megalithic culture endures among some tribes such as the Gonds of central India and the Khasis of Meghalaya.
Literary sources
- Megalithic culture finds several references in ancient Tamil Sangam literature. For instance, menhirs are referred to as nadukal.
- Ancient Sangam texts lay out, in detail, a step-by-step procedure for laying a memorial stone or nadukal in honour of a fallen hero.
- Manimekalai (5th century AD), the famous Sangam epic, refers to the various kinds of burials namely cremation (cuṭuvōr), post excarnation burial (iṭuvōr), burying the deceased in a pit (toṭukuḻip paṭuvōr), rock chamber or cist burial (tāḻvāyiṉ aṭaippōr), urn burial encapped with lid (tāḻiyiṟ kavippōr).
- Even in the Sangam age (when kingship and a well-ordained society had emerged) the above modes of burials survived.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
What did Harappan people eat?
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Harappan food pattern
Mains level : Not Much
The National Museum in New Delhi has hosted “The Indus dining experience” a food event based on the food pattern of Indus valley civilization.
Food of Harappans
- Archaeological evidence from Indus Valley sites (c. 3300 BC to 1300 BC) in present-day India and Pakistan suggests that a purely vegetarian meal will not provide a complete picture of what the Harappan people ate.
- To judge from the quantity of bones left behind, animal foods were consumed in abundance: beef, buffalo, mutton, turtles, tortoises, gharials, and river and sea fish.
- Apart from meat, the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation grew and ate a variety of cereals and pulses.
- There is archaeological evidence for cultivation of pea (matar), chickpea (chana), pigeon pea (tur/arhar), horse gram (chana dal) and green gram (moong).
- Several varieties of wheat have been found at Harappan sites, as well as barley of the two-rowed and six-rowed kinds.
- There is evidence that the Harappans cultivated Italian millet, ragi and amaranth, as well as sorghum and rice.
- Oilseeds such as sesame, linseed, and mustard were also grown.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Species in news: Thanatotheristes
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Thanatotheristes
Mains level : Not Much
Scientists have found that a dinosaur fossil, found in Alberta in Canada in 2010, belongs to a new species of tyrannosaur. They have named it Thanatotheristes, which means “reaper of death”.
Thanatotheristes
- Tyrannosaurs were one of the largest meat-eating dinosaurs to have ever lived, with very large and high skulls, and the best known among them is the Tyrannosaurus rex, celebrated in the Jurassic Park series.
- The 79-million-year-old fossil that the researchers have found is the oldest tyrannosaur known from northern North America.
- Thanatotheristes preyed on large plant-eating dinosaurs such as the horned xenoceratops and the dome-headed colepiochephale.
- The research suggests that tyrannosaurs did not have one general body type; rather different tyrannosaur species evolved distinct body sizes, skull forms and other such physical features.
- The fossil specimen is important to understand the Late Cretaceous period, which is the period when tyrannosaurs roamed the Earth.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Indian Institute of Heritage and Conservation
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Iconic sites mentioned in the newscard
Mains level : Ancient Indian architecture
The Union Govt. has proposed to set up an Indian Institute of Heritage and Conservation under the Ministry of Culture, and develop five archaeological sites as “iconic sites” with onsite museums in Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Hastinapur (Uttar Pradesh), Sivsagar (Assam), Dholavira (Gujarat) and Adichanallur (Tamil Nadu).
Rakhigarhi
- Rakhigarhi in Haryana’s Hissar district is one of the most prominent and largest sites of the Harappan civilization.
- It is one among the five known townships of the Harappan civilization in the Indian subcontinent.
- In one of the excavations, the skeletal remains of a couple were discovered.
- Interestingly, of the 62 graves discovered in Rakhigarhi, only this particular grave consisted of more than one skeletal remains and of individuals of the opposite sex together.
Hastinapur
- Excavations at Hastinapur, in Meerut district of Uttar Pradesh, were led by Dr B B Lal, who was at the time Superintendent of the Excavations Branch of the ASI.
- Hastinapur finds mention in the Mahabharata and the Puranas.
- One of the most significant discoveries made at this site was of the “new ceramic industry”, which was named the Painted Grey Ware, which as per the report represented the relics of the early Indo-Aryans.
- The sites of Hastinapur, Mathura, Kurukshetra, Barnawa, etc., are identifiable with those of the same name mentioned in the Mahabharata.
- If that be so, the Painted Grey Ware would be associated with the early settlers on these sites, viz. The Pauravas, Panchalas, etc., who formed a part of the early Aryan stock in India.
- Such an association may also explain the synchronism between the appearance of the Painted Grey Ware in the Ghaggar-Sutlej valleys and the probable date of the arrival of the Aryans in that area.”
Sivasagar
- In Sivasagar, excavations at the Karenghar (Talatalghar) complex between 2000 and 2003 led to the discovery of buried structures in the north-western and north-eastern side of the complex.
- Among the structural remains found at the site were ceramic assemblages including vases, vessels, dishes, and bowls, etc. Terracotta smoking pipes were also found.
- Another excavation site in Sivasagar district is the Garhgaon Raja’s palace. Excavation at this site was conducted during 2007-2008.
- A burnt-brick wall running in north-south orientation was found, along with the remains of two huge circular wooden posts.
Dholavira
- Dholavira in Gujarat is located in the Khadir island of the Rann of Kutch, and like Rakhigarhi is one of the sites where the remains of the Harappan civilization have been found.
- Dholavira is unique because remains of a complete water system have been found here.
- The people who lived there for an estimated 1,200 years during the Harappan civilization are noted for their water conservation system using rainwater harvesting techniques in an otherwise parched landscape.
Adichnallur
- Adichnallur lies in the Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu.
- The urn-burial site was first brought to light during a “haphazard excavation” by a German archaeologist in 1876. Following this, an Englishman Alexander Rae excavated the site between 1889 and 1905.
- Over the years, the site has gained attention because of three important findings: the discovery of an ancient Tamil-Brahmi script on the inside of an urn containing a full human skeleton, a fragment of a broken earthenware, and the remains of living quarters.
Historical and Archaeological Findings in News
Nagardhan Excavations
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level : Vakataka Dynasty and important rulers
Mains level : Life and society during Vakataka period
- Recent archaeological excavations at Nagardhan near Nagpur have provided concrete evidence on the life, religious affiliations and trade practices of the Vakataka dynasty that ruled parts of Central and South India between the third and fifth centuries.
- After a 1,500 year-old sealing was excavated for the first time, a new study in Numismatic Digest has tried to understand the Vakataka rule under Queen Prabhavatigupta.
Nagardhan
- Nagardhan is a large village in Nagpur district, about 6 km south of Ramtek taluka headquarters.
- Archaeological remains were found on a surface spread over a 1 km × 1.5 km area. The researchers excavated the site during 2015-2018.
- The existing village sits on top of the ancient habitation. The Nagardhan Fort stands south of present-day Nagardhan village.
- This was constructed during the Gond Raja period and later renovated and re-used by the Bhosales of Nagpur during the late 18th and 19th centuries.
Importance of the excavation
- Very little was known about the Vakatakas, the Shaivite rulers of Central India between the third and fifth centuries.
- All that was known about the dynasty, believed to hail from the Vidarbha region, was largely through some literature and copperplates.
- There were assumptions that the excavated site of Nagardhan is the same as Nandhivardhan, the capital city of the eastern branch of the Vakatakas.
- It was after archaeological evidence from here that Nagardhan was understood to have served as a capital of the Vakataka kingdom.
The seals so found
- It is the first time clay sealings have been excavated from Nagardhan.
- The oval-shaped sealing belongs to the period when Prabhavatigupta was the queen of the Vakataka dynasty.
- It bears her name in the Brahmi script along with the depiction of a conch.
- The presence of the conch, scholars say, is a sign of the Vaishnava affiliation that the Guptas held.
- The sealing was traced on top of a mega wall that researchers now think could have been part of a royal structure at the capital city of the kingdom.
Who was Queen Prabhavatigupta?
- The copperplate issued by Queen Prabhavatigupta starts with a genealogy of the Guptas, mentioning the Queen’s grandfather Samudragupta and her father Chandragupta II.
- These are strong indicators of Vaishnava signatures on the royal seals of the Vakatakas reiterate that Queen Prabhavatigupta was indeed a powerful woman ruler.
- Since the Vakataka people traded with Iran and beyond through the Mediterranean Sea, scholars suggest that these sealings could have been used as official royal permission issued from the capital city.
- Besides, these were used on documents that sought mandatory royal permissions.
Why are the findings on Queen Prabhavatigupta significant?
- Scholars say Queen Prabhavatigupta was among a handful of women rulers in India to have reigned over any kingdom during ancient times.
- The Vakataka rulers were known to have forged several matrimonial alliances with other dynasties of their times.
- One of the key alliances was with Prabhavatigupta of the mighty Gupta dynasty, which was then ruling north India. The Guptas were way more powerful than the Vakatakas.
- After marrying Vakataka king Rudrasena II, Prabhavatigupta enjoyed the position of Chief Queen.
- When she took over the Vakataka kingdom, after the sudden demise of Rudrasena II, her stature as a woman Vakataka ruler rose significantly.
- This is evident from the fact that the sealings were introduced and issued during her period as a ruler, that too from the capital city of Nagardhan.
Why is the sign of Vaishnava affiliation important?
- The Vakataka rulers followed the Shaiva sect of Hinduism while the Guptas were staunch Vaishnavites.
- Excavators say that many religious structures indicating affinity to the Vaishnava sect, and found in Ramtek, were built during the reign of Queen Prabhavatigupta.
- While she was married into a family that belonged to the Shaiva sect, the queen’s powers allowed her to choose a deity of worship, that is, Lord Vishnu.
What else has been excavated from Nagardhan so far?
- Earlier results from the excavations here had traced evidence in the form of ceramics, ear studs of glass, antiquities, bowls and pots, a votive shrine and tank, an iron chisel, a stone depicting a deer, and terracotta bangles.
- Some terracotta objects even depicted images of gods, animals and humans, along with amulets, scotches, wheels, skin rubbers and spindle whorls.
- An intact idol of Lord Ganesha, which had no ornaments adorned, too was found from the site.
- This confirmed that the elephant god was a commonly worshipped deity in those times.
- On the means of living of the Vakataka people, researchers found animal rearing to be one of the main occupations.
- Remains of seven species of domestic animals — cattle, goat, sheep, pig, cat, horse and fowl — were traced in an earlier study by the team.
Thank you cd