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  • Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

    Centre unveils policy to tackle terror threats

    Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

    Why in the News?

    The Union Home Ministry has unveiled India’s first National Counter Terrorism Policy and Strategy (PRAHAAR). The policy seeks to criminalise all terrorist acts, disrupt terror financing, deny logistical support, and strengthen coordination across Central and State agencies. The policy marks a structural shift from reactive counter-terror responses to an integrated, ecosystem-based national security framework covering land, air, water, cyber, and financial domains. The move assumes significance amid rising cross-border terrorism, drone-enabled attacks, and digital radicalisation.

    What is the rationale behind this policy?

    1. The move follows the April 22, 2025 Pahalgam terror incident, which exposed vulnerabilities in intelligence coordination and emerging drone misuse. 
    2. Previously, counter-terror responses were largely reactive and dispersed across agencies without a single doctrinal framework. 
    3. The policy is significant because it integrates prevention, detection, prosecution, and financial disruption under one strategy, covering both state and non-state actors. 
    4. It also formally recognises technological threats such as encrypted platforms, cryptocurrency, and dark web logistics, marking a shift from traditional cross-border terror focus to hybrid and networked terror ecosystems.

    What is the doctrinal architecture of PRAHAAR: Pillar-wise Breakdown

    1. P-Prevention of Terror Attacks; Focus: Intelligence-led, proactive neutralisation. It includes
      1. Intelligence Primacy: Intelligence-guided counter-terror approach; threat neutralisation before execution.
      2. MAC & JTFI Framework: Real-time intelligence aggregation through Multi Agency Centre (MAC) and Joint Task Force on Intelligence under IB.
      3. OGW Disruption: Systematic dismantling of Over Ground Worker logistics and recruitment networks.
      4. Cyber Disruption: Targeting online propaganda, recruitment modules, encrypted communication misuse.
      5. Critical Infrastructure Security: Protection of power, railways, aviation, ports, defence, space, atomic energy sectors.
      6. Border Surveillance: Technological tools deployed across land, air and maritime frontiers.
      7. Core Shift: From reactive policing to preventive security architecture.
    2. R-Responses (Swift & Proportionate); Focus: Layered operational response model. It includes:
      1. Local Police as First Responder: Federal structure respected; decentralised operational response.
      2. State ATS & Special Counter terrorism (CT) Units: Specialised anti-terror forces in vulnerable States.
      3. NSG as National Nodal Force: National Security Guard for major attacks and capacity building.
      4. SOP-Based Coordination: Standard Operating Procedures for apex-level coordination via MHA.
      5. CAPF Deployment: Central Armed Police Forces assisting States in counter-terror operations.
      6. High Conviction Emphasis: NIA-led investigations ensuring deterrence through prosecution.
      7. Core Shift: Structured escalation matrix for response.
    3. A-Aggregating Internal Capacities; Focus: Whole-of-Government synergy. It includes:
      1. Modernisation Mandate: Continuous upgradation of weapons, surveillance tools, training modules.
      2. Standardisation Across States: Uniform anti-terror structures, investigation methodologies.
      3. BPR&D Role: Training and best practice dissemination for State Police & CAPFs.
      4. NSG Urban Combat Training: Specialised combat readiness for metropolitan threats.
      5. Resource Gap Identification: Institutional capacity audit and correction
      6. Core Shift: Elimination of silo-based security functioning.
    4. H-Human Rights & Rule of Law Based Processes; Focus: Constitutional legitimacy. It includes:
      1. Legal Framework Anchoring: The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA), 1967, as principal law; supported by BNS 2023, BNSS 2023, BSA 2023, PMLA 2002, Arms Act 1959, Explosives Act 1908.
      2. Judicial Oversight: Multi-tier judicial review up to the Supreme Court.
      3. Human Rights Act 1993: Protection against rights violations.
      4. International Commitments: Adherence to Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) 1948 and International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).
      5. Due Process Safeguards: Appeals and legal redressal mechanisms ensured.
      6. Core Shift: Security operations embedded within constitutional democracy.
    5. A-Attenuating Conditions Conducive to Terrorism; Focus: Addressing root drivers. It includes:
      1. Graded De-radicalisation: Calibrated intervention based on degree of radicalisation.
      2. Community Engagement: Involvement of religious leaders, NGOs, moderate preachers.
      3. Prison Monitoring: Preventing indoctrination within correctional facilities.
      4. Youth Engagement: Constructive programs to prevent extremist recruitment.
      5. Socio-Economic Interventions: Addressing poverty, unemployment, housing and education gaps.
      6. Women & Youth Empowerment Schemes: Scholarships and loan support to reduce vulnerability.
      7. Core Shift: Terrorism treated as socio-psychological and developmental challenge, not merely law-and-order issue.
    6. A-Aligning & Shaping International Efforts; Focus: Transnational cooperation. It includes:
      1. Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLATs) & Extradition Treaties: Legal cooperation for evidence sharing and fugitive return.
      2. Joint Working Groups (JWG): Bilateral intelligence engagement platforms.
      3. UN Designation Support: Pursuit of global terrorist listings.
      4. Agency-to-Agency Cooperation: Intelligence sharing with foreign counterparts.
      5. Global ICT Misuse Countering: Addressing terrorist exploitation of digital ecosystems.
      6. Core Shift: Counter-terror extended beyond national jurisdiction.
    7. R-Recovery & Resilience (Whole-of-Society Approach); Focus: Post-attack stabilisation. It includes:
      1. Public-Private Partnership: Private sector participation in recovery.
      2. Civil Administration Leadership: Reconstruction and restoration.
      3. Psychological Rehabilitation: Doctors, psychologists, civil society involvement.
      4. Community Reintegration: Social healing and confidence rebuilding.
      5. Preventive Reinforcement: Strengthened security measures post-incident.
      6. Core Shift: From counter-terror to societal resilience model.

    How Does the Policy Restructure India’s Counter-Terror Governance Framework?

    1. National Framework Institutionalisation: Establishes India’s first unified counter-terror doctrine integrating Centre-State coordination.
    2. Ecosystem Approach: Targets not only terrorists but also financiers, handlers, recruiters, and facilitators.
    3. Multi-Domain Coverage: Addresses threats across land, air, water, cyber, and financial systems.
    4. Inter-Agency Coordination: Strengthens operational synergy among intelligence, enforcement, and financial monitoring agencies.
    5. Legal Backing: Aims to criminalise all forms of terrorist support infrastructure.

    How Does the Policy Address Cross-Border and State-Sponsored Terrorism?

    1. Recognition of Proxy Warfare: Identifies state and non-state actors targeting India through terrorism.
    2. Cross-Border Networks: Acknowledges foreign handlers coordinating logistics and recruitment.
    3. Global Jihadist Linkages: Notes influence of outfits such as Al-Qaeda and IS in inciting lone-wolf or cell-based violence.
    4. Punjab & J&K Linkages: Recognises drone-based smuggling of arms and narcotics across borders.
    5. Transnational Cooperation: Emphasises international collaboration to counter financing and safe havens.

    How Does the Policy Respond to Emerging Technological Threats?

    1. Drone Regulation: Identifies misuse of drones for smuggling arms and reconnaissance.
    2. Encrypted Platforms: Flags encrypted messaging apps as tools for coordination.
    3. Cryptocurrency Monitoring: Recognises dark web and crypto wallets as terror-financing channels.
    4. Cyber Radicalisation: Targets online propaganda and recruitment networks.
    5. Digital Forensics: Strengthens use of technical intelligence in disruption operations.

    How Does the Policy Strengthen Preventive and Pre-Emptive Mechanisms?

    1. Pre-Emptive Intelligence: Enhances predictive threat assessment models.
    2. Community Engagement: Involves civil society and religious leaders to counter radicalisation.
    3. Youth De-Radicalisation: Focuses on preventing extremist recruitment among youth.
    4. Capacity Building: Improves training of state police forces in counter-terror techniques.
    5. Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and high-yield Explosives (CBRNE) Preparedness: Recognises risks of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive materials.

    How Does the Policy Reinforce Institutional Accountability and Federal Balance?

    1. Central-State Synergy: Promotes coordinated response while respecting federal structure.
    2. Role of NIA: Strengthens investigative mandate of the National Investigation Agency in major terror cases.
    3. Legal Standardisation: Ensures uniform procedures across states.
    4. Process Standardisation: Encourages similar and synergistic response frameworks.
    5. Parliamentary Oversight Potential: Opens scope for legislative scrutiny of implementation effectiveness.

    What Are the Regulatory and Legal Implications of the Policy?

    1. Criminalisation Framework: Broadens scope to include logistical and financial support.
    2. Financial Disruption: Targets funding channels through financial intelligence units.
    3. Safe Haven Denial: Focuses on dismantling recruitment and shelter networks.
    4. Surveillance Expansion: Raises concerns on balancing security with privacy rights under Article 21.
    5. Counter-Terror Cell Coordination: Enhances role of specialised Counter Terrorism Cells.

    Conclusion

    The National Counter Terrorism Policy marks a transition from fragmented counter-terror responses to a structured, ecosystem-based security doctrine. Its effectiveness will depend on inter-agency coordination, federal cooperation, technological capability, and safeguards against misuse. Institutional balance between national security and civil liberties remains central to sustainable implementation.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Give out the major sources of terror funding in India and the efforts being made to curtail these sources. In the light of this, also discuss the aim and objective of the ‘No Money for Terror (NMFT)’ Conference recently held at New Delhi in November 2022.

    Linkage: This question directly maps to GS Paper 3 (Internal Security), particularly terror financing, money laundering, and transnational security cooperation. It links with India’s PRAHAAR doctrine and NMFT initiative, highlighting the financial disruption pillar of counter-terror strategy and global coordination against terror funding networks.

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  • Tax Reforms

    ₹14,601 Crore Undisclosed Offshore Investments Brought to Tax

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News

    The Central Board of Direct Taxes disclosed through an RTI reply that ₹14,601 crore worth of undisclosed offshore investments, revealed in the Panama, Paradise and Pandora Papers investigations, have been “brought to tax” by the Income Tax Department.

    Background: Global Offshore Investigations

    The investigations were conducted by The Indian Express in collaboration with the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists and global media partners.

    1. Panama Papers

    • Published in 2016
    • ₹13,800 crore brought to tax

    2. Paradise Papers

    • Published in 2017
    • ₹115 crore brought to tax

    3. Pandora Papers

    • Published in 2021
    • ₹686 crore brought to tax
    • Total: ₹14,601 crore

    What Does “Brought to Tax” Mean?

    • In taxation terminology, “brought to tax” means that income, assets, or investments that were previously undisclosed or underreported have been formally assessed by tax authorities and subjected to tax liability under the law.
    • It does not automatically mean that the tax has already been collected.

    Enforcement Action Taken

    • 1,255 tax cases filed in total
      • 426 Panama
      • 494 Paradise
      • 335 Pandora
    • Multi Agency Group formed after Pandora Papers revelations
    • Financial Intelligence Unit India sent requests to foreign jurisdictions regarding 482 persons
    • Seven meetings of the Multi Agency Group held

    Legal and Institutional Framework

    • Income Tax Act, 1961
    • Black Money Undisclosed Foreign Income and Assets Act, 2015
    • Information exchange under international tax treaties
    • Global cooperation to tackle tax havens
    [2021] Which one of the following effects of the creation of black money in India has been the main cause of worry to the Government of India? (a) Diversion of resources to the purchase of real estate and investment in luxury housing 

    (b) Investment in unproductive activities and purchase of precious stones, jewelry, gold, etc. 

    (c) Large donations to political parties and the growth of regionalism 

    (d) Loss of revenue to the State Exchequer due to tax evasion

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    India Among Four Nations Driving Global Pesticide Toxicity

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News

    A new study published in Science finds that India is among four countries contributing nearly 70 percent of the world’s Total Applied Toxicity (TAT) from agricultural pesticides. Experts have also raised concerns that the proposed Pesticides Management Bill 2025 may weaken safeguards compared to the older law.

    What is Total Applied Toxicity (TAT)?

    • TAT measures not just the quantity of pesticides used, but their toxicity and lethality to non target species.
    • Researchers analysed over 600 pesticides across 65 countries from 2013 to 2019.
    • Global TAT has increased, especially for around 20 commonly used agricultural pesticides.

    Countries Driving Global TAT

    • Four major contributors: China, Brazil, United States, and India
    • Together, they account for nearly 70 percent of global pesticide toxicity.
    • Only Chile is currently on track to meet the UN target of reducing pesticide risk by 50 percent by 2030.

    Impact on Biodiversity

    Species most affected:

    1. Terrestrial arthropods
    2. Soil organisms
    3. Fish
    4. Pollinators
    5. Aquatic plants
    6. Terrestrial vertebrates

    Regions with high increases include sub Saharan Africa and parts of the Indian subcontinent.

    Link to Global Commitments

    • At the 2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference, countries committed to reducing pesticide risk by 50 percent by 2030. The findings indicate that global progress is not on track.

    Indian Legal Framework

    1. Insecticides Act 1968

    • Focused mainly on agricultural use
    • Limited regulation of domestic and non agricultural applications
    • Considered outdated
    • India reportedly uses several pesticides that are banned in parts of Europe, such as paraquat.

    2. Pesticides Management Bill 2025

    • Proposed to replace the 1968 Act
    • Aims to reduce risk to people and environment
    • Encourages biological and traditional knowledge based alternatives
    • Experts warn that without stronger liability and monitoring provisions, it may not significantly improve regulation
    [2019] In India, the use of carbofuran, methyl parathion, phorate and triazophos is viewed with apprehension. These chemicals are used as: 

    (a) pesticides in agriculture 

    (b) preservatives in processed foods 

    (c) fruit-ripening agents 

    (d) moisturising agents in cosmetics

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  • Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

    India Releases First Anti Terror Policy PRAHAAR

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

    Why in the News

    The Ministry of Home Affairs on February 23, 2026 released India’s first comprehensive anti terror policy titled PRAHAAR, outlining a national counter terrorism strategy addressing conventional and emerging threats including cyber attacks and drone based terror.

    What is PRAHAAR?

    • PRAHAAR is India’s first formal National Counter Terrorism Policy and Strategy.
    • It provides a unified framework to:
      • Counter cross border sponsored terrorism
      • Address cyber terror and digital radicalisation
      • Protect critical infrastructure
      • Strengthen coordination between Centre and States
      • Enhance prosecution and legal preparedness

    Nature of Threat Identified

    • Cross Border Terror

        • Sponsored terrorism from across the border
        • Activities by global terror groups like Al Qaeda and Islamic State
        • Use of sleeper cells

    • Emerging Technological Threats

        • Criminal hackers and hostile nation states
        • Cyber attacks on critical sectors
        • Use of encryption, dark web, crypto wallets
        • Drones and robotics for terror activities

    • CBRNED Risks

      • Threat of misuse of Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, Explosive and Digital materials.

    Critical Sectors Identified

    • Protection strengthened in: Power, Railways, Aviation, Ports, Defence, Space, and Atomic energy
    [2023] Consider the following statements: 1. According to the Constitution of India, the Central Government has a duty to protect States from internal disturbances. 

    2. The Constitution of India exempts the States from providing legal counsel to person being held for preventive detention. 

    3. According to the Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002, confession of the accused before the police cannot be used as evidence. 

    How many of the above statements are correct? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

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  • Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

    [23rd February 2026] The Hindu OpED: Parliament’s historic law; an extended wait for women

    op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2019] The reservation of seats for women in the institutions of local self-government has had a limited impact on the patriarchal character of the Indian Political Process.” Comment.Linkage: It provides an analytical foundation to evaluate whether the Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023 for Parliamentary reservation will ensure substantive gender justice or replicate proxy representation seen in Panchayati Raj institutions.

    Mentor’s Comment

    The Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women’s Reservation Act, 2023) was projected as a landmark reform in India’s constitutional history. However, its implementation has been tied to the post-Census delimitation process, effectively postponing operationalisation until at least 2034. The debate raises critical questions of constitutional design, political incentives, federal balance, and institutional accountability. This issue is central to GS Paper II (Polity & Governance) and also intersects with representation, federalism, and social justice.

    Why in the News?

    Parliament passed the Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023 in September 2023, guaranteeing 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for the first time in independent India’s constitutional history. The earlier Women’s Reservation Bills (1996 onwards) repeatedly lapsed despite Rajya Sabha passage in 2010. The 2023 Act was hailed as a historic correction to India’s low female representation (about 15% in Lok Sabha). However, the Act mandates implementation only after the first Census conducted post-2026 and subsequent delimitation. Given that delimitation may conclude around 2032-33, reservation may operate only from the 2034 general election. The reform therefore represents a constitutional milestone accompanied by an operational deferment.

    What are the key provisions of the Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023?

    1. Reservation Mechanism: One-third (33%) of seats are reserved for women in the Lok Sabha, State Assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi.
    2. SC/ST Inclusion: The reservation includes a sub-quota for women from Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) within their respective reserved seat categories.
    3. Effective Date: The quota will take effect after the first census conducted following the Act’s commencement is published and the subsequent delimitation exercise is completed.
    4. Rotation of Seats: Seats reserved for women will be rotated after each delimitation exercise.
    5. Duration: The provision is valid for 15 years from its implementation, with potential for extension by Parliament.

    Constitutional Articles:

    1. Article 330A: Adds reservation for women in the Lok Sabha.
    2. Article 332A: Adds reservation for women in State Assemblies.
    3. Article 334A: Sets the timeline for commencement and expiry (sunset clause). It provides that reservation shall come into effect after delimitation and remain for 15 years (subject to extension).

    Why Has Implementation Been Linked to Census and Delimitation?

    1. Article 82 Requirement: Mandates delimitation after each Census.
    2. Sequential Process: Census to Publication to Delimitation Commission to Redrawing constituencies.
    3. Census Schedule: Next Census to be conducted after 2026 (likely 2027).
    4. Time Lag: Data verification and delimitation historically take 4-6 years.
    5. Outcome: Reservation operational only after delimitation, possibly 2034.

    Does the Delimitation Linkage Reflect Political Incentive Structuring?

    1. Seat Conversion Impact: One-third of 543 Lok Sabha seats (~181 seats) would become women-only if implemented immediately.
    2. Incumbent Displacement: Large-scale replacement of sitting male legislators.
    3. Expansion Strategy: Delimitation may increase total seats to around 800-888, absorbing reservation without eliminating incumbents.
    4. Political Risk Mitigation: Expansion diffuses electoral shock.

    How Does Delimitation Intersect with Federal Balance and Population Politics?

    1. 1976 Freeze: Seat redistribution frozen to protect States that controlled population growth.
    2. Post-2026 Redistribution: High-growth States gain proportional representation.
    3. North-South Tension: Southern States risk relative seat reduction.
    4. Gender Justice Entanglement: Women’s representation linked to unresolved inter-state distribution debate.

    What Design and Implementation Gaps Persist in the Amendment?

    1. Absence of OBC Sub-Quota: No reservation for OBC women despite OBC women forming significant demographic share.
    2. Rotation Mechanism Ambiguity: No clarity on frequency or methodology of constituency rotation.
    3. Upper House Exclusion: No application to Rajya Sabha or Legislative Councils.
    4. Operational Rules Pending: Absence of procedural clarity increases scope for litigation and administrative uncertainty.

    What Are the Governance and Institutional Implications?

    1. Delayed Representation: Constitutional right deferred.
    2. Symbolic vs Substantive Reform: Law passed without immediate enforceability.
    3. Institutional Accountability: Parliament controls amendment pathway for decoupling reservation from delimitation.
    4. Democratic Legitimacy: Extended delay risks weakening reform credibility.

    Conclusion

    The Constitution (106th Amendment) Act, 2023 institutionalises gender parity within legislative representation. However, by linking implementation to future delimitation, it defers substantive equality. Timely operationalisation is essential to align constitutional promise with democratic practice.

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  • Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

    Protecting the Freedom of speech of MPs

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    Recent parliamentary sessions witnessed large-scale expunction of remarks made by Opposition leaders, raising concerns over misuse of procedural rules. The issue centres on whether the Speaker (Lok Sabha)/Chairman’s (Rajya Sabha) powers are being used to regulate decorum or to restrict the constitutional freedom of speech of Menmbers of Parliament (MPs) under Article 105.

    Which Parliamentary Privileges Specifically Protect Freedom of Speech of MPs?

    Article 105 of the Constitution guarantees freedom of speech to Members of Parliament (MPs) within the Houses. This privilege enables fearless debate, executive accountability, and institutional balance. 

    1. Freedom of Speech in the House (Article 105(1)): Ensures members speak without fear while Parliament is in session and business is being transacted. This freedom is essential for effective discharge of legislative duties and is distinct from Article 19(1)(a).
    2. Immunity from Court Proceedings (Article 105(2)): Grants complete protection from civil or criminal liability for anything said or any vote given in Parliament or its committees. The term “anything” carries the widest amplitude and covers every statement made during parliamentary business.
    3. Absolute Judicial Non-Interference: Courts lack jurisdiction to question speech made inside the House, even if statements are malicious, false, or amount to contempt of court. Once speech is made during parliamentary proceedings, it is immune from judicial scrutiny.
    4. Protection Against External Investigation: Any investigation outside Parliament into a member’s speech or vote amounts to serious interference with parliamentary privilege. Threatening legal action for statements made in the House constitutes breach of privilege.
    5. Distinct from Article 19(2) Restrictions: Reasonable restrictions applicable to citizens under Article 19(2) do not circumscribe speech inside Parliament. Parliamentary speech enjoys higher constitutional insulation.
    6. Comprehensive Constitutional Code: Clauses (1) and (2) of Article 105 form a complete code regarding speech and immunity. Matters outside this scope, such as defamatory publication of expunged questions, remain subject to ordinary law.
    7. Extension to Non-Members with Speaking Rights: Immunity under Article 105(2) applies to persons constitutionally entitled to speak in Parliament (e.g., Attorney General), ensuring functional continuity of debate.
    8. Internal Regulation by Rules of Procedure: While constitutionally protected, speech remains subject to House rules and presiding officer’s authority. The Chair may act against defamatory, incriminatory, or indecorous statements.
    9. Committee of Privileges Oversight: Emphasises that privilege is not an unrestricted licence. Misuse may cause disproportionate harm, particularly as individuals defamed in Parliament have no right of reply or judicial remedy.
    10. Moral Obligation of Restraint: Members, as public representatives, bear heightened responsibility. Abuse of immunity can undermine citizens’ rights who otherwise rely on courts for protection.

    What Is the Constitutional Philosophy Behind Freedom of Speech in Parliament?

    1. Parliamentary Privilege: Recognised as essential for smooth functioning of Legislature.
    2. Erskine May Doctrine: Identifies freedom of speech as the principal privilege of Parliament.
    3. Functional Necessity: Enables free, frank, and fearless debate.
    4. Executive Accountability: Question Hour and debates ensure government transparency.
    5. Democratic Legitimacy: Parliamentary criticism strengthens governance rather than weakens it.

    Does Expunction of Parliamentary Speeches Undermine Article 105?

    1. Article 105 Protection: Guarantees freedom of speech in Parliament subject only to constitutional limitations, not arbitrary procedural curtailment.
    2. Expunction Power: Rules permit presiding officers to remove unparliamentary, defamatory, indecent, or undignified words, not entire arguments.
    3. Constitutional Supremacy: Rules of procedure cannot override constitutional rights.
    4. Risk of Mindless Application: Excessive deletions may distort legislative record and infringe MPs’ privileges.
    5. Institutional Record: Parliamentary debates are preserved for posterity; arbitrary removal affects historical and legal accountability.

    How Do Parliamentary Rules Balance Decorum and Democratic Debate?

    1. Procedural Regulation: Rules regulate sub judice matters, personal allegations, and defamatory statements.
    2. Legislative Dignity: Ensures debate does not degrade into personal attacks.
    3. Proportionality Principle: Regulation must target specific offensive words, not suppress substantive criticism.
    4. Presiding Officer’s Duty: Ensures decorum while safeguarding members’ constitutional privilege.

    Can Procedural Rules Be Weaponised Against the Opposition?

    1. Political Neutrality Requirement: Presiding officers must function impartially to maintain institutional credibility.
    2. Selective Enforcement Risk: Unequal application of expunction powers erodes trust.
    3. Opposition’s Constitutional Role: Essential for scrutiny of executive actions.
    4. Attempted Disqualification: Parliament lacks power to disqualify members outside the constitutional framework (Articles 102 and 103).
    5. Democratic Breakdown Indicator: Curtailing opposition speech signals weakening of deliberative culture.

    How Does the Government-Opposition Relationship Shape Democratic Stability?

    1. Constructive Opposition: Criticism provides corrective feedback.
    2. Institutional Forbearance: Democratic survival depends on mutual restraint.
    3. Majority-Minority Balance: Majority governs; minority critiques.
    4. Historical Practice: Prime Minister Nehru regularly attended Question Hour and listened to opposition speeches, reinforcing institutional respect.
    5. Erosion Risk: Breakdown of dialogue weakens parliamentary culture.

    What Are the Institutional and Governance Implications?

    1. Accountability Deficit: Restricting debate reduces executive scrutiny.
    2. Transparency Impact: Incomplete records distort public understanding.
    3. Legitimacy Concerns: Perception of bias weakens institutional credibility.
    4. Democratic Norms: Healthy dissent is integral to constitutional morality.
    5. Long-Term Precedent: Expansive interpretation of expunction powers may institutionalise executive dominance.

    Conclusion

    Freedom of speech in Parliament is not merely a privilege of MPs but a safeguard for democracy. Procedural rules must regulate debate without diminishing constitutional guarantees. Sustaining institutional neutrality and respecting dissent are essential to preserving the credibility of India’s parliamentary democracy.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2021] To what extent, in your view, the Parliament is able to ensure accountability of the executive in India?

    Linkage: Parliament ensures executive accountability through debates, Question Hour, motions, and parliamentary privileges under Article 105. Recent expunction controversies raise concerns about whether this constitutional freedom is being effectively exercised to hold the executive accountable.

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  • Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

    AI and the brain: similar in scale, different in design

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    GPT-4 introduced a new design that activates only selected parts of its system for specific tasks, similar to how the human brain works. At the same time, AI models are now approaching the brain in scale but consume far more energy. This contrast between similar size and very different efficiency has made the AI-brain comparison a major policy and technological issue.

    How does the scale convergence between AI models and the human brain raise governance and infrastructure challenges?

    1. Parameter Expansion: GPT-3 contains 175 billion parameters; newer models approach trillions, nearing the brain’s ~100 trillion synapses. Scale increases computational dependency and infrastructure concentration.
    2. Data Centre Energy Demand: Training and operating large AI models require megawatts of electricity. Ensures rising carbon footprint and grid stress.
    3. Hardware Dependence: AI training relies on high-performance GPUs originally developed for video gaming. Strengthens semiconductor concentration risks.
    4. Digital Infrastructure Concentration: Massive parallel computation requires clustered data centres. Facilitates market dominance by few global technology firms.
    5. Strategic Autonomy Concern: Nations lacking advanced chip fabrication capacity face technological dependence. Impacts India’s semiconductor mission and AI self-reliance goals.

    In what ways does mixture-of-experts architecture influence regulatory and accountability frameworks?

    Mixture-of-Experts (MoE) is a type of Artificial Intelligence model design where: instead of using the entire neural network for every task and the system activates only a few specialised parts (“experts”) for each input.

    1. Selective Activation: GPT-4 activates specialised network portions for specific tasks. Enhances computational efficiency but complicates traceability
    2. Modular Processing: Resembles the brain’s region-specific activation (language, vision, movement). Raises issues of explainability in AI outputs.
    3. Sparse Routing Mechanism: Routes input through selected pathways rather than full network. Challenges transparency audits.
    4. Task-Based Resource Allocation: Adjusts computational effort based on difficulty. Requires regulatory standards for algorithmic accountability.
    5. Governance Implication: Fragmented internal processing complicates liability assignment in AI-generated harms.

    Why does energy efficiency disparity between AI and the human brain matter for sustainability policy?

    1. Metabolic Efficiency: Human brain operates at ~20 watts of power. Demonstrates biological optimisation.
    2. Event-Driven Signalling: Biological neurons activate selectively and sparsely. Conserves energy.
    3. Digital Arithmetic Dependence: AI systems perform continuous high-precision computation. Increases electricity consumption.
    4. Carbon Footprint Risk: Large-scale AI training elevates emissions through energy-intensive data centres.
    5. Green AI Imperative: Necessitates energy-efficient chip design, including neuromorphic hardware and spike-like operations.

    How do differences in feedback mechanisms and learning processes impact ethical and institutional oversight?

    1. Deep Feedback Loops: Brain processes signals forward, backward, and laterally. Enables contextual interpretation.
    2. Contextual Meaning Formation: Human cognition integrates prior knowledge. Reduces rigid output behaviour.
    3. Feed-Forward Architecture: Most LLMs rely on stacked layers without true recurrence. Limits adaptive contextual reasoning.
    4. Statistical Learning Model: AI identifies probabilistic patterns from text corpora. Does not “understand” meaning intrinsically.
    5. Regulatory Concern: Absence of embodied cognition raises risks of hallucinations, misinformation, and biased outputs.

    What are the implications of AI’s divergence from biological intelligence for public policy and strategic planning?

    1. Non-Biological Scaling: Machines are not constrained by evolutionary limits. Enables rapid parameter expansion.
    2. Super-Computational Potential: AI may surpass humans in speed and pattern recognition.
    3. Efficiency Trade-off: AI sacrifices energy efficiency for computational speed.
    4. Neuromorphic Research: Attempts to mimic spike-based operations to reduce power usage.
    5. Policy Imperative: Requires anticipatory regulation balancing innovation and risk mitigation.

    How does AI’s hardware dependency influence economic concentration and digital sovereignty?

    1. GPU Dominance: AI training dependent on limited global chip manufacturers.
    2. Capital Intensity: High infrastructure cost restricts entry to large corporations.
    3. Data Concentration: Models trained on massive datasets inaccessible to smaller players.
    4. Regulatory Challenge: Ensures competition law scrutiny in AI markets.
    5. National Security Dimension: AI capability linked to defence, cyber security, and economic competitiveness.

    Conclusion 

    AI is approaching the human brain in scale but remains fundamentally different in design and efficiency. While the brain operates with minimal energy and deep contextual feedback, AI depends on massive computation and data infrastructure.

    The key policy challenge lies in balancing innovation with sustainability, accountability, and digital sovereignty. Future AI development must focus not just on scale, but on efficiency, transparency, and alignment with human values.

    PYQ Relevance

    [UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does AI help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of AI in healthcare?

    Linkage: Directly linked to GS-3 (Science & Technology) under AI applications and data governance, and GS-4 (Ethics) regarding privacy, accountability, and algorithmic decision-making. The AI-brain debate strengthens this theme by highlighting efficiency, bias, and regulatory concerns in healthcare systems.

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    Unearthing the Silent Splendour of the Hoysalas

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News

    A recent feature highlights lesser known Hoysala era temples and basadis in rural parts of Hassan, Mandya and Mysuru districts of Karnataka, drawing attention to the architectural and cultural legacy beyond the famous sites.

    About the Hoysala Dynasty

    • The Hoysala dynasty ruled parts of present day Karnataka between the 11th and 14th centuries. Their rule is known for:
      • Temple architecture in soapstone
      • Intricate sculptural detailing
      • Fusion of Shaiva, Vaishnava and Jain traditions
    • Prominent rulers include:
      • Veera Ballala II
      • Vira Someshwara

    Key Architectural Features

    • Material: Built using soft chloritic schist, commonly called soapstone. 
    • Platform: Temples rest on star shaped raised platform called Jagati
    • Temple Plans
      • Ekakuta: Single shrine
      • Dvikuta: Two shrines
      • Trikuta: Three shrines
      • Panchakuta: Five shrines
    • Sculptural Elements
      • Friezes depicting epics like Ramayana and Mahabharata
      • Celestial dancers
      • Finely lathe turned pillars
      • Elephant processions

    Important Sites  

    • Halebidu: Hoysaleswara Temple. Jain Basadi complex including Parshvanatha, Shantinatha and Adinatha shrines
    • Belur: Chennakeshava Temple
    • Somanathapura: Keshava Temple
    • Doddagaddavalli: Lakshmidevi Temple. One of the earliest surviving Hoysala temples, built in 1114 CE
    • Koravangala: Nageshwara, Govindeshwara and Bucheshwara temples
    • Hulikere: Hulikere Kalyani. Stepwell architecture linked symbolically with zodiac and nakshatras. 
    [2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO: 1. Shantiniketan 

    2. Rani-ki-Vav 

    3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 

    4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya 

    How many of the above properties were included in 2023? 

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) All four

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  • Why Does Wildfire Smoke Swirl Only One Way?

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News

    Two recent studies published in Weather and Climate Dynamics and presented at the American Meteorological Society meeting explain why wildfire smoke in the stratosphere forms spinning bubbles that rotate in only one direction depending on the hemisphere.

    What Is Observed?

    • After intense wildfires, smoke can rise high into the stratosphere. Instead of dispersing immediately, it sometimes forms a compact spinning bubble called a smoke vortex.
      • Clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
      • Counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere

    Why Does It Rotate Only One Way?

    • Smoke Heats the Surrounding Air: Smoke particles absorb sunlight. This warms the air around them. Warm air becomes buoyant and rises. This upward movement creates a vertical column of heated air.
    • Earth’s Rotation Effect: Because Earth rotates, moving air experiences a deflection known as the Coriolis effect. 
      • In the Northern Hemisphere, air is deflected to the right. In the Southern Hemisphere, air is deflected to the left. As the heated smoke rises, Earth’s rotation causes it to spin in a preferred direction.

    Why the Bubble Persists

    • The rotating vortex traps warm smoke near its centre. Reduces mixing with surrounding air.
    • Helps the bubble rise higher into the stratosphere. This mechanism is similar to how cyclones maintain structure, but on a smaller and smoke driven scale.
    [2024] With reference to “Coriolis force,” which of the following statements is/are correct? 1. It increases with increase in wind velocity. 

    2. It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator. 

    Select the answer using the code given below: 

    (a) 1 only  (b) 2 only  (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Proteins Tweaked as Quantum Sensors Inside the Body

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News

    Two recent studies published in Nature in February 2026 have demonstrated that fluorescent proteins can be genetically engineered to function as quantum sensors inside living cells, detecting magnetic fields and radio waves.

    Background

    • The discovery of Green Fluorescent Protein revolutionised biology by allowing scientists to visualise cellular processes. This breakthrough was recognised with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2008.
    • Now, researchers have shown that such proteins can be modified to detect quantum level signals inside cells.

    Core Scientific Principle

    When a fluorescent protein absorbs light:

    1. An electron moves to a higher energy state.
    2. It usually returns, emitting light.
    3. In some cases, a radical pair forms with unpaired electrons.
    4. Their spin states are influenced by weak magnetic fields.
    5. Changes in spin alter fluorescence intensity.

    This is known as optically detected magnetic resonance, a quantum phenomenon.

    Key Research Findings

    1. Enhanced Yellow Fluorescent Protein

    • Exhibits a metastable triplet state
    • Spin state controlled using laser pulses and microwaves
    • Demonstrated qubit like behaviour inside cells
    • Observed in human kidney cells and in Escherichia coli at room temperature

    2. MagLOV Proteins

    • Engineered from plant light sensing proteins
    • Magneto sensitive fluorescent variants
    • Show stable magnetic resonance inside living bacterial cells
    • Genetically encodable and biologically compatible
    [2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned? (a) Cloud Services 

    (b) Quantum Computing 

    (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies 

    (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

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