Seasonal Impact of Monsoons on Wind Power

Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

The onset of cool, moisture-laden monsoon winds offers not just relief but also a significant opportunity for wind energy generation.

About the Indian Monsoon:

Origin: The word “monsoon” comes from Arabic ‘mausin’ or Malayan ‘monsin,’ meaning “season”.
Seasonal Wind Shift: Monsoons are seasonal winds that reverse direction with changing seasons.
Types:

1. Southwest Monsoon: Blows from sea to land, bringing rainfall across most of India.
2. Northeast Monsoon: Blows from land to sea, bringing rain mainly to southeast India.

Role of Tibet: The Tibetan Plateau heats up in summer, creating low pressure that draws in moist winds.
Ocean Influence: A high-pressure system in the southern Indian Ocean helps drive the southwest monsoon.
Atmospheric Factors: Influencers include the Subtropical Jet Stream, Tropical Easterly Jet, and ITCZ.
Other Drivers: The Somali Jet, Somali Current, Indian Ocean Dipole, and Walker Cell also affect monsoon behaviour.

How does monsoon impact wind variability?

Changing Wind Speeds: Monsoon wind speeds vary in strength and direction over time and place.
Energy Planning: Wind behaviour prediction is crucial for renewable power management, especially wind energy.
Agricultural Demand: Kharif crops planted in June depend on monsoon, raising seasonal energy demand.
Wind Energy Output: In areas like the Western Ghats, 70% of wind energy is generated June–September.
Forecasting Tools: Numerical Weather Prediction (NWP) models provide high-resolution wind forecasts.
AI Models: Tools like Google’s MetNet3 use satellite and radar data to predict wind in remote areas.

India’s Wind Energy: Capacity, Growth & Challenges

India became the 3rd largest wind and solar producer in 2024, after China and the US.
Installed wind capacity: 50 GW as of March 31, 2025.
In 2024, wind and solar contributed 10% of electricity—solar 7%, wind 3%; hydro added 8%, totalling 22% from clean sources.
Solar capacity grew by 24 GW in 2024, doubling 2023’s figure; wind grew by 3.4 GW.
Leading wind additions: Gujarat (1,250 MW), Karnataka (1,135 MW), Tamil Nadu (980 MW).
Top wind states: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Maharashtra; targets: 140 GW wind and 500 GW non-fossil capacity by 2030.
Land Use & Capacity Utilization Factor (CUF): Wind farms occupy just 2% of land, allowing agriculture on the rest; CUF ranges between 16%–19%, with peak generation during monsoon months.

[UPSC 2014] The seasonal reversal of winds is the typical characteristic of:

Options: (a) Equatorial climate (b) Mediterranean climate (c) Monsoon climate * (d) All of the above climates

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Judicial Reforms

Permanent Lok Adalats

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Why in the News?

Permanent Lok Adalats in as many as 16 districts of Rajasthan have ceased functioning owing to the non-extension of tenure of their presiding officers and members.

About Permanent Lok Adalats (PLAs)

Legal Basis: PLAs are statutory bodies established under Section 22-B of the Legal Services Authorities Act, 1987.
Establishment: They were introduced in 2002 to offer speedy and affordable dispute resolution for public utility services.
Disputes Handled: PLAs resolve issues related to transport (air, road, water), postal, telecom, electricity, water supply, sanitation, healthcare, and insurance.
Composition: Each PLA has a Chairman (a current or retired District Judge or higher) and 2 members with experience in the relevant public utility sectors.
Functioning: Unlike regular Lok Adalats, PLAs operate on a continuous basis and are always available for dispute resolution.
Jurisdiction Limit: They can hear cases involving claims up to ₹1 crore but cannot take up non-compoundable criminal cases.
Unique Power: If conciliation fails, the PLA has the authority to adjudicate the dispute and issue a final and BINDING award, just like a civil court.

Back2Basics: Lok Adalats vs Permanent Lok Adalats

	Lok Adalats	Permanent Lok Adalats
Nature	Ad hoc, held occasionally	Permanent, functional continuously
Jurisdiction	Broad (civil, compoundable criminal, family, etc.)	Limited to public utility service disputes
Dispute Stage	Usually post-litigation	Pre-litigation stage only
Panel Composition	Judicial officers, lawyers, social workers	Chairman (Judge) + 2 experts in utility services
Conciliation Role	Only conciliatory; no decision if no settlement	Can adjudicate if no settlement is reached
Decision	Binding only if parties agree	Award is final and binding, with no appeal
Legal Status	Decree of a civil court	Also a civil court decree, but with adjudication power
Appeal Provision	No appeal, but fresh suit possible	No appeal, but constitutional remedies may apply

[UPSC 2009] With reference to Lok Adalats, consider the following statements:

1. An award made by a Lok Adalat is deemed to be a degree of a civil court and no appeal lies against thereto before any court.

2. Matrimonial/Family disputes are not covered under Lok Adalat.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Restoration of Rajon ki Baoli

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), in private collaboration, has successfully completed the restoration of Rajon ki Baoli, a 16th-century Lodi-era stepwell located in New Delhi.

About Rajon ki Baoli:

Location: Situated in Mehrauli Archaeological Park, Delhi, around 400 meters south of Adham Khan’s Tomb.
Build year: Built in 1506 CE by Daulat Khan Lodi, an official under Sikandar Lodi.
Name Meaning: “Rajon ki Baoli” means “Stepwell of the Masons”, referring to raj mistris, not royalty.
Structure: The stepwell is rectangular, covering 1,610 sq m, and is 13.4 meters deep.
Design: It is a 4-level structure, with only the topmost tier visible from ground level.
Architectural Features:
- Includes verandas, arched corridors, 12-pillared arcades, and stucco medallions.
- The complex also has a mosque, a tomb, and a chhatri (pavilion).
Purpose: Served as a water source and resting place and had social-religious utility.

About the Lodi Dynasty:

The Lodi Dynasty ruled the Delhi Sultanate from 1451 to 1526.
Founder: Established by Bahlul Lodi, the first Afghan ruler of Delhi.
Territorial Control: Dominated Punjab, Jaunpur, Gwalior, and the Upper Ganga Valley.
Key Rulers:

1. Bahlul Lodi (1451–1489): Annexed Jaunpur and solidified Afghan influence in northern India.
2. Sikandar Lodi (1489–1517): Founded Agra, introduced agricultural reforms, standardised land with Gaz-i-Sikandari, and patronised literature and music. He imposed jizya and demolished temples in Mathura, reflecting intolerance.
3. Ibrahim Lodi (1517–1526): Lost the First Battle of Panipat to Babur, ending the dynasty and the Sultanate.

Successor: Their fall marked the shift from the Delhi Sultanate to the Mughal Empire in Indian history.

[UPSC 2006] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the Afghan rulers to the throne of Delhi?

(a) Sikandar Shah – Ibrahim Lodi – Bahlol Khan Lodi

(b) Sikandar Shah – Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi

(d) Bahlol Khan Lodi – Ibrahim Lodi – Sikandar Shah

ASI completes conservation work in Lodhi-era stepwell – The Hindu

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

125 Years of Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO)

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Why in the News?

The Department of Posts has released a commemorative postage stamp to mark 125 years of the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO)—one of India’s oldest and most significant astronomical research centres dedicated to studying the Sun.

About the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO):
- Founding: Established in the late 19th century, KoSO was established in 1899 after atmospheric surveys by Charles Michie Smith.
- Location: It is located in Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu, in the Palani Hills, chosen for its excellent sky conditions.
- Early Observations: Initially focused on observing sunspots, solar prominences, and solar radiation.
- Modern Equipment: Now equipped with the H-alpha telescope (for flares and prominences) and WARM (for high-resolution sunspot imaging).
- Institutional Role: Became part of the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) in April 1971.
- Scientific Importance: KoSO contributes to understanding the Sun’s effect on Earth’s climate and space weather.
Important Observations / Discoveries:
- Evershed Effect (1909): Discovered by John Evershed, it was the first observation of radial gas outflows in sunspots, a key finding in solar physics.
- Historic Solar Archive (1904–2017): Created one of the world’s longest continuous solar datasets.
- Digitization: First Indian observatory to digitise solar data (since 1984); currently maintains a digital archive of 1.48 lakh images (~10 TB).
- Wider Scientific Work: Extended research into cosmic rays, radio astronomy, ionospheric physics, and stellar astrophysics over the decades.
[UPSC 2016] Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology has helped India in its socio-economic development?
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North-East India – Security and Developmental Issues

50 years of Sikkim’s integration with India

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Post-Independence

Why in the News?

May 16 is observed annually as Sikkim Day, marking the historic occasion in 1975 when the Kingdom of Sikkim formally became a state of India.

About the Kingdom of Sikkim

Foundation: The Kingdom of Sikkim was established in 1642, when three Tibetan lamas crowned Phuntsong Namgyal as the first Chogyal (monarch).
Namgyal dynasty: It ruled Sikkim for 333 years, maintaining a Buddhist monarchy until 1975.
Treaty of Tumlong (1861): It made Sikkim a British protectorate, where the Chogyals retained internal authority while the British handled external affairs.
Other key treaties shaping Sikkim’s status: These included the Treaty of Titaliya (1817), Calcutta Convention (1890), and Lhasa Convention (1904), which defined borders and reaffirmed British influence.

How did Sikkim join India?

Post-1947 Status: After India’s independence, Sikkim did not join India like other princely states, due to its unique British treaty status.
Nehru’s Approach: While Sardar Patel and B.N. Rau wanted Sikkim to accede, Jawaharlal Nehru opted for a Standstill Agreement to preserve the status quo.
Indo-Sikkim Treaty of 1950: This treaty made Sikkim an Indian protectorate, with India managing defence, foreign affairs, and communications.
Role of Sikkim National Congress: Led by Kazi Dorji, the SNC became the key pro-democracy and pro-merger party.
1973 Agreement: After widespread protests, a tripartite agreement was signed between the Chogyal, the Government of India, and the Sikkimese parties.
Democratic Transition: In 1974, elections were held, and a new constitution reduced the monarch’s powers.
Referendum of 1975: In April 1975, over 97% of voters supported abolishing the monarchy and merging with India.
Merger with India: In May 1975, the 36th Constitutional Amendment was passed, and Sikkim became the 22nd state of India. It added Article 371F to provide special provisions for the state of Sikkim.

Back2Basics: Article 371F of the Indian Constitution

Constitutional Origin: Added by the 36th Amendment Act (1975) when Sikkim became the 22nd state of India.
Objective: Protects Sikkim’s unique history, culture, and legal system during integration.
Legislative Assembly: Sikkim must have at least 30 MLAs, fewer than other states under Article 170.
Parliamentary Representation: Sikkim has 1 Lok Sabha and 1 Rajya Sabha seat, with the Assembly electing the MP.
Governor’s Role: Governor holds special responsibility for peace, equity, and development.
Pre-Merger Laws: Existing laws and judgments before 1975 remain valid unless changed by Parliament.
Presidential Powers: President can modify laws and extend central laws to Sikkim within two years post-merger.
Land and Job Rights: Only 1961-registered Sikkimese can own land or hold state government jobs.
Tax Exemption: Original Sikkimese were exempt from income tax.
Recent Controversy: The Finance Bill, 2023 expanded the term “Sikkimese”, raising concerns over erosion of indigenous rights.

[UPSC 2007] Which one of the following is the correct chronological order of the formation as full States of the Indian Union?

Options:

(a) Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh-Nagaland-Haryana

(b) Nagaland-Haryana-Sikkim-Arunachal Pradesh *

(d) Nagaland-Arunachal Pradesh-Sikkim-Haryana

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Article 143 of the Indian Constitution

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Why in the News?

The Tamil Nadu CM has criticised the Presidential Reference under Article 143 as a “desperate attempt” to weaken State powers, following a Supreme Court ruling that set timelines for Governors and the President to act on State Bills.

Article 143 of the Indian Constitution

Recent Invocation:

The Presidential Reference asked whether the Supreme Court could impose timelines on:
- Governors under Article 200 (assent to State Bills)
- The President under Article 201 (Bills reserved for Presidential assent)

What is Article 143 of the Indian Constitution?

Article 143 empowers the President of India to seek the advisory opinion of the Supreme Court on any question of law or fact that is-
- of public importance
- Likely to arise or has already arisen
This provision defines the Supreme Court’s advisory jurisdiction, exclusive to the President.
Sub-clauses and Legal Operation:
- Article 143(1): The President may refer any matter to the Supreme Court for its opinion. In the first case, the Supreme Court may tender or may refuse to tender its opinion to the president.
- Article 143(2): Allows the President to refer disputes arising from pre-Constitution agreements, including state-related matters, for the Supreme Court’s opinion. The Supreme Court must tender its opinion to the President.
Nature of the Reference: The Supreme Court’s opinion is advisory and NOT legally binding since it is NOT a judicial pronouncement.
President’s Response: It is NOT binding on the President; he/she may follow or may not follow the opinion. However, it facilitates the government to have an authoritative legal opinion.
Types of Questions Referred: Article 143(1) allows the President to refer questions of law or fact.
1. Legal questions: Constitutional interpretation, rights, and executive powers.
2. Factual questions: The 1993 Ram Janmabhoomi-Babri Masjid reference asked whether a temple existed at the disputed site.
Judicial Interpretation: The Supreme Court has clarified that Article 143 is broad in scope and not limited to questions that have arisen; potential or likely questions can also be referred.

Executive’s Control of Presidential Reference:

Although Article 143 vests the power in the President, the real decision to refer is taken by the Union Council of Ministers under Article 74(1).
Article 74(2) bars the Court from inquiring whether such advice was given.

[UPSC 2010] Consider the following statements:

The Supreme Court of India tenders’ advice to the President of India on matters of law or fact

1. on its own initiative (on any matter of larger public interest).

2. if he seeks such an advice.

3. only if the matters relate to the Fundamental Rights of the citizens.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only * (c) 3 only (d) 1 and 2 only

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Scientists create 2D Metal Sheets using High-Pressure Technique

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

A team of researchers from top Chinese scientific institutions has reported a major breakthrough in the creation of atomically thin 2D metal sheets using a novel high-pressure sandwich method.

About the 2D Metal Created:

Definition: 2D metals are only one or two atoms thick, so electrons can move in just two dimensions.
Quantum Confinement: Electrons in 2D metals are restricted to specific energy levels, similar to how they behave in atoms.
Scientific Interest: Metals like bismuth, tin, and lead in 2D form are being studied for their electrical, magnetic, and quantum properties.
Applications: Their special properties make them useful for quantum computing, sensors, and advanced electronics.

Technologies Involved:

Quantum Dots: These are tiny semiconductors where electrons are tightly confined, creating quantised energy states.
Quantum Confinement: In quantum dots, electrons can’t move freely in any direction, leading to discrete energy levels.
Link to 2D Metals: In 2D metals, electrons are confined in two dimensions, changing conductivity, magnetism, and optical behaviour.
Process: Chinese scientists created 2D metals by sandwiching metal powder between two MoS₂-coated sapphire layers.
Steps involved: The structure is heated, twisted, and pressed to form ultra-thin sheets, then cooled and peeled off.
Material Choice: MoS₂ and sapphire were chosen for their strength, smoothness, and low chemical reaction with metal.

Note:

Quantum confinement occurs when a particle like an electron is trapped in an extremely small space, such as a nanoscale material. This restriction changes its energy levels, making them discrete instead of continuous. As a result, the material’s properties—like color and conductivity—can change with size.

[UPSC 2012] Graphene is frequently in the news recently. What is its importance?

1. It is a two-dimensional material and has good electrical conductivity.

2. It is one of the thinnest but strongest materials tested so far.

3. It is entirely made of silicon and has high optical transparency.

4. It can be used as ‘conducting electrodes’ required for touch screens, LCDs and organic LEDs.

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Chandrayaan-5 (LUPEX Mission) enters Preliminary Design Phase

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

India and Japan have begun the preliminary design phase of the Chandrayaan-5 mission, also known as LUPEX (Lunar Polar Exploration).

Back2Basics: Legacy of Chandrayaan Missions

Chandrayaan-1 (2008): First mission, focused on mineral and chemical mapping.
Chandrayaan-2 (2019): Orbiter mission with 98% success.
Chandrayaan-3 (2023): Achieved a historic soft landing on the Moon’s south pole.
Chandrayaan-4 (Upcoming, 2027):
- It is a planned lunar sample return mission by ISRO, expected to launch around 2027, with the landing site near Statio Shiv Shakti at the lunar south pole.
- The mission involves five modules launched on two LVM-3 rockets, later docked in Earth orbit to form an integrated spacecraft.
- A robotic arm and drill will collect 2–3 kg of surface and sub-surface lunar samples for return to Earth.
- The Re-entry Module (RM) will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere with the samples using ballistic re-entry, marking India’s first attempt at sample return.
Chandrayaan-5 / LUPEX: Aimed at deeper exploration with global participation.
Manned Lunar Mission: Prospected lunar landing by 2040.

About Chandrayaan-5/LUPEX Mission:

It is a collaborative mission between ISRO and JAXA.
Approval: Cabinet approval for the mission was granted on March 10, 2025.
Launch: It will carry a 6.5-tonne payload and launch aboard Japan’s H3 rocket in 2027–28.
Collaboration: The lander is being developed by ISRO and the 350-kg rover by JAXA.
Duration: The mission is expected to last 100 days, with a possible extension of one year.

Mission Goals and Objectives:

- Explore water and regolith in the lunar south pole’s Permanently Shadowed Regions (PSRs).
- Drill into the Moon’s surface, analyse soil samples, and perform in-situ experiments.
- Assess water content, quality, and analyse surface volatiles using advanced instrumentation.
- Exploration of the far side of the Moon.

Scientific Collaboration and Instruments:

A total of 7 scientific instruments will be onboard the mission.
ISRO’s Contribution: Development of the lander; creation of one sensor in a major four-sensor instrument.
JAXA’s Contribution: Development of the rover and three sensors in the same instrument; Rover is designed to climb 25° inclines and operate on a complex battery charging protocol.
ESA (European Space Agency): Developing a mass spectrometer.
NASA: Contributing neutron spectrometers.

[UPSC 2009] In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

Options: (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India* (d) A space telescope developed by India

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Solar Energy – JNNSM, Solar Cities, Solar Pumps, etc.

India eases Solar Panel Efficiency Norms for Off-Grid Rural Projects

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has lowered the efficiency requirement for off-grid solar panels to make rural electrification easier and more affordable.

About India’s Off-Grid Solar Programme:

About: The programme was launched by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy to provide solar energy access in regions without reliable grid electricity.
Mission Framework: Implemented under the National Solar Mission (2010), it aimed to install 2,000 megawatt-peak (MW-P) of off-grid and decentralised systems by 2022.
Phased Implementation:
1. Phase I (2010–2014) targeted 200 MW-P capacity.
2. Phase II (2014–2017) expanded to 500 MW-P with a focus on lighting, pumps, and study lamps.
3. Phase III (2018–2021) emphasised solar streetlights, study lamps, and solar plants for public institutions.
Restructuring: Solar pumps were moved to the Pradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahabhiyan scheme (PM-KUSUM), and solar home lights were integrated into the Saubhagya Scheme.
Key Applications: Included solar home lighting systems, streetlights, lanterns, study lamps, power packs, and water pumps for irrigation and drinking.

India’s Progress in Off-Grid Solar Energy:

Installed Capacity: As of April 2025, India’s total solar capacity reached 107.95 gigawatts, with 4.98 gigawatts from off-grid systems.
Capacity Growth: From 2016 to 2024, solar installations grew from 172.45 gigawatts to 216.86 gigawatts.
Recent Trends: In 2024, adoption rose as solar appliances became more affordable in remote and underserved regions.
Impact: The programme has been vital for electrification in areas where grid expansion is limited by geography, cost, or infrastructure.

Tap to know more about India’s Solar Capacity and its Global Position.

[UPSC 2020] With reference to solar water pumps, consider the following statements:

1. Solar power can be used for running surface pumps and not for submersible pumps.

2. Solar power can be used for running centrifugal pumps and not the ones with piston.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

Scientists at CERN Create Gold from Lead

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

In a recent breakthrough at CERN’s ALICE (A Large Ion Collider Experiment), scientists observed that near-collisions of lead ions in the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) can result in the formation of gold atoms and other novel nuclei.

How was Lead converted into Gold?

In ultra-peripheral collisions at the Large Hadron Collider, lead atoms passed close without touching, creating strong electromagnetic fields.
These fields released photons that caused some lead atoms to lose 3 protons and 2 neutrons, transforming them into gold-203.
Between 2015–2018, 86 billion gold atoms were created—just 29 picograms—scientifically important but not commercially valuable.

About the Large Hadron Collider (LHC):

The LHC has been working since September 2008 and is the world’s largest particle accelerator.
Development: Between 1998 and 2008 in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists, and hundreds of universities and laboratories across more than 100 countries.
Location: It lies in a 27-kilometre tunnel under the France–Switzerland border, near Geneva, and is operated by CERN.
Purpose: It smashes protons or lead atoms together to help scientists study the smallest building blocks of the universe.
Working Mechanism: About 9,600 magnets guide particles in a circle using strong magnetic fields.
Speed: Particles travel at 99.999999% the speed of light, creating conditions like the Big Bang.
Particles Studied: The LHC focuses on quarks (which come in six types) and gluons, which hold quarks together using the strong nuclear force.
Members: 24 countries spans across the Europe. Japan and US are Observer.

India and LHC:

- India signed a cooperation agreement with CERN in 1991 and joined its Large Hadron Collider project in 1996; it became an Associate Member in 2016 after gaining Observer status in 2002.
- India also helped design LHC components such as superconducting magnets, cryogenic systems, and accelerator protection systems.

About the ALICE Experiment:

ALICE is designed to study heavy-ion collisions, mainly using lead atoms.
Objective: It recreates matter similar to that formed just after the Big Bang, helping us understand the early universe.
Detection Range: ALICE can study both large particle blasts and rare, low-energy events with high precision.
Size and Setup: It weighs 10,000 tons, measures 26 × 16 × 16 metres, and sits 56 metres underground.
Members: As of 2024, ALICE includes over 1,900 scientists from 174 institutes across 39 countries, including India.
India’s Contribution: Key instruments like the Photon Multiplicity Detector for ALICE and the Hadron Outer Calorimeter for CMS.

[UPSC 2009] In the year 2008, which one of the following conducted a complex scientific experiment in which sub-atomic particles were accelerated to nearly the speed of light?

Options: (a) European Space Agency (b) European Organization for Nuclear Research* (c) International Atomic Energy Agency (d) National Aeronautics and Space administration

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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

About the Indian Monsoon:

How does monsoon impact wind variability?

India’s Wind Energy: Capacity, Growth & Challenges

Why in the News?

About Permanent Lok Adalats (PLAs)

Back2Basics: Lok Adalats vs Permanent Lok Adalats

Why in the News?

About Rajon ki Baoli:

About the Lodi Dynasty:

Why in the News?

About the Kodaikanal Solar Observatory (KoSO):

Important Observations / Discoveries:

Why in the News?

About the Kingdom of Sikkim

How did Sikkim join India?

Back2Basics: Article 371F of the Indian Constitution

Why in the News?

Recent Invocation:

What is Article 143 of the Indian Constitution?

Executive’s Control of Presidential Reference:

Why in the News?

About the 2D Metal Created:

Technologies Involved:

Note:

Why in the News?

Back2Basics: Legacy of Chandrayaan Missions

About Chandrayaan-5/LUPEX Mission:

Scientific Collaboration and Instruments:

Why in the News?

About India’s Off-Grid Solar Programme:

India’s Progress in Off-Grid Solar Energy:

Why in the News?

How was Lead converted into Gold?

About the Large Hadron Collider (LHC):

About the ALICE Experiment: