Article 136 of the Indian Constitution

Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Article 136 of the Indian Constitution

Why in the News?

Vice President Jagdeep Dhankhar recently raised concerns over the wide usage of Special Leave Petitions (SLPs) under Article 136 of the Indian Constitution, stating that what was meant to be a “narrow slit” has now turned into a wide judicial intervention.

What is a Special Leave Petition (SLP) under Article 136?

A SLP is an extraordinary appeal mechanism that allows the Supreme Court (SC) to intervene in any judgment, decree, or order passed by a lower court or tribunal, except in matters related to the Armed Forces Tribunal.
SLP is discretionary, meaning the SC is NOT obligated to hear every petition filed under Article 136.
The concept of SLP originates from the Government of India Act, 1935, which gave a similar power to the Privy Council in colonial times.

Key Features of SLP:

Jurisdiction of Article 136:
- The SC has the power to grant special leave to appeal against judgments of High Courts, tribunals, or other judicial bodies.
- This allows the SC to examine cases that may not have a direct appeal provision under law.
Scope of Application:
- SLPs can be filed in both civil and criminal cases.
- It can be used even in cases where a High Court refuses to grant a certificate of appeal to the Supreme Court.
- The SC may accept or reject an SLP without providing reasons.
Time Limit for Filing:
- 90 days from the date of the High Court’s judgment.
- 60 days if the High Court refuses to certify an appeal.
Judicial Discretion:
- SLP is not an automatic right of appeal but is granted only in cases where the SC finds that a substantial question of law or injustice is involved.
- Even if an SLP is accepted, the SC may later decline to interfere in the final decision.
Conversion into a Formal Appeal: If the SC grants leave under an SLP, the case turns into a full-fledged appeal, allowing both parties to present their arguments.

PYQ:

[2021] With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements:

Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgement as the Supreme Court does.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 only

(d) Neither I nor 2

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1

Why in the News?

US’s Firefly Aerospace’s Blue Ghost Mission 1 successfully landed on the Moon, becoming the second private mission to do so and the first to land upright.

What is ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1?

Blue Ghost Mission 1 is a private lunar landing mission by Firefly Aerospace under NASA’s Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program.
It was launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9.
It successfully landed on the Moon, at Mons Latreille, Mare Crisium.
The mission is designed to operate for 14 Earth days (one lunar day).

Key Features of Blue Ghost Mission 1:

Carries 10 scientific instruments, including a lunar soil analyzer, a radiation-tolerant computer, and a GPS-based navigation experiment to test satellite navigation on the Moon.
Equipped with a high-definition imaging system to capture a lunar eclipse (March 14, 2024) and lunar sunset (March 16, 2024).
Successfully navigated a rocky and cratered surface using hazard-avoidance technology, slowing from thousands of miles per hour to just two mph before touchdown.
The lander is golden in color and about the size of a hippopotamus.
It supports Artemis missions by testing lunar technologies and reducing costs for future human exploration.

PYQ:

[2016] What is ‘Greased Lightning-10 (GL-10)’, recently in the news?

(a) Electric plane tested by NASA

(b) Solar-powered two-seater aircraft designed by Japan

(d) Reusable rocket designed by ISRO

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

‘Kundi’ Traditional Water Harvesting

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Traditional water harvesting systems in India

Why in the News?

With summers nearing, the arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan particularly in Churu, Jaisalmer, and Barmer districts largely rely on ‘Kundi’ system of traditional rainwater harvesting.

kundi

What is Kundi System?

Found in Churu, Rajasthan, kundis (or kunds) are traditional rainwater harvesting structures designed for storing drinking water.
A circular or rectangular pit, often lined with bricks or stones, is dug into the ground.
Rainwater is collected through sloped catchments and funneled into the kundi for storage.
A lid or stone slab covers the pit to prevent contamination and evaporation.
These structures help communities survive in regions with scarce groundwater and unpredictable rainfall.

Other Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India

Khadin (Rajasthan)	Earthen embankment (bund) built across slopes to retain surface runoff for moisture conservation and groundwater recharge, used since the 15th century.
Johads (Rajasthan, Haryana)	Small crescent-shaped embankments that store rainwater, recharge groundwater, prevent runoff, and improve water availability.
Baolis / Stepwells (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Delhi, MP)	Deep stepwells with stairs leading to groundwater storage, used for drinking, irrigation, and bathing; famous examples include Rani ki Vav (UNESCO site) and Agrasen ki Baoli.
Virdas (Gujarat – Kutch region)	Shallow wells dug in depressions to separate fresh rainwater from saline groundwater, used by Maldhari pastoralists for drinking and livestock.
Tankas (Rajasthan, Gujarat)	Circular underground tanks built in homes and temples for storing rainwater; lined with lime for purification, found in Bikaner, Jaisalmer, and Dwarka.
Zabo (Nagaland)	Terraced ponds built on hill slopes to collect rainwater for drinking, irrigation, and livestock, preventing soil erosion and increasing groundwater recharge.
Kuls (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, J&K)	Small channels (kuls) diverting glacial meltwater to fields for irrigation, made of stones, wood, and mud, and managed by local communities.
Ahar-Pyne (Bihar, Jharkhand)	Ancient system from the Mauryan period, where reservoirs (Ahar) collect rainwater, and channels (Pyne) distribute it for paddy cultivation.
Eri (Tamil Nadu)	Interconnected chain of tanks developed during the Chola period for irrigation, groundwater recharge, and flood control, still supporting agriculture.
Surangam (Kerala, Karnataka)	Horizontal tunnels dug into hillsides to extract water from aquifers, similar to Iran’s Qanat system, common in Malabar and Kasargod.
Phad Irrigation (Maharashtra)	Community-managed canal irrigation system drawing water from rivers, used in drought-prone areas, managed by a village council (patkari system).

[UPSC 2016] With reference to the economic history of medieval India, the term ‘Araghatta refers to:

(a) Bonded labour

(b) Land grants made to military officers

(d) Wasteland converted to cultivated land

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Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

National Science Day

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: National Science Day

Why in the News?

February 28 is observed as National Science Day in India to commemorate the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman in 1928. It is the only Nobel achieved by an Indian while working in India.

About National Science Day

National Science Day is celebrated in India on February 28 every year.
It marks the discovery of the Raman Effect by Sir C.V. Raman on February 28, 1928.
The GoI declared this day as National Science Day in 1986 to promote scientific awareness.
The primary objective of the day is to promote scientific temper, encourage research, and recognize India’s contributions to science.
Schools, colleges, and research institutions organize seminars, science exhibitions, and debates to celebrate this day.
The theme for National Science Day 2024 is “Empowering Indian Youth for Global Leadership in Science & Innovation for Viksit Bharat.”

Who was C.V. Raman?

Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman was an Indian physicist born on November 7, 1888, in Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu.
He completed his Bachelor’s and Master’s degrees in Physics from Presidency College, Madras.
He initially worked as an Assistant Accountant General but continued his passion for physics through research.
In 1917, he became a professor at Calcutta University and conducted groundbreaking experiments.
He established the Raman Research Institute in Bangalore in 1948, which became a major center for scientific research.

Contributions of C.V. Raman

Raman Effect (1928): Proved that light changes wavelength when scattered by molecules.
- Inspired by the blue color of the Mediterranean Sea, disproving the earlier sky-reflection theory.
Won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1930, becoming India’s first Nobel laureate in science.
Conducted research on vibrations of musical instruments like the veena, tabla, and mridangam.
Raman Spectroscopy is widely used in chemistry, physics, medicine, and space exploration.
- Used by NASA in Mars Rover missions for mineral analysis.
He established the Raman Research Institute to promote advanced scientific research in India.
He contributed to strengthening India’s scientific infrastructure and mentored future physicists.

PYQ:

[2016] A recent movie titled The Man Who Knew Infinity is based on the biography of:

(a) S. Ramanujan

(b) S. Chandrasekhar

(d) C. V. Raman

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New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

Species in news: Doomsday Fish

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Doomsday Fish

Why in the News?

Recent sightings of the rare oarfish, also known as the “Doomsday Fish,” near the shores of Baja California Sur, Mexico, have sparked speculation and social media frenzy.

About the ‘Doomsday Fish’

Japanese Folklore calls the oarfish “Ryugu no tsukai” or “Sea God’s Palace Messenger” and believes its rare appearance signals an impending natural calamity.
The belief gained strength in 2011 when multiple oarfish washed ashore in Japan just before the Tohoku earthquake and tsunami (9.0 magnitude).
Some cultures also consider the oarfish a messenger of the deep, warning humans of major disturbances in the ocean.

Popular Legends

Some scientists suggest that deep-sea fishlike oarfish may be sensitive to underwater vibrations from fault lines and could surface before an earthquake.
- However, no conclusive scientific evidence supports this theory.
Powerful ocean currents, storms, or underwater disturbances may push weakened or dying oarfish toward the surface.
The El Niño phenomenon or changes in water temperature might also affect their movements.
A 2019 study in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America found no relationship between oarfish sightings and earthquakes in Japan.

PYQ:

[2017] Due to some reasons, if there is a huge fall in the population of species of butterflies, what could be its likely consequence/consequences?

1. Pollination of some plants could be adversely affected.

2. There could be a drastic increase in the fungal infections of some cultivated plants.

3. It could lead to a fall in the population of some species of wasps, spiders and birds.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

PUNCH Mission

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: PUNCH Mission

Why in the News?

NASA is set to launch the Polarimetry to Unify the Corona and Heliosphere (PUNCH) mission on February 28, 2025, aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.

About the PUNCH Mission

PUNCH Mission is a groundbreaking solar mission designed to study the Sun’s corona and solar wind using advanced imaging techniques.
It will consist of 4 small satellites operating in Low Earth Orbit (LEO) for an expected two-year mission.
Unlike previous missions, PUNCH will use polarimetry (measurement of polarized light) to observe solar phenomena in 3D.
It allows scientists to study the origin and evolution of solar winds and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs), both of which impact space weather and Earth’s technological systems.

Focus Areas of the PUNCH Mission:

- Study how the Sun’s outer corona transforms into the solar wind.
- Observe how CMEs are formed, gain speed, and travel through space.
- Improve space weather forecasting to protect satellites, astronauts, and power grids.
- Provide real-time data to help scientists predict solar storms and geomagnetic disturbances.
- Contribute to NASA’s Artemis program by ensuring safe deep-space exploration.

Key Features of the PUNCH Mission:

4 microsatellite weighs 64 kg each and works together to capture a wide-field view of the Sun’s corona.
Advanced Imaging Instruments:
- Narrow Field Imager (NFI): Captures high-resolution images of the inner corona.
- Wide Field Imagers (WFIs): Observe solar wind and CMEs across interplanetary space.
- STEAM (X-ray spectrometer): Monitors coronal heating and solar flares.
Provides real-time data every four minutes.
Offers a 90° field of view, covering the Sun’s outer atmosphere and heliosphere.
Helps mitigate the effects of solar storms on Earth’s communication systems.
Aids in protecting astronauts and satellites from harmful solar radiation.

PYQ:

[2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth?

GPS and navigation systems could fail.
Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.
Power grids could be damaged.
Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.
Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.
Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.
Shortwave radio communication of the aircraft flying over polar regions could be interrupted.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2, 4 and 5 only
(b) 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7 only
(c) 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

Chandra Shekhar Azad and his Contributions

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:
Prelims level: Chandra Shekhar Azad
Why in the News?

Leaders from across the political spectrum paid tributes to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad on his martyrdom day (27th February 1931).

Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?
- Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931) was a revolutionary who played a key role in India’s independence struggle.
- Born in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, he joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement at 15 but turned to armed revolution after its suspension.
- He reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) alongside Bhagat Singh.
- Azad vowed never to be captured alive and sacrificed himself in a shootout at Alfred Park, Allahabad, on February 27, 1931.
His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle
- Non-Cooperation Movement (1921): Arrested at 15, he declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was punished with 15 lashes.
- Joining HRA (1924): Became a member of Ram Prasad Bismil’s HRA and raised funds through political dacoities.
- Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Helped loot a British train carrying treasury money; escaped capture while others were sentenced.
- Reorganizing HSRA (1928): Transformed HRA into HSRA with Bhagat Singh, introducing socialist ideology.
- Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, personally eliminating a police officer in the escape.
- Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): Planned to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, but the plan failed.
- Final Stand (1931): Surrounded by British police, killed three officers, ensured his comrade’s escape, and shot himself with his last bullet.
PYQ:

[2020] Since the decade of the 1920s, the national movement acquired various ideological strands and thereby expanded its social base. Discuss.
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What is the Tea Horse Road?

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Tea Horse Road

Why in the News?

Recently, China’s Ambassador to India highlighted the historical significance of ‘Tea Horse Road’ in fostering Sino-Indian ties.

About the Tea Horse Road

The Tea Horse Road originated during the Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE).
Buddhist monk Yijing (635-713 CE) recorded early trade between China, Tibet, and India, mentioning exchanges of sugar, textiles, and herbs.
By the Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE), the trade focused on tea exports to Tibet and importing horses for China’s military.
The network spanned over 2,000 km, crossing treacherous mountain passes at altitudes above 10,000 feet.
The Tea Horse Road was not a single road but a network of multiple routes. Two primary routes were:

Yunnan Route: Starting from Pu’er and Dali, passing through Lijiang, reaching Lhasa (Tibet), and extending into India (via Sikkim, Nepal, and Bhutan).
Sichuan Route: Connecting Chengdu (Sichuan) to Tibet and North India.

Tea from southwestern China was transported to Tibet, then moved through the Himalayan passes to Kolkata and beyond, reaching Europe and Asia.
The rise of modern roads and railways in the mid-20th century led to its gradual decline.

Historical Significance:

Trade & Economy: Connected Tibet and China to India’s markets, facilitating the export of Chinese tea and Tibetan wool to Kolkata while Indian textiles and spices moved northward.
Horses for Indian Cavalry: Tibetan horses, transported through the route, were crucial for Indian military campaigns, especially in the Mughal and British periods.
Spread of Buddhism: The route enabled Buddhist scholars and monks to travel between Nalanda, Tibet, and China, promoting cultural and religious exchanges.
Political & Diplomatic Relations: British India sought control over Sikkim and Tibet’s trade routes, leading to diplomatic interventions like the 1904 British expedition to Tibet.
Impact on Himalayan Regions: Strengthened trade and cultural ties between Ladakh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Tibet, influencing their shared heritage and economy.

PYQ:

[2018] The China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC) is viewed as a cardinal subset of China’s larger ‘One Belt One Road’ initiative. Give a brief description of CPEC and enumerate the reasons why India has distanced itself from the same.

[2016] ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ is sometimes mentioned in the news in the context of the affairs of

(a) African Union

(b) Brazil

(d) China

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA

Why in the News?

Researchers have discovered a reason why certain segments of the human and mouse genomes (Tra2b gene) have remained unchanged for 80 million years. These segments, known as ultra-conserved elements (UCEs), play a vital role in regulating protein production

What are Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA?

Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) are long, highly conserved DNA sequences (200+ base pairs) that have remained unchanged for millions of years across multiple species, including humans, mice, rats, chickens, and even fish.
Key Characteristics:
- Found in both coding (gene) and non-coding (regulatory) regions of the genome.
- Do not tolerate mutations, meaning they remain identical across species for tens of millions of years.
- Many UCEs do not code for proteins but play crucial roles in gene regulation and cellular function.

Their importance:

- Evolutionary Significance: Their extreme conservation suggests they are essential for survival, as any mutation would likely be harmful.
- Gene Regulation: UCEs may function as enhancers or silencers, controlling when and where genes are activated.
- Developmental Roles: They are often linked to brain development, fertility, and immune response.
- Disease Prevention: UCEs may protect against genetic disorders and cancers by stabilizing gene expression.

Why do Human and Mouse Genomes overlap?

Humans and mice share a common mammalian ancestor that lived around 80 million years ago.
Genomic Similarity:
- Around 85% of mouse genes have direct counterparts in humans.
- Nearly 500 UCEs are identical between humans and mice, despite millions of years of evolution.
Many fundamental processes like cell division, metabolism, and brain function are similar between species, necessitating high conservation of crucial DNA regions.
Medical Research:
- Because of these similarities, mice serve as a model organism for studying human genetics, diseases, and drug responses.
- UCEs help scientists understand gene function across species, leading to insights into evolution and biomedical advancements.

PYQ:

[2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred

1. across different species of plants

2. from animals to plants

3. from microorganisms to higher organisms

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

SPHEREx Telescope

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: SPHEREx Telescope

Why in the News?

NASA is set to launch its latest space telescope, SPHEREx (Spectro-Photometer for the History of the Universe, Epoch of Reionization and Ices Explorer) aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from California.

What is the SPHEREx Telescope?

SPHEREx is a new space telescope developed by NASA.
It is designed to map the entire sky in infrared light and provide insights into the origins of the universe, galaxy formation, and the distribution of life-forming molecules.
Its mission is expected to last 2 years, during which it will survey the sky 4 times.

Key Features of SPHEREx:

- Infrared Spectroscopy: Unlike traditional optical telescopes, SPHEREx will capture the universe in 102 infrared colors, which are invisible to the human eye.
- Wide-Sky Coverage: Unlike the James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), which focuses on narrow regions, SPHEREx will map the entire sky every 6 months.
- High Data Output: It will collect data on one billion galaxies, 100 million stars, and 10,000 asteroids, creating an unprecedented cosmic map.
- Study of Cosmic Inflation: SPHEREx will analyze the earliest moments after the Big Bang, helping scientists understand how the universe expanded rapidly in its infancy.
- Search for Life-Forming Molecules: The telescope will identify biogenic molecules like water, carbon dioxide, and methanol in the Milky Way galaxy, revealing where the building blocks of life exist.

SPHEREx Telescope

How will SPHEREx Create the “Most Colourful” Map of the Cosmos?

Spectroscopic Imaging: SPHEREx will divide light from celestial objects into 96 infrared bands, significantly more than previous sky-mapping telescopes.
Mapping Galactic Evolution: By observing 450 million galaxies, SPHEREx will reveal how they evolved over cosmic history.
Identifying Cosmic Ice: The telescope will detect frozen water and organic molecules in interstellar dust clouds, essential for understanding planetary formation.
Unprecedented Infrared Insights: Unlike Hubble, which focuses on optical light, and JWST, which targets deep-space infrared observations, SPHEREx will capture broad infrared spectra across the entire sky, revealing hidden cosmic structures.

PYQ:

[2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.
It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter.
It is buried deep in the ice.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

What is a Special Leave Petition (SLP) under Article 136?

Key Features of SLP:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is ‘Blue Ghost’ Mission 1?

Key Features of Blue Ghost Mission 1:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is Kundi System?

Other Traditional Water Harvesting Systems in India

Why in the News?

About National Science Day

Who was C.V. Raman?

Contributions of C.V. Raman

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About the ‘Doomsday Fish’

Popular Legends

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About the PUNCH Mission

Key Features of the PUNCH Mission:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?

His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About the Tea Horse Road

Historical Significance:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What are Ultra-Conserved Elements (UCEs) in DNA?

Why do Human and Mouse Genomes overlap?

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is the SPHEREx Telescope?

How will SPHEREx Create the “Most Colourful” Map of the Cosmos?

PYQ: