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Type: Prelims Only

  • Languages and Eighth Schedule

    [pib] Cabinet confers Classical Language Status to Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali languages

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Classical Languages

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has approved conferring the status of Classical Language to Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese, and Bengali.

    Classical Languages in India:

    Details
    Objective To recognize and preserve Bharat’s profound cultural heritage embodied in these languages and their literary traditions.
    Criteria for Classical Language Status 2004 (when Tamil was declared a Classical Language):

    1. High Antiquity over a thousand years.
    2. A body of ancient literature valued by generations.
    3. Original literary tradition, not borrowed.

    2005 (when Sanskrit was declared a Classical Language):

    1. High Antiquity over 1500-2000 years.
    2. Ancient literature valued by generations.
    3. Original literary tradition, not borrowed.
    4. Distinct from modern forms, with possible discontinuity.

    2024 (as recommended by the Linguistic Experts Committee):

    1. High Antiquity over 1500-2000 years.
    2. Ancient literature valued by generations.
    3. Includes knowledge texts, prose, inscriptions.
    4. Distinct from current forms or may show discontinuity.
    Previously Conferred Status Tamil (2004), Sanskrit (2005), Telugu (2008), Kannada (2008), Malayalam (2013), Odia (2014)
    Implementation Strategy • Establishment of Central Universities for Sanskrit (2020)
    • Promotion of Tamil, Kannada, Telugu, Malayalam, and Odia through the Central Institute of Indian Languages (Mysuru)
    • National and International awards for Classical Languages
    Impact on Employment • Employment in academia, research, and archiving
    • Jobs in preservation, digitization, translation, and publishing of ancient texts
    States Involved Maharashtra (Marathi), Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh (Pali, Prakrit), West Bengal (Bengali), Assam (Assamese)
    The Eighth Schedule
    • Lists 22 official languages, governed by Articles 344(1) and 351 of the Constitution.
    • Includes Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri, Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Manipuri, Marathi, Nepali, Odia, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu, and Urdu
    Chronological Additions to the Eighth Schedule • 1950: Initially included 14 languages
    • 1967: Sindhi added (21st Constitutional Amendment)
    • 1992: Konkani, Manipuri (Meitei), Nepali added (71st Constitutional Amendment)
    • 2003: Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, Santali added (92nd Constitutional Amendment)
    • 2011: “Oriya” replaced with “Odia” (96th Constitutional Amendment)

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which one of the following was given classical language status recently?

    (a) Odia

    (b) Konkani

    (c) Bhojpuri

    (d) Assamese

    [2014] Consider the following languages :

    1. Gujarati

    2. Kannada

    3. Telugu

    Which of the above has/have been declared as ‘Classical Language / Languages’ by the Government?

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Indian Navy Updates

    Second edition of Navika Sagar Parikrama

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Navika Sagar Parikrama

    Why in the News?

    The second edition of Navika Sagar Parikrama, a global circumnavigation by sailboat was flagged off by Navy Chief at INS Mandovi in Goa.

    About Navika Sagar Parikrama:

    Details
    Expedition
    • Navika Sagar Parikrama, a maritime expedition by the Indian Navy, aimed at circumnavigating the globe in a sailboat crewed by women officers.
    • Symbolizes women’s empowerment and Indian maritime traditions.
    Objective Promotes women’s empowerment, gender equality, oceanic research, and Indian maritime traditions.
    First Edition
    • Began on September 10, 2017, with an all-women crew of six officers aboard INSV Tarini.
    • Completed on May 21, 2018.
    Second Edition Launched on October 2, 2024, with two women officers, Lieutenant Commander Dilna K. and Lieutenant Commander Roopa A., setting sail from INS Mandovi, Goa.
    Agencies Involved
    • Indian Navy: Leading the initiative.
    • National Institute of Oceanography (NIO): Marine research on microplastics and ferrous content.
    • Wildlife Institute of India (WII): Research on large sea mammals.
    • Sagar Defence: Providing drones for documentation.
    • Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL): Supplying meals.
    • Transform Rural India Foundation (TRIF) and Piramal Foundation: Supporting logistics and research.
    Route Divided into five legs with four stopovers:
    1. Goa to Fremantle, Australia
    2. Fremantle to Lyttleton, New Zealand
    3. Lyttleton to Port Stanley, Falkland Islands
    4. Port Stanley to Cape Town, South Africa
    5. Cape Town to Goa, India

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?

    (a) Amphibious warfare ship

    (b) Nuclear-powered submarine

    (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel

    (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

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  • Pharma Sector – Drug Pricing, NPPA, FDC, Generics, etc.

    What are Psychedelic Drugs?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Psychedelic Drugs

    Why in the News?

    Researchers from the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research (TIFR) in collaboration with researchers from Cornell, Yale, and Columbia has uncovered how a psychedelic drug interacts with the brain to alleviate anxiety.

    About Psychedelic Drugs

    • Psychedelic drugs are a class of psychoactive substances that alter perception, mood, and cognitive processes. 
    • These drugs often induce hallucinations, altered states of consciousness, and enhanced sensory experiences.
    • They are typically associated with spiritual experiences and have historically been linked with counterculture movements, but they are now being studied for their potential in medical therapies.
    • Examples of Psychedelic Drugs:
      • LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide): Known for causing intense visual hallucinations and altering thoughts, it is one of the most potent psychedelics.
      • Psilocybin: The active compound found in magic mushrooms, known for creating visual and auditory hallucinations, as well as a deep sense of connection to the environment.
      • MDMA (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine): Often associated with recreational use, but is also being researched for its therapeutic potential, especially in treating PTSD.
      • DMT (Dimethyltryptamine): Produces powerful, short-lived hallucinatory experiences, sometimes referred to as the “spirit molecule.”
      • Mescaline: Found in the peyote cactus, mescaline induces hallucinations and altered states of reality.

    How do they work?

    Psychedelics primarily affect the brain by interacting with the serotonin system, a network of neurotransmitters involved in regulating mood, perception, and cognition.

    • Serotonin Receptors: Psychedelics like LSD and psilocybin bind to 5-HT2A receptors, a type of serotonin receptor. This interaction leads to altered perception, enhanced mood, and hallucinations.
    • Brain Connectivity: They increase communication between different regions of the brain, breaking down normal patterns of activity. This leads to heightened creativity, altered sensory experiences, and a sense of connectedness.

    How Psychedelics hold promise for treating Anxiety and Depression?

    • Resetting Neural Circuits: Psychedelics may “reset” dysfunctional brain circuits, helping treat mood disorders.
    • Reduced Anxiety: They reduce overthinking by dampening activity in the brain’s default mode network.
    • Emotional Release: Patients experience emotional breakthroughs during psychedelic therapy sessions.
    • Neuroplasticity: Psychedelics may promote adaptive brain connections, aiding in recovery from chronic stress and depression.
    PYQ:

    [2018] India’s proximity to two of the world’s biggest illicit opium-growing states has enhanced her internal security concerns. Explain the linkages between drug trafficking and other illicit activities such as gunrunning, money laundering and human trafficking. What countermeasures should be taken to prevent the same? (250 Words, 15 Marks)

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    Species in News: Golden Langur

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Golden Langur

    Golden Langur

    Why in the News?

    The construction of wildlife passages and artificial canopy bridges along the India-Bhutan border has been prompted by increased deaths of the endangered golden langur due to road accidents.

    About Golden Langur

    Details
    Identification
    • Recognizable by the color of their fur, which gives them their name.
    • Fur color changes with the seasons.
    • Young langurs are almost pure white.
    Geographic Range
    • Found in Assam, India, and neighboring Bhutan year-round.
    • Inhabits an area bordered by the foothills of Bhutan (north), Manas river (east), Sankosh river (west), and Brahmaputra river (south).
    Habitat
    • Occupies moist evergreen and tropical deciduous forests, along with some riverine areas and savannahs in Assam and Bhutan.
    • Prefers living in the upper canopy of sub-tropical forests in the south and temperate forests in the north.
    Conservation Status
    • IUCN: Endangered
    • CITES: Appendix I
    • Wildlife Protection Act, 1972: Schedule I
    Habitat
    • Ripu Reserve Forest and Chakrashila WLS serve as vital habitats.
    • Fragmented habitats face instability and threats.

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] Which one of the following groups of animals belongs to the category of endangered species?

    (a) Great Indian Bustard, Musk Deer, Red Panda and Asiatic Wild Ass

    (b) Kashmir Stag, Cheetal, Blue Bull and Great Indian Bustard

    (c) Snow Leopard, Swamp Deer, Rhesus Monkey and Saras (Crane)

    (d) Lion-tailed Macaque, Blue Bull, Hanuman Langur and Cheetal

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Fluorescent Nano-Diamonds (FND)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Fluorescent Nano-Diamonds (FND)

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at Purdue University have figured out how to levitate and spin Fluorescent Nanodiamonds (FNDs) in a vacuum.

    What are FNDs?

    • Fluorescent Nanodiamonds (FNDs) are stable, non-toxic carbon nanoparticles that emit consistent fluorescence, have a lifespan over 10 nanoseconds, and can be levitated and spun for advanced quantum research applications.

    What are their Applications?

    • Medical Diagnostics: FNDs are used for high-resolution imaging and tracking cells over extended periods due to their non-toxic nature.
    • Temperature Sensing: FNDs can measure temperatures at the microscale, making them useful for scientific experiments.
    • Correlative Microscopy: Their fluorescent properties make them ideal for combining different types of imaging techniques.
    • Sensor Technologies: Due to their sensitivity to acceleration and electric fields, FNDs can be used in industry sensors and gyroscopes for rotation sensing.
    • Quantum Computing: FNDs doped with nitrogen can be used for quantum superposition experiments and future quantum computing applications.

    PYQ:

    [2022] Which one of the following is the context in which the term “qubit” is mentioned?

    (a) Cloud Services

    (b) Quantum Computing

    (c) Visible Light Communication Technologies

    (d) Wireless Communication Technologies

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  • Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

    F&O: How will Sebi’s new rules affect traders and brokers?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: FandO Trading

    Why in the News?

    SEBI has introduced a six-step framework to protect investors and curb speculative trading, specifically targeting futures and options (F&O) trading by reducing volumes on expiry days and limiting retail participation.

    What are the Future and Options (F&O)?

    • Futures are contracts to buy or sell an asset (like stocks, indexes, or commodities) at a predetermined price on a future date.
    • Options give the right, but not the obligation, to buy or sell an asset at a set price before a certain date.

    SEBI’s Six-Step F&O Framework (Effective November 2024 – April 2025):

    In response to concerns about rising speculative trading, SEBI has outlined six key measures aimed at reducing retail interest in F&O trading:

    1. Upfront collection of options premiums
    2. Intraday monitoring of position limits
    3. Removing calendar spread benefits on expiry day
    4. Increasing the contract size for index derivatives
    5. Rationalizing weekly index derivatives to one benchmark per exchange
    6. Enhancing margin requirements on options expiry days

    Key Changes for Retail Investors:

    • Upfront Collection of Options Premiums: Retail investors must now pay the full premium upfront, limiting their ability to use high leverage in options trading.
    • Increased Contract Size: The minimum contract size for index derivatives is raised to ₹15 lakhs, reducing speculative retail participation by making it costlier to enter.
    • Rationalization of Weekly Expiries: Only one benchmark index per exchange can have weekly expiries, lowering speculative trading opportunities and intraday volatility.
    • Removal of Calendar Spread Benefits: Calendar spreads are no longer allowed on expiry days, discouraging aggressive trading strategies.

    Impact on Brokers and Revenue:

    • Decline in Trading Volumes: Brokers reliant on F&O trading will see reduced volumes due to fewer retail participants and higher barriers to entry.
    • Revenue Drop in Options Trading: Firms like Zerodha may face a 30-50% revenue drop as retail participation in options decreases.
    • Shift to Equity Trading: Retail investors may move towards equity trading, causing brokers to adapt their offerings.
    • Adaptation for Brokers: Brokers with a balanced mix of cash and derivatives will be less impacted, while those focused on F&O need to shift strategies.

    PYQ:

    [2021] With reference to India, consider the following statements:​

    1. Retail investors through demat account can invest in ‘Treasury Bills’ and ‘Government of India Debt Bonds’ in primary market.​

    2. The ‘Negotiated Dealing System-Order Matching’ is a government securities trading platform of the Reserve Bank of India. ​

    3. The ‘Central Depository Services Ltd.’ Is jointly promoted by the Reserve Bank of India and the Bombay Stock Exchange. ​

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?​

    (a) 1 only ​

    (b) 1 and 2 only ​

    (c) 3 only ​

    (d) 2 and 3 only ​

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  • Panchayati Raj Institutions: Issues and Challenges

    Special Gram Sabhas on Gandhi Jayanti

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Panchayats & Local Bodies

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Gram Sabha

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Panchayati Raj is organizing special Gram Sabhas across 750 Gram Panchayats on 2nd October 2024, marking Gandhi Jayanti.

    Vision to Achieve Gram Swaraj Through People’s Participation

    • These special Gram Sabhas will embody Mahatma Gandhi’s vision of Gram Swaraj—a vision of self-reliant villages driven by people’s participation in decision-making.
    • It emphasizes community-led governance, where elders, women, and youth collaborate to develop Gram Panchayat Development Plans (GPDP).

    Lal Bahadur Shastri’s Legacy

    • The event also coincides with the birth anniversary of Lal Bahadur Shastri, India’s second Prime Minister.
    • Shastri championed the values of simplicity, self-reliance, and community development.
    • Shastri’s slogan, “Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan,” emphasized the strength of India’s rural economy and its farmers, making his vision a key component of this grassroots initiative.

    About Gram Sabha

    Details
    Role and Significance • Centerpiece of the Panchayati Raj system
    • Responsible for village development and local governance
    Constitutional Provision • Defined under Article 243(b) of the Indian Constitution
    • Primary body in the Panchayati Raj system
    • A permanent body
    Members • Individuals above 18 years of age
    • Must be residing in the village
    • Listed in the electoral rolls
    Meetings • Must meet 2 to 4 times annually as per State Panchayat Raj Acts
    • Common meeting dates:
    1. Republic Day (26th Jan)
    2. Labour Day (1st May)
    3. Independence Day (15th Aug)
    4. Gandhi Jayanti (2nd Oct)
    • Panchayats may choose other dates for meetings
    Organizing Body • Organized by the Panchayat Secretary (Gram Sevak)
    • Done with approval of the Sarpanch
    Conditions for Convening • 10% of members or 50 people (whichever is greater) can request a meeting
    • A written request must be submitted 5 days prior to the meeting
    Decision-Making Process • All decisions of the Panchayat require the approval and validation of the Gram Sabha
    Purpose • Discuss local governance and development issues
    • Make need-based plans for the village

     

    PYQ:

    [2012] In the areas covered under the Panchayat (Extension to the Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996, what is the role/power of Gram Sabha?

    1. Gram Sabha has the power to prevent alienation of land in the Scheduled Areas.
    2. Gram Sabha has the ownership of minor forest produce.
    3. Recommendation of Gram Sabha is required for granting prospecting licence or mining lease for any mineral in the Scheduled Areas.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    BRCA Testing

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: BRCA1Testing

    Why in the News?

    Angelina Jolie’s case highlighted hereditary breast and ovarian cancer (HBOC) after she underwent preventive surgeries due to a BRCA1 gene mutation.

    What is BRCA Testing?

    • BRCA testing is a genetic test that looks for mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes.
    • These genes normally help repair DNA, but when they are mutated, they increase a person’s risk of developing certain cancers, particularly breast and ovarian cancers.
    • BRCA testing identifies whether a person has inherited these mutations, which can lead to Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer (HBOC) and other cancers.
    • The test is done using a blood or saliva sample, which is collected and sent to a laboratory for analysis.
    • In the lab, next-generation DNA sequencing or other genetic analysis methods are used to examine the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes for harmful mutations.
    • The test results can show whether a person has inherited a harmful mutation in these genes.
      • If the result is positive, it means they are at a higher risk for developing certain cancers.

    Issues with BRCA Testing

    • BRCA testing in India is expensive, costing between ₹15,000 to ₹30,000, which makes it unaffordable for many, particularly in lower-income populations.
    • Testing is often only offered to individuals with a family history of cancer, which misses about 50% of people who may have the mutations but no known family history.

    Significance for India

    • Breast cancer is the most common cancer among women in India, accounting for 27% of all cancer cases.
    • Women with BRCA mutations have up to a 72% risk of developing breast cancer.
      • Early identification allows for preventive measures, such as regular screenings or surgeries, which can reduce cancer incidence by up to 100%.
    • By increasing access to population-wide BRCA testing, India can improve early detection and reduce the burden of cancer on its healthcare system.
      • Early identification can also lower treatment costs and improve outcomes.

    PYQ:

    [2019] ‘RNA interference (RNAi)’ technology has gained popularity in the last few years. Why?

    1. It is used in developing gene silencing therapies.
    2. It can be used in developing therapies for the treatment of cancer.
    3. It can be used to develop hormone replacement therapies.
    4. It can be used to produce crop plants that are resistant to viral pathogens.

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1, 2 and 4

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 3

    (d) 1 and 4 only

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    In news: Arun River 

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Arun River, Isostatic Rebound

    Why in the News?

    The Arun River, which flows across Nepal and Tibet, is eroding rock and soil in its basin, leading to the rise of Mount Everest by up to 2 mm a year.

    How is Arun River making the Everest taller?

    The Arun River is contributing to the rise of Mount Everest through a process called isostatic rebound. Here’s how it works:

    1. River Incision:

    • The Arun River, which flows about 75 km from Mount Everest, is eroding large amounts of rock and soil from the surrounding landscape.
    • This process of erosion reduces the weight on the Earth’s crust in the Arun River basin.
    • A study by UCL suggests that the Arun River’s ability to carve out large amounts of rock and other materials may be due to it capturing another river or water system in Tibet.
    • This process is known as River Incision, where the river cuts downward into its bed, deepening its channel.
    • The erosion began to accelerate around 89,000 years ago when the Arun River merged with the Kosi River, removing large amounts of landmass and further reducing the weight on the region’s crust.

    2. Isostatic Rebound:

    • When the weight of the land (due to rocks, soil, or even ice) decreases, the Earth’s crust rises to balance the change.
    • This is similar to how a boat rises in water when heavy cargo is removed.
    • The removal of landmass in the Arun River basin allows the crust underneath Mount Everest to rise.

    About Arun River 

    • The Arun River originates in the Tibet Autonomous Region of China, where it is known as Phung Chu or Bum-chu in Tibetan.
    • It flows into Nepal and confluences with the Sun Koshi and Tamur River at Tribenighat, forming the Sapta Koshi River.
    • Tributaries:
      • Left tributaries: Yeru Tsanpo, Trakar-chu.
      • Right tributary: Barun River.
    • At the Nepal border, the Arun River is approximately 3,500 meters (11,500 ft) above sea level.
    • The river drains into the Koshi River, significantly contributing to the Sapta Koshi River system in Nepal.
    • It is the largest trans-Himalayan river in Nepal, playing a crucial role in supporting the region’s hydrology and ecosystems.
    • It provides around 37% of the total water in the Sapta Koshi system, following the Sun Koshi which contributes 44%.
    • Recently, the Arun-III Hydro Power Project (900 MW), which constructed with $6.95b Indian assistance, achieved a milestone with a tunnel breakthrough.

    PYQ:

    [2017] With reference to river Teesta, consider the following statements:

    1. The source of river Teesta is the same as that of Brahmaputra but it flows through Sikkim.

    2. River Rangeet originates in Sikkim and it is a tributary of river Teesta.

    3. River Teesta falls into Bay of Bengal at the border of India and Bangladesh.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Annular Solar Eclipse

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World’S Physical Geography

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Physical Geography (Annular Solar Eclipse)

    Why in the News?

    An annular solar eclipse will be visible in parts of South America on October 2, 2023.  It, however, will not be visible from India.

    What is a Solar Eclipse?

    • A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon moves between the Earth and the Sun, blocking the Sun’s light either fully or partially, casting a shadow on certain parts of the Earth.
    • There are four types of solar eclipses:
      1. Total Solar Eclipse: When the Moon completely blocks the Sun, turning the sky dark. People in the path of a total solar eclipse can witness the Sun’s corona (its outer atmosphere), which is normally hidden by the bright sunlight.
      2. Annular Solar Eclipse: Occurs when the Moon is at or near its farthest point from Earth. The Moon does not fully cover the Sun, leaving a visible ring of fire around the Moon. This is what people in parts of South America will witness on October 2, 2023.
      3. Partial Solar Eclipse: Happens when the Moon blocks only a part of the Sun, giving it a crescent shape. During both partial and annular eclipses, areas outside the Moon’s umbra (the darkest part of its shadow) experience a partial eclipse. It is the most common type of solar eclipse.
      4. Hybrid Solar Eclipse: The rarest type, where the eclipse shifts between total and annular as the Moon’s shadow moves across the Earth. Some places see a total solar eclipse, while others see an annular one.

    Frequency of Solar Eclipses

    • A solar eclipse can only occur during the new moon, when the Moon and Sun are aligned on the same side of the Earth.
    • A new moon happens approximately every 29.5 days because that is the time it takes for the Moon to orbit the Earth.
    • However, solar eclipses don’t happen every month. They occur two to five times annually, but not every new moon results in an eclipse.
    • Why don’t they occur every month:
      • The Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees compared to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
      • This means the Moon’s shadow usually misses the Earth.
      • A solar eclipse only occur when the Moon crosses specific points in its orbit, called nodes, where the Moon’s orbit intersects the plane of Earth’s orbit around the Sun.
      • When a new moon occurs at one of these nodes, a solar eclipse is possible.

    PYQ:

    [2019] On 21st June, the Sun

    (a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle

    (b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

    (c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

    (d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

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