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Type: Prelims Only

  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    Supreme Court reserves verdict on defining Aravalli Hills and Ranges

    Prelims OnlySC Judgements | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has reserved its verdict on the definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges, a critical environmental issue impacting Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.

    About the Aravallis:

    • Geology: The Aravalli Range is one of the oldest fold mountain ranges in the world, formed during the Proterozoic era.
    • Spread: It stretches for about 692 km, from Gujarat to Delhi, passing through Rajasthan and Haryana.
    • State-Wise Coverage: Around 80% of the range lies in Rajasthan, with the rest spread across Haryana, Delhi, and Gujarat.
    • Highest Peak: The tallest point is Guru Shikhar in Mount Abu, Rajasthan, with an elevation of 1,722 meters.
    • Natural Barrier Function: Acts as a green wall, preventing the spread of the Thar Desert into eastern Rajasthan and the Gangetic plains.
    • River Origins: Important rivers such as the Banas, Sahibi and Luni originate from the Aravallis.
    • Minerals: Rich in minerals like copper, zinc, lead, and marble.
    • Biodiversity: Home to 300+ bird species and key wildlife such as leopards, hyenas, jackals, wolves, civets, and Nilgai.
    • Prehistoric Significance: Contains cave art and tools from the Lower Palaeolithic period.

    About the Aravalli Case: Quick Backgrounder

    • Supreme Court Review: The Court is deciding on a uniform, legally enforceable definition of the Aravalli Hills and Ranges across Delhi, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat.
    • Case Origin: Stems from the long-running M.C. Mehta vs Union of India (2008) matter on illegal mining, encroachment, and ecological degradation in the Aravallis.
    • Judgment: The Court held Aravalli lands to be forest areas under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, restricting non-forest activities.
    • Existing Legal Protection: Notifications under the Punjab Land Preservation Act, 1900 were upheld for safeguarding ecologically sensitive land.
    • Expert Committee (2024): SC directed MoEF&CC to set up a panel to develop a scientific definition for consistent protection across states.

    Proposed Legal Definitions of Aravalli Hills and Ranges

    (more…)

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  • Coal and Mining Sector

    New Royalty Rates of Critical Minerals

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet approved the rationalisation of royalty rates for graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium to strengthen India’s domestic mineral base and reduce import dependency.

    About the New Royalty Rates:

    The Union Cabinet has approved revised ad valorem royalty rates (percentage of average sale price) for four key minerals- graphite, caesium, rubidium, and zirconium, under the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957.
    Graphite:
    4% of ASP (average sale price) for graphite with <80% fixed carbon content.
    2% of ASP for graphite with ≥80% fixed carbon content.
    Caesium and Rubidium: 2% of ASP based on metal content in the ore produced.
    Zirconium: 1% of ASP.
    Earlier, graphite alone was taxed on a per-tonne basis; now, all four follow a price-linked structure.
    The new rates aim to reduce import dependency, stimulate exploration, and encourage fair bidding in critical mineral block auctions.

    What is Royalty?

    • Definition: It is a payment made by a mining company to the government, the sovereign owner of natural resources, for the right to extract and sell minerals.
    • Legal Basis in India: The Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 (MMDR Act) is the principal statute regulating mineral development, licensing, and royalty payments in India.
    • Types of Royalty Systems:
      • Unit-based (per tonne): Fixed payment per quantity extracted.
      • Ad valorem: A fixed percentage of the sale value of the mineral (now used for most critical minerals).
      • Profit-based: A share of net revenue or profits after deductions.
    • Purpose: Ensures the state earns equitable returns from resource extraction while maintaining regulatory control and public ownership of mineral wealth.

    Royalty Governance: Legal and Administrative Framework

    • Authority:
      • The Central Government, through the Ministry of Mines, determines and revises royalty rates.
      • The Union Cabinet approves new rates; these are later notified by the Ministry.
    • Legal Basis: The Second Schedule of the MMDR Act lists royalty rates for each mineral.
    • Collection:
      • Royalty is paid by leaseholders or miners to the state government under central law.
      • Rates are periodically revised to align with market fluctuations and strategic priorities.
    • Calculation Example: Royalty = IBM-published Sale Price × Royalty Rate (%) × Quantity Produced.

    Default Royalty Rates in India:

    • For minerals not listed separately in the Second Schedule, a default royalty rate of 12% of the average sale price (ASP) applies under the MMDR Act.
    • However, for critical and strategic minerals, the government has rationalised rates downward (1–4%) to:
      • Attract private investment in exploration.
      • Ensure competitive auctions.
      • Promote domestic production of minerals vital to EVs, semiconductors, and renewable energy.
    • The shift from uniform high rates to graded, mineral-specific rates reflects a move toward a market-responsive and technology-driven resource policy.
    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
    I. India has joined the Minerals Security Partnership as a member.
    II. India is a resource-rich country in all the 30 critical minerals that it has identified.
    III. The Parliament in 2023 has amended the Mines and Minerals (Development and Regulation) Act, 1957 empowering the Central Government to exclusively auction mining lease and composite license for certain critical minerals.
    Which of the statements given above are correct?
    (a) I and II only (b) II and III only (c) I and III only * (d) I, II and III

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Climate Risk Index (CRI) 2026

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A new German watch report, ‘Climate Risk Index 2026’, reveals worldwide extreme weather claimed over 8lakh lives between 1995-2024.

    About the Climate Risk Index (CRI), 2026:

    • Publisher: Released annually by Germanwatch to rank countries based on the real, observed human and economic impacts of extreme weather events.
    • Focus: Measures actual climate impacts, not projections- making it a grounded vulnerability assessment.
    • Data Sources: Uses EM-DAT disaster database along with World Bank and IMF datasets.
    • Hazards Covered: Includes hydrological, meteorological, and climatological events.
    • 6 Indicators under 3 metrics: Fatalities (absolute and per 100,000 population), number of people affected (absolute and relative), economic losses in US$ (absolute and relative).
    • Objective: Highlights climate vulnerability, informs adaptation priorities, and supports global climate finance and policy debates.

    India’s Position in CRI 2026:

    • Long-term Rank: 9th most affected globally (1995–2024).
    • Annual Rank 2024: 15th, showing continued high exposure.
    • Event Frequency: Faced ~430 extreme weather events in three decades.
    • Impact: Over 80,000 deaths, 1.3 billion people affected, and USD 170 billion in economic losses.
    • Risk Profile: Classified as a “continuous threat” country due to repeated floods, cyclones, and heatwaves.
    • Global Negotiations: Bolsters India’s demand for Loss & Damage finance under UNFCCC processes.

    Global Findings: CRI 2026

    • Coverage: Assesses trends for 1995–2024 plus a separate deep-dive for 2024.
    • Overall Impact: More than 832,000 deaths and USD 4.5 trillion in losses from over 9,700 extreme events since 1995.
    • Event Trends:
      • Heatwaves and storms caused the highest deaths.
      • Floods affected the most people.
      • Storms led to the largest economic losses.
    • Worst-affected (1995–2024): Dominica, Myanmar, Honduras.
    • Worst-affected in 2024: St. Vincent & the Grenadines, Grenada, Chad.
    • Pattern: Disproportionate burden on Global South, especially SIDS and low-income countries.
    • Risk Types Identified:
      • States hit by one major catastrophic event.
      • States facing multiple recurring shocks without recovery time.
    • Takeaway: Underscores urgent need for adaptation, resilience, and Loss & Damage mechanisms.

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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    What are Exit Polls and How are they Conducted?

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Representation Of People’s Act

    Why in the News?

    As Bihar Assembly Election 2025 concludes, media houses released the exit poll results after 6:30 pm, following Election Commission of India (ECI) restrictions.

    What are Exit Polls?

    • Overview: Exit polls are post-voting surveys conducted immediately after voters leave polling stations to find out how they voted and what influenced their choice.
    • Objective: To give an early indication of election outcomes and study voter behaviour, issues, and demographics before official results.
    • Origin in India: First conducted in 1957 by the Indian Institute of Public Opinion during the 2nd Lok Sabha elections.
    • Methodology: Randomly selected voters are interviewed anonymously after casting their vote; responses are aggregated and analysed statistically to predict seat shares and trends.

    How are Exit Polls conducted?

    • Sampling: Based on random or stratified sampling to reflect gender, caste, religion, and regional representation.
    • Questionnaires: Ask voters which party or candidate they chose and gather demographic or opinion data.
    • Data Collection: Conducted by trained field agents under strict non-interference rules at polling stations.
    • Data Analysis: Responses are weighted and adjusted for turnout and demographics before generating projections.
    • Confidentiality: All answers remain anonymous to preserve voting secrecy.

    Regulation of Exit Polls:

    • Constitutional Basis: Governed by Article 324, empowering the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure free and fair elections.
    • Statutory Law: Section 126A of the Representation of the People Act, 1951 bans conducting or publishing exit polls from start of the first phase till 30 minutes after last phase ends.
    • Penalties: Violation may lead to two years imprisonment, a fine, or both.
    • Media Rules: Must disclose sample size, method, and margin of error when publishing results.
    • Registration: Polling agencies must be registered with the ECI and follow official publication guidelines.

    Recent Amendments and Practices:

    • Monitoring: The ECI now closely monitors media and digital platforms to prevent early leaks of exit poll data.
    • Digital Coverage: Restrictions apply to social media and online news during multi-phase elections.
    • Publication Control: No state-wise or partial results can be released until polling ends nationwide.
    • Transparency: Media houses must submit methodology and get ECI clearance before publishing exit poll results.
    • Purpose: To prevent misinformation and voter influence during ongoing polling.

    Back2Basics: Difference Between Exit Polls and Opinion Polls

    • Timing: Exit polls are done after voting; opinion polls before voting.
    • Purpose: Opinion polls measure intentions; exit polls reflect actual behaviour.
    • Respondents: Opinion polls survey likely voters; exit polls survey actual voters.
    • Influence: Opinion polls can affect undecided voters; exit polls occur after voting, posing no influence risk.
    • Accuracy: Exit polls are generally more accurate as they are based on real votes.
    • Regulation: Opinion polls are advisory-guided; exit polls are strictly regulated under Section 126A of the RPA, 1951.

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    New book reinterprets origins of the Indian National Army (INA)

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the News?

    A recently launched book claims that the Indian National Army (INA) was not founded by Subhas Chandra Bose or Captain Mohan Singh.

    New Claims and the Caveats:

    • Author’s Proposition:
      • The INA was not originally founded by Subhas Chandra Bose, but by Japanese Army Intelligence in collaboration with Indian nationalists abroad before his arrival.
      • A pre-war agreement between Major Fujiwara Iwaichi (Japan) and Giani Pritam Singh (Bangkok, 1941) laid the INA’s groundwork, India’s liberation in exchange for aid to Japan’s campaign.
      • Captain Mohan Singh, not Bose, served as first commander, but his role was later overshadowed.
      • Bose took over in 1943, providing global visibility, structure, and leadership to the existing army.
    • Caution for students:
      • INA’s history is already complex and contested; this new interpretation adds another layer but does not necessarily overturn all accepted facts (e.g., Bose’s later leadership as per our standard references, the INA’s role in Indian nationalist memory).
      • Some aspects (e.g., precise agreements between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists) may remain debated or partially documented.

    About the Indian National Army (INA):

    • Origins: Formed during World War II to fight British rule, the INA emerged from collaboration between Japanese intelligence and Indian nationalists before Subhas Chandra Bose took command.
    • Initial Formation: Conceived in a 1938 Tokyo meeting between Rash Behari Bose; using Indian POWs in Southeast Asia to aid Japan’s war and India’s liberation.
    • Early Leadership: Captain Mohan Singh of the 14 Punjab Regiment became its first commander, recruiting about 40,000 POWs with Japanese support. Internal disputes led to his removal, after which Rash Behari Bose sustained the movement via the Indian Independence League (Tokyo, 1942).
    • Rise of Subhas Chandra Bose: Bose escaped British custody in 1941, travelled through Berlin and Japan, and reached Singapore in July 1943, where Rash Behari Bose handed him INA leadership.
    • Reorganization Under Netaji: On August 25, 1943, Bose became Supreme Commander and established the Provisional Government of Free India (Azad Hind) on October 21, 1943, recognized by nine countries including Japan and Germany. Under the “Chalo Delhi” campaign, INA forces entered Manipur, raising their flag at Moirang, but progress halted after Japan’s 1945 defeat.
    • Collapse and Trials: Following Japan’s surrender (August 15, 1945), the INA disbanded. Bose reportedly died in a plane crash (August 18, 1945). Captured INA officers were tried at the Red Fort (1945–46), the Sehgal–Dhillon–Khan trial became a symbol of unity, with Nehru, Bhulabhai Desai, and Asaf Ali defending them.

    Nationalist Uprisings and Impact:

    • Symbol of Unity: The INA represented armed nationalism and secular unity, transcending caste, region, and religion; the slogan “Jai Hind” became a national salute.
    • Mass Protests: The INA trials sparked nationwide agitation, uniting students, soldiers, and civilians in solidarity.
    • Key Confrontations:
      • Nov 21, 1945 – Calcutta police firing on INA protestors.
      • Feb 11, 1946 – Demonstrations against Rashid Ali’s sentencing.
      • Feb 18, 1946 – Royal Indian Navy (RIN) mutiny, with 20,000 sailors revolting in Bombay.
    • Impact on British Rule: The INA’s defiance shattered British confidence in Indian troops’ loyalty. Even Clement Attlee (1956) admitted the INA and postwar unrest accelerated British withdrawal.
    • Legacy: Unified militant and mass politics; inspired future Indian defense ethos; remains a symbol of courage and secular nationalism under Netaji’s leadership.
    [UPSC 2021] In the context of Colonial India, Shah Nawaz Khan, Prem Kumar Sehgal, and Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon are remembered as officers of the Indian National Army.

    Options: (a) Leaders of the Swadeshi and Boycott Movement

    (b) Members of the Interim Government in 1946

    (c) Members of the Drafting Committee in the Constituent Assembly

    (d) Officers of the Indian National Army*

     

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  • What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields,Salient Features Of World’S Physical Geography

    Why in the News?

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in The Hindu.

    What is the Rare Earth Hypothesis?

    • About: Proposed by Peter Ward (palaeontologist) and Donald Brownlee (astronomer) in 2000, it suggests that simple life (like microbes) may be common, but complex life (like plants and animals) is extremely rare in the universe.
    • Core Idea: Earth supports advanced life because of a unique mix of conditions such as a stable orbit, a protective magnetic field, active plate tectonics, and giant planets like Jupiter that shield it from asteroids.
    • Meaning: The Earth is not an ordinary planet; it is a special case where everything aligned perfectly to allow complex life to evolve.

    How does it differ from other Theories?

    • Drake Equation / Mediocrity Principle: Say that life should be common since there are billions of stars; the Rare Earth Hypothesis says complex life is rare even if basic life is not.
    • Fermi Paradox: Asks “Where is everybody?” The Rare Earth answer is that complex intelligent life is rare, so we don’t see others.
    • Copernican Principle: Claims Earth is ordinary; the Rare Earth Hypothesis argues Earth is extraordinary and rare in its conditions.

    Evidence supporting the Hypothesis:

    • Exoplanet Studies (Kepler Mission): Thousands of Earth-sized planets found, but few have stable climates or protective atmospheres like Earth.
    • M-dwarf Planets: Many orbit small stars and lose their atmospheres due to strong radiation.
    • No Alien Signals: Breakthrough Listen and other searches found no technosignatures from intelligent civilizations.
    • Earth’s Uniqueness: Plate tectonics and a carbon cycle help Earth keep a stable climate for billions of years; such conditions have not yet been found elsewhere.

    Scientific Outlook and Future Research:

    • Current View: Microbial life might exist on many planets, but stable, complex ecosystems like Earth’s are probably rare.
    • Ongoing Studies:
      • James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) searches for gases like oxygen, methane, and water on distant planets.
      • Planetary models test if other worlds have tectonics or internal heat for climate balance.
      • Technosignature surveys continue for traces of intelligent life.
    • Future Missions: Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) and Habitable Worlds Observatory (HWO) will study exoplanet atmospheres more closely.
    • Significance: The Rare Earth Hypothesis remains plausible but unproven, showing that life may be widespread, but Earth-like complexity could be one of the universe’s rarest achievements.
    [UPSC 2018] Which of the following phenomena might have influenced the evolution of organisms?

    1. Continental drift

    2. Glacial cycles

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    [pib] India’s First MWh-Scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery at NTPC NETRA 

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Union Ministry of Power has inaugurated India’s largest and first MWh-scale Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB) of 3 MWh capacity at NETRA, NTPC’s R&D Centre in Greater Noida.

    About the Vanadium Redox Flow Battery (VRFB):

    • Overview: A rechargeable flow battery that stores energy in liquid electrolytes containing vanadium ions in different oxidation states.
    • Core Principle: Uses the same element vanadium for both electrolytes, preventing cross-contamination and extending operational life.
    • Working Mechanism: Energy is stored through oxidation and reduction reactions of vanadium ions, where electrons are exchanged between two electrolyte tanks.
    • Cell Design: Electrolytes circulate through a cell stack separated by an ion-selective membrane that enables ion movement while stopping mixing.
    • Scalability: Energy capacity depends on electrolyte volume, while power output depends on cell stack size, allowing flexible scaling.
    • Application Focus: Ideal for stationary, grid-scale energy storage, renewable energy integration, and backup power systems.

    Benefits over Conventional Batteries:

    • Independent Scalability: Energy and power can be scaled separately, perfect for large utility storage and renewable grids.
    • Extended Lifespan: Can endure thousands of cycles since vanadium electrolytes don’t degrade or mix.
    • Full Discharge Safety: Can be fully discharged (100%) without damaging capacity, unlike lithium-ion batteries.
    • High Safety Level: Uses non-flammable, water-based electrolytes, eliminating risk of fire or explosion.
    • Eco-Friendly: Recyclable and non-toxic electrolytes reduce environmental impact and support circular use.
    • Long-Duration Storage: Provides 6–10+ hours of continuous energy, ideal for stabilizing solar and wind supply.
    • Low Maintenance: Fewer mechanical parts and no thermal runaway risk ensure long-term durability.
    • Fast Response: Reacts quickly to grid fluctuations, improving power quality and reliability.

    Limitations:

    • High Initial Cost: Requires expensive vanadium electrolyte and specialized components, leading to higher upfront installation costs than lithium-ion systems.
    • Low Energy Density: Stores less energy per unit volume, making it unsuitable for mobile or space-constrained applications like electric vehicles.
    • Complex Infrastructure: Needs large storage tanks, pumps, and control systems, which increase operational complexity and land requirements.
    [UPSC 2025] In the context of electric vehicle batteries, consider the following elements:

    I. Cobalt II. Graphite III. Lithium IV. Nickel

    How many of the above usually make up battery cathodes?

    (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three* (d) All the four

     

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    Integrity Matters Checklist for Net-Zero Alignment

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), in collaboration with the United Nations, has introduced the Integrity Matters Checklist to help companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s net-zero integrity standards.

    About the Integrity Matters Checklist:

    • Overview: Created by the GRI in collaboration with the United Nations.
    • Purpose: Helps companies and investors align their climate disclosures with the UN’s integrity standards for net-zero commitments.
    • Origin: Based on the UN High-Level Expert Group (HLEG) recommendations outlined in the Integrity Matters Report, first released at COP27 (2022) and updated in 2025.
    • Framework Integration: Aligns with the GRI 102: Climate Change 2025 Standard, providing a unified structure for sustainability and climate reporting.
    • Key Focus Areas: Guides disclosure of climate targets, transition plans, greenhouse gas (GHG) reduction pathways, and just transition principles.
    • Operational Aim: Strengthens corporate accountability and ensures commitments are science-based, transparent, and verifiable.
    • Endorsements: Supported by the UN Global Compact and the UN Climate Change Secretariat, affirming its role in implementing credible climate governance.

    Key Features:

    • Science-Based Targets: Encourages reporting consistent with Paris Agreement-aligned decarbonisation pathways.
    • Fossil Fuel Phase-Out: Calls for transparent reporting on divestment from fossil fuels and investment in renewables.
    • Just Transition Integration: Embeds social inclusion, equity, and worker protection in corporate climate strategies.
    • Investor-Ready Information: Produces comparable, decision-useful data for financial institutions and regulators.
    • Full GRI Compatibility: Seamlessly integrates with existing GRI standards to avoid duplication in ESG reporting.
    • Global Relevance: Applicable to all sectors and geographies, with focus on pre-COP30 adoption and accountability.

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    Altermagnetism emerges as a new class of Magnetic Order

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Scientists discovered a new type of magnetism called altermagnetism, confirmed in 2024, which combines features of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.

    What is Altermagnetism?

    • Overview: A new form of magnetism discovered in 2019 and proven experimentally in 2024; combines traits of ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism.
    • Mechanism: Atoms have opposite (antiparallel) spins like in antiferromagnets, but their alignment follows mirror or rotational symmetry, not simple alternation.
    • Magnetic Effect: Although it has no external magnetic field, the electrons show different energy levels for spin-up and spin-down states.
    • Discovery: First observed in manganese telluride (MnTe) through photoemission and X-ray imaging techniques.
    • Scientific Relevance: Introduces a magnetically neutral but electronically active material class useful for next-generation electronics.

    Distinctive Properties:

    • Zero External Magnetism: Produces no external field but shows strong internal spin asymmetry.
    • Spin-Polarised Currents: Can carry magnetic-like electric currents without stray fields.
    • Ultrafast Response: Works at terahertz (THz) frequencies, about 1000× faster than conventional magnetic devices.
    • Stable Performance: Maintains stable magnetic order even under changing conditions.
    • Crystal-Based Symmetry: Magnetism arises from atomic structure, not external alignment.

    How does it differ from other Magnetisms?

    • Ferromagnetism: All spins align in the same direction, creating a strong external magnetic field.
    • Antiferromagnetism: Spins align in opposite directions, fully cancelling magnetism with equal spin energy.
    • Altermagnetism: Spins align oppositely but mirror-linked, giving energy difference between spins, no net field, yet internal magnetic effects.

    Applications:

    • Spintronics: Enables compact, energy-efficient data storage and logic devices.
    • Quantum Computing: Provides magnetically quiet materials for stable qubit performance.
    • High-Speed Electronics: Supports ultrafast processors operating at terahertz levels.
    • Advanced Sensors: Useful for precise, low-noise magnetic detection.

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) onboard Aditya-L1

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    Scientists at the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA), in collaboration with NASA, have made the first spectroscopic observations of a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) in the visible wavelength range, using the Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC) aboard Aditya-L1.

    About Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (VELC):

    • Overview: The VELC is the primary scientific payload onboard Aditya-L1, India’s first solar observatory mission.
    • Developer: Designed and built by the Indian Institute of Astrophysics (IIA) at its CREST campus, Hosakote (Karnataka).
    • Function: It is an internally occulted coronagraph capable of imaging, spectroscopy, and spectro-polarimetry of the solar corona, the outermost layer of the Sun’s atmosphere.
    • Objective: To study coronal mass ejections (CMEs), solar wind acceleration, coronal temperature, plasma velocity, and magnetic field dynamics close to the solar limb.
    • Capabilities:
      • Observes the corona as close as 1.05 solar radii from the Sun’s surface.
      • Equipped with a spectrograph, polarimeter, and detectors for high-resolution data.
      • Enables continuous 24-hour solar observation from Lagrange Point L1.
    • Significance: Provides first-ever spectroscopic data of CMEs near the Sun, enhancing understanding of space weather and solar activity.
    • Key Findings:
      • Electron Density: ~370 million electrons per cubic centimetre within the CME, several times higher than the ambient solar corona (10–100 million/cm³).
      • Energy: ~9.4 × 10²¹ joules- nearly 100 trillion times the energy released by the Hiroshima bomb.
      • Mass: ~270 million tonnes- about 180 times the mass of the iceberg that sank the Titanic.

    Back2Basics: Aditya-L1 Mission

    • Overview: India’s first space-based solar mission, developed by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
    • Launch & Position: Launched in 2023; placed at the Lagrange Point 1 (L1), approximately 1.5 million km from Earth, providing an uninterrupted view of the Sun.
    • Purpose: To study the Sun’s outer atmosphere (corona), solar radiation, magnetic storms, and space weather phenomena.
    • Key Objectives:
      • Understand the dynamics of solar corona and solar wind.
      • Study solar flares, CMEs, and their impact on Earth’s magnetosphere.
      • Monitor space weather to protect satellites and communication systems.
    • Scientific Payloads (7 instruments):
      1. VELC – Visible Emission Line Coronagraph (solar corona imaging).
      2. SUIT – Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope.
      3. SoLEXS – Solar Low Energy X-ray Spectrometer.
      4. HEL1OS – High Energy L1 Orbiting X-ray Spectrometer.
      5. ASPEX – Aditya Solar Wind Particle Experiment.
      6. PAPA – Plasma Analyser Package for Aditya.
      7. Magnetometer – Measures magnetic fields at L1.
    • Significance:
      1. First Indian mission to continuously observe the Sun.
      2. Strengthens India’s position in global heliophysics research.
      3. Provides early warnings for geomagnetic storms affecting satellites and power grids.
    [UPSC 2022] If a major solar storm (solar flare) reaches the Earth, which of the following are the possible effects on the Earth ?

    1. GPS and navigation systems could fail.

    2. Tsunamis could occur at equatorial regions.

    3. Power grids could be damaged.

    4. Intense auroras could occur over much of the Earth.

    5. Forest fires could take place over much of the planet.

    6. Orbits of the satellites could be disturbed.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3, 4 and 6 only* (d) 2, 5 and 6 only

     

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