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PM recently remembered Sir Chettur Sankaran Nair, a nationalist and jurist who famously fought a courtroom battle against British officials involved in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre of 1919.

Nair’s stand in the courtroom is now a subject of a forthcoming film, Kesari Chapter 2.

About Sir Sankaran Nair:

• Born in 1857 in Mankara village, Kerala, Nair came from an aristocratic family.
• He was educated at Presidency College in Madras and pursued a law degree.
• Nair began his legal career with Sir Horatio Shepherd, Chief Justice of Madras High Court.
• In 1897, Nair became the youngest president of the Indian National Congress (Amravati (Mh) Session) and was appointed as a permanent judge of the Madras High Court in 1908.

Role in the Jallianwala Bagh Case:

• Nair challenged Michael O’Dwyer, the Lieutenant Governor of Punjab, for his role in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), accusing him of following policies that led to the massacre.
• O’Dwyer sued Nair in England for defamation. Despite biased British courts, Nair refused to apologize, even when O’Dwyer offered to forgo the £500 penalty.
• The trial highlighted the bias in the British judicial system and fuelled Indian resentment against British rule.

Other Contributions:

• Nair made progressive rulings, like supporting inter-caste and inter-religious marriages and ruling against treating converts to Hinduism as outcasts.
• He supported India’s self-government and played a key role in expanding the Montagu-Chelmsford reforms (1919).
• In 1922, Nair critiqued Gandhi‘s methods in his work “Gandhi and Anarchy”.
• He helped draft the 1919 constitutional reforms, pointing out flaws in British rule, with many of his suggestions accepted.

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On April 11, 2025, the Prime Minister paid tribute to Mahatma Jyotiba Phule on his 199th birth anniversary.

About Mahatma Phule

• Jyotirao Govindrao Phule, born on April 11, 1827, near Pune, was from the Mali caste.
• His father was a vegetable vendor, and his mother died when he was young.
• He pursued education at the Scottish Mission High School in Pune despite caste-based discrimination.
• He was inspired by Western thinkers like Thomas Paine and John Stuart Mill, fuelling his social justice dedication.
• At 13, he married Savitribai Phule, who became his partner in social reforms, particularly promoting education for women and marginalized communities.

His Contributions as a Social Reformer:

Educational Reforms:

• In 1848, Phule and his wife established India’s first girls’ school in Pune.
• He focused on educating Dalits and lower-caste groups, traditionally excluded from education.
• He founded night schools for working-class individuals, especially women.

Fighting Caste Discrimination:

• Phule criticized the caste system, calling it a means of oppression.
• In 1873, Phule’s book Gulamgiri condemned caste discrimination, comparing Dalits’ plight to slavery.
• Phule coined the term ‘Dalit’ to describe those outside the caste system.

Women’s Welfare and Empowerment:

• Phule advocated for widow remarriage and provided a dignified life for widows.
• In 1863, he opened homes to help pregnant widows.
• He co-founded an infanticide prevention center, tackling the killing of female infants.

Social Justice and Equality:

• Phule founded Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873 to promote social equality, rational thinking, and religious reform.
• The Samaj rejected idolatry and supported a more rational spiritual approach.
• He broke the social stigma of untouchability by opening his house and water-well to the oppressed.

Religious and Philosophical Contributions:

• Phule was an advocate for critical thinking of religion, rejecting superstition and blind faith.
• He believed in equality and justice across religions and cultures.
• He was influenced by Bhakti saints like Sant Kabir and Sant Tukaram in his fight against social oppression.

His Literary Contributions:

• Gulamgiri (Slavery) (1873): Critiqued the caste system and called for Dalit liberation.
• Shetkaryacha Asud (Farmer’s Whip) (1881): Addressed the exploitation of farmers and advocated for land reforms.
• Sarvajanik Satya Dharma Poostak: Promoted rationalist thought and social justice.
• Tritiya Ratna (1855): A significant work in advocating for social equality.
• Brahmananche Kasab (1869): Criticized the exploitation by the Brahmin class.
• Powada: Chatrapati Shivajiraje Bhosle Yancha (1869): A work celebrating the legacy of Shivaji Maharaj.
• Satsar Ank (1885): Another rationalist work addressing societal issues.
• Akhandadi Kavyarachana: A literary contribution reflecting Phule’s thoughts on social justice.

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On March 19, the anniversary of the Muzhara movement is observed, marking a significant chapter in Punjab’s agrarian struggles.

About Muzhara Movement

• Muzharas were farmers who worked the land but had no ownership rights.
  • They were part of a larger class of landless peasants in Punjab, facing oppressive feudal systems.
• The biswedars (landlords), who took one-third of the produce, controlled the land.
  • This system led to economic exploitation, with a significant portion of the produce and profits going to the feudal landlords and, ultimately, the British colonial rulers.
• The muzharas were seeking ownership of the land they had tilled for generations, asserting their right to the land in opposition to both the feudal and colonial systems.
• In March 1949, when the biswedars tried to reclaim land from the muzharas, Kishangarh village became the epicentre of the struggle.
• A violent standoff between the muzharas and the Patiala police ensued, which resulted in the death of a police officer on March 17.
• The army intervened on March 19, leading to four muzharas being killed in the ensuing confrontation.

Other Contemporary Peasant’s Movements

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PM Modi recently questioned why the colonial-era Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, which allowed authorities to ban plays deemed seditious, defamatory, or obscene, remained in force 75 years after independence.

What is the Dramatic Performances Act, 1876?

• The Dramatic Performances Act, 1876, was a colonial-era law enacted by the British to suppress nationalist and anti-government sentiments in public performances.
• The Act empowered the government to ban, regulate, or censor public plays, pantomimes, and dramas that were deemed:
  • Scandalous or defamatory
  • Seditious or inciting disaffection against the government
  • Obscene or corrupting to public morality
• It also allowed magistrates to search, seize, and arrest performers and organizers without a warrant.
• The law prescribed up to three months of imprisonment and/or a fine for violations.

References to Article 19 and Article 372

• Conflict with Article 19(1)(a) – Right to Free Speech:

• • After independence, freedom of speech and expression was guaranteed under Article 19(1)(a).
  • The Allahabad High Court (1956) ruled the Act unconstitutional, stating it restricted free speech beyond reasonable limits.

• Exceptions Under Article 19(2):

• • Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions on free speech for: Security of the state, public order, morality, and defamation.
  • The court ruled that the Dramatic Performances Act exceeded these limits.

• Article 372 and Colonial Laws:

• • Article 372(1) of the Constitution states that laws in force before independence shall continue to be in effect unless repealed or modified by the Parliament.
  • Though invalidated in 1956, the law was formally repealed in 2018 under the Repealing and Amending (Second) Act, 2017.

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Leaders from across the political spectrum paid tributes to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekhar Azad on his martyrdom day (27th February 1931).

Who was Chandra Shekhar Azad?

• Chandra Shekhar Azad (1906–1931) was a revolutionary who played a key role in India’s independence struggle.
• Born in Bhabhra, Madhya Pradesh, he joined Gandhi’s Non-Cooperation Movement at 15 but turned to armed revolution after its suspension.
• He reorganized the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) into the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) alongside Bhagat Singh.
• Azad vowed never to be captured alive and sacrificed himself in a shootout at Alfred Park, Allahabad, on February 27, 1931.

His Contributions to the Freedom Struggle

• Non-Cooperation Movement (1921): Arrested at 15, he declared his name as “Azad” (Free) in court and was punished with 15 lashes.
• Joining HRA (1924): Became a member of Ram Prasad Bismil’s HRA and raised funds through political dacoities.
• Kakori Train Robbery (1925): Helped loot a British train carrying treasury money; escaped capture while others were sentenced.
• Reorganizing HSRA (1928): Transformed HRA into HSRA with Bhagat Singh, introducing socialist ideology.
• Assassination of John Saunders (1928): Avenged Lala Lajpat Rai’s death, personally eliminating a police officer in the escape.
• Attempt to Blow Up Lord Irwin’s Train (1929): Planned to assassinate Viceroy Lord Irwin, but the plan failed.
• Final Stand (1931): Surrounded by British police, killed three officers, ensured his comrade’s escape, and shot himself with his last bullet.

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Prime Minister paid tribute to Veer Savarkar on his death anniversary (26th February), acknowledging his contributions to India’s freedom movement.

About Veer Savarkar: Life, Contributions, and Legacy

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On February 23, 2025, farmers protesting at the Punjab and Haryana borders are observing Pagri Sambhal Diwas in honor of Ajit Singh, a freedom fighter, revolutionary, and Bhagat Singh’s paternal uncle.

About the Pagri Sambhal Jatta Movement (1907)

• The Pagri Sambhal Jatta movement was a peasant uprising in Punjab against the oppressive British land laws that exploited farmers.
• The movement was led by Ajit Singh, Kishan Singh (Bhagat Singh’s father), and Lala Lajpat Rai, who mobilized farmers to resist these unfair policies.
• Farmers protested against three major British laws:

1. Punjab Land Alienation Act, 1900 – Restricted farmers from selling or mortgaging their land, favoring landlords and moneylenders.
2. Punjab Land Colonisation Act, 1906 – Allowed the British to take control of farmers’ land after their death instead of passing it to their heirs.
3. Doab Bari Act, 1907 – Deprived farmers of ownership rights and reduced them to contract workers.

• The British also raised taxes on agricultural land and irrigation, making it harder for farmers to sustain themselves.
• The slogan “Pagri Sambhal Jatta“, meaning “Take care of your turban, O farmer,” was coined by Banke Dayal, a nationalist poet, and became a symbol of self-respect and protest.
• The movement resulted in mass protests and acts of civil disobedience, forcing the British to roll back some clauses of these laws.
• Ajit Singh and Lala Lajpat Rai were arrested in May 1907 and exiled to Burma. Due to public pressure, they were released in November 1907.
• Fearing further persecution, Ajit Singh fled to Persia and later lived in Turkey, Brazil, Germany, and Italy, where he worked with other revolutionaries against British rule.
• The movement became a landmark in India’s freedom struggle, inspiring future farmers’ agitations, the Ghadar Movement, and Bhagat Singh’s revolutionary activities.

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In a move to eliminate colonial practices and symbols from the Indian Armed Forces, Fort William in Kolkata, the headquarters of the Eastern Army Command, has been renamed Vijay Durg.

About the Vijay Durg (Fort William)

• It was originally built by the British in 1773, Fort William was named after King William III of England.
• It is located on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River in Kolkata, West Bengal.
• It served as a key British military stronghold during colonial rule.
• The first version of Fort William was built by the English East India Company in 1696.
• It had an inner bastion used as a prison, leading to the term “Black Hole of Calcutta”.
• The Black Hole of Calcutta Incident (1756) refers to the alleged imprisonment of British prisoners by Nawab Siraj-ud-Daulah, where many reportedly suffocated to death due to overcrowding and lack of ventilation.
• After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, Robert Clive ordered its demolition, and a new fort was built, completed in 1773.
• Fort William College was established by Lord Wellesley in 1800 to train Company civil servants in Indian languages and customs, but it was closed in 1802.
• The present-day fort is octagonal in shape, made of brick and mortar, covering 70.9 acres.
  • It is now owned by the Indian Army and serves as the headquarters of the Eastern Command.

Significance of Renaming

• The new name is inspired by Vijay Durg Fort in Maharashtra, one of the oldest and most significant naval forts under Chhatrapati Shivaji.
• Vijay Durg served as a naval base for the Marathas, highlighting India’s indigenous military history.
• The renaming aligns with India’s broader initiative to remove colonial influences and promote native military traditions.
  • In September 2022, the Indian Navy replaced its British-era ensign with a new octagonal design inspired by Chhatrapati Shivaji’s royal seal.

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Punjab CM paid tribute to the Kuka martyrs at a function held at the Namdhari Shaheed Smarak in Malerkotla. The day commemorates the execution of 66 Namdhari Sikhs (Kukas) on January 17 and 18, 1872, by British colonial authorities.  

Who are the ‘Namdharis’?

• The Namdharis, also called Kukas, are a Sikh sect founded by Satguru Ram Singh on April 12, 1857, in Ludhiana, Punjab.
• The name Kuka derives from their distinctive high-pitched recitation of Gurbani (kook in Punjabi means “cry” or “scream”).
• Social Reforms:
  • Advocated against alcohol consumption, meat eating, and other social vices.
  • Promoted Swadeshi principles, urging people to boycott foreign goods, British services, and educational institutions.
• The movement served as a precursor to nationwide Non-Cooperation Movement, emphasizing self-reliance and resistance against colonial rule.

About the Kuka Rebellion

• The Kuka Rebellion was one of the localized uprisings against British rule after the Rebellion of 1857.
• The Namdharis actively opposed British policies, particularly cow slaughter, which became a focal point of their resistance.
• Key events leading to the rebellion:
  • In January 1872, Namdharis, led by Hira Singh and Lehna Singh, clashed with British authorities after a cow slaughter incident in Malerkotla.
  • They attacked the Malaudh Fort in Ludhiana, loyal to the British, but the rebellion was crushed.
• British Retaliation:
  • The British responded brutally, executing 49 Namdharis on January 17, 1872, and 17 more on January 18, 1872.
  • The Kukas were placed in front of cannons and blown up in a public spectacle to intimidate others.

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December 26, 2024, marks the 100th foundation day of the Communist Party of India (CPI). The CPI has played a pivotal role in India’s freedom struggle, social reforms, and political evolution.

About the Communist Party of India (CPI)

• Reasons for Formation:
  • Founded on December 26, 1925, at the Kanpur Conference, inspired by the 1917 Russian Revolution.
  • Earlier efforts included the Tashkent group (1920) led by M.N. Roy and Abani Mukherji, supported by the Comintern (Communist International).
  • Faced early repression through cases like:
    • Kanpur Bolshevik Conspiracy Case (1924).
    • Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929–1933).
  • Dissatisfaction with Gandhian methods and moderate nationalism.
  • Inspiration from the Soviet Revolution (1917) and global socialist movements.
• Split (1964):
  • Ideological rift during the Cold War over alignment with the Soviet Union or China.
  • Led to the creation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) or CPI(M).

Prominent Leaders and Key Contributions

• Prominent Leaders:
  • M.N. Roy (1920s): Founder of the Tashkent group; advocated socialism and anti-colonialism.
  • Abani Mukherji (1920s): Drafted the Indian Communist Manifesto.
  • S.A. Dange (1924): Founding CPI member; labour leader implicated in the Kanpur Conspiracy Case.
  • Muzaffar Ahmed (1920s): Mobilized workers and peasants; key figure in AITUC (1920).
  • Shaukat Usmani (1920s–1930s) and M. Singaravelu (1925): Early CPI activists.
• Key Contributions:
  • Demand for Poorna Swaraj (1927):
    • Advocated for complete independence, influencing the Indian National Congress (INC).
  • Workers and Peasants Movements (1920s–1950s):
    • Mobilized workers through AITUC (1920) and peasants through All India Kisan Sabha (1936).
    • Led uprisings like the Telangana Rebellion (1946–1951).
  • Opposition to British Rule (1920s–1947):
    • Organized strikes and protests during the Quit India Movement (1942).

• Achievements of CPI

• • In the First Lok Sabha (1952–57), CPI was the single largest opposition party.
  • In 1957, CPI won the state elections in Kerala, becoming the first democratically elected communist government in independent India.

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A commemorative postage stamp was released at the historic Kittur Rani Channamma Stage within the Kittur Fort premises to mark the 200th anniversary of Kittur Vijayotsava.

About Kittur Rani Chennamma

• Rani Chennamma was born in 1778 in Kakati, Belgaum (now Karnataka).
• She was trained in horse riding, sword fighting, and archery from an early age.
• She married Mallasarja Desai, the ruler of Kittur, a small principality in Karnataka.
• The Kittur Uprising (1824):
  • The British East India Company refused to recognize her adopted son, Shivalingappa, as the rightful successor under the Doctrine of Lapse.
  • She declared war on the British in response to their annexation attempt.
  • In October 1824, she led the Kittur army against 20,000 British soldiers stationed near the Kittur Fort.
  • During the battle, British official John Thackery was killed, and the Company forces faced significant losses.
  • After initial resistance, British forces returned in December 1824 with a larger army.
  • Despite her courageous efforts, Rani Chennamma was captured along with her forces and imprisoned.
  • She was held captive in Bailhongal Fort, where she spent her remaining years. She died in captivity in 1829.

Legacy and Significance

• Rani Chennamma is celebrated as one of the first women in Indian history to lead an anti-colonial uprising.
• She is revered as a symbol of courage, patriotism, and resistance against colonial oppression.
• She is honored in Kannada folklore, particularly through lavani (folk songs) that celebrate her bravery and sacrifice.
• Statues have been erected across Karnataka, including a prominent one in Bengaluru’s Parliament House.

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September 28th marks 117th birth anniversary of the legendary freedom fighter “Bhagat Singh”.

Who was Bhagat Singh?

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September 25 marks the 108th birth anniversary of Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya, one of the most influential thinkers of India’s right-wing movement.

About Pandit Deendayal Upadhyaya (1916-1968)

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127th Anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi was observed on September 12.

Implication of the Battle

• The Sikh soldiers showed extraordinary courage, fighting against overwhelming odds.
• The 21 soldiers killed around 200 militants and injured 600, holding the enemy for seven hours.
• The British Government posthumously awarded all 21 soldiers the Indian Order of Merit.
• The battle highlighted the importance of discipline, leadership, and sacrifice, and underscored the role of Sikh regiments in the British Indian Army.

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• On July 31, 1940, Indian revolutionary leader Udham Singh was executed at the Pentonville prison in London for killing Michael O’Dwyer, the former lieutenant governor of Punjab.
  • He avenged the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre by assassinating Michael O’Dwyer.

Udham Singh (1899-1940) and his Contributions:

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On 22nd July in 1947, the Constituent Assembly of India adopted the National Flag.

About the National Flag Day

• The Constituent Assembly met in New Delhi at 10 o’clock, chaired by Dr. Rajendra Prasad.
• The Assembly had been meeting since December 9, 1946, discussing various subjects.
• The Chair announced the first agenda item: “a Motion by Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru about the Flag.”

Reactions and Support

• There were no significant objections to Nehru’s Resolution.
• Several members, including Seth Govind Das, V I Muniswami Pillai, Chaudhri Khaliquzzaman, S Radhakrishnan, Saiyid Mohammad Saadulla, Frank R Anthony, and Sarojini Naidu, paid tributes to the Flag and supported the Resolution.
• H V Kamath suggested adding a Swastika inside the Chakra to symbolize peace but withdrew the amendment after seeing the Flag’s design.
• Dr. P S Deshmukh preferred retaining the original tricolour with the Charkha but did not push his amendment, respecting the House’s preference.

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• The Santhal Revolt of 1855 was a revolt against imperialism led by four brothers, Sidho, Kanho, Chand, and Bhairav Murmu, along with sisters Phulo and Jhano.
  • June 30 marks the 169th anniversary of the beginning of the revolt.

About Santhal Hul

• The Santhal people revolted against the British East India Company and the Zamindari system, also known as the Santhal Rebellion or Santhal Hul.
• The rebellion began on June 30, 1855.
• Martial Law was imposed on November 10, 1855, by the East India Company, lasting until January 3, 1856, when the rebellion was suppressed.

Who are the Santhals?

• Santhals were agricultural people living in the Rajmahal Hills of Bihar.
• Ol Chiki (Ol Chemet) is the writing script of Santhals.
• The British asked them to clear forests for agriculture to increase revenue.
• Damin-i-Koh (1832) was created as a designated area for Santhals, now known as Santhal Pargana.
• Over time, the British began exploiting the Santhals, leading to the Santhal Rebellion.

What makes the revolt so unique?

• Marginalized Indigenous Community: Led by the Santhal tribe, a marginalized indigenous community in mid-19th century India.
• Agrarian Uprising: Primarily a fight against exploitative land laws, high taxes, and forced labor rather than political or religious issues.
• Tribal Unity and Guerrilla Tactics: Characterized by a strong sense of tribal unity and guerrilla warfare tactics, making it unique and significant.

Causes of the Santhal Revolt:

• Permanent Settlement System (1793): Introduced by the British East India Company, giving Zamindars long-lasting property rights.
• Oppression by Zamindars: Zamindars misused their power to oppress and enslave peasants, leading to resentment.
• Exploitation and Debt: Santhals faced exploitation through high-interest loans and lost their land and freedom.
• Violent Suppressions: British police supported Zamindars and moneylenders in evicting Santhals violently.
• Disruption of Traditional Structures: Traditional social and political structures of the Santhals were disrupted, pushing them into debt and poverty.
• Economic Hardship: Led to the Santhals revolting against the British and Zamindars to escape their predicament.

About the Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876) and Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908)

• Santhal Pargana Tenancy Act (1876): Enacted by the British as a result of the Hul.
  • Land Inheritance: Prohibits the transfer of Adivasi lands to non-Adivasis and allows land to be inherited only as per the Act.
  • Self-Governance: Retains the rights of Santhals to self-govern their land.
• Chhotanagpur Tenancy Act (1908): Result of the Birsa Movement.
  • Land Transfer Restrictions: Allows land transfers within the same caste and geographical areas with District Collector’s approval.
  • Protection of Adivasi and Dalit Land: Restricts the sale of Adivasi and Dalit land but allows transfers within the same community.

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Jharkhand CM marked the 124th death anniversary of revolutionary tribal leader “Birsa Munda” by paying his tributes.

Who was Birsa Munda (1875-1900)?

• Birsa Munda was born on November 15, 1875, during a period of significant change for his community, the Mundas, residing in the Chotanagpur region of present-day Jharkhand.
• Birsa Munda spent his early years travelling with his parents and received primary education under Jaipal Nag.
• Inspired by the peaceful Sardari agitation against British rule, Birsa became a prominent leader advocating for tribal rights.

Causes of the Rebellion

• Impact of Colonial Policies: Colonial policies, including the Permanent Settlement Act (1793), disrupted traditional land ownership systems, leading to displacement and exploitation of indigenous communities.
• Erosion of Khuntkattidar System: The Mundas’ traditional land rights system, known as khuntkatti, was eroded by jagirdars and thikadars, leading to land alienation.
• Land Alienation and Exploitation: Non-tribal migration into tribal regions accelerated under British rule, resulting in exploitation through high-interest money lending and forced labour.
• Missionary Activity: The spread of education through missionary activities led to increased awareness among tribals, deepening social cleavages but also inspiring movements for tribal reconstruction.

Major Activities:

1. New faith ‘Birsait’ against religious conversion

• Having gained awareness of the British colonial ruler and the efforts of the missionaries to convert tribals to Christianity, Birsa started the faith of ‘Birsait’.
• Soon members of the Munda and Oraon community started joining the Birsait sect and it turned into a challenge to British conversion activities.
• The Mundas called him Dharati Aaba, the father of earth.

2. The Birsa Movement: Ulgulan

• The Munda Rebellion was a tribal rebellion led by Birsa Munda in the region south of Ranchi in 1899-1900.
• It mainly concentrated in the Munda belt of Khunti, Tamar, Sarwada, and Bandgaon.
• The revolt sought to establish Munda Raj and independence, known as Ulgulan or ‘Great Tumult’ by Munda tribals.
• The rebellion ended with the suppression by British forces and the death of Birsa Munda.

Significant Outcomes

• Impact: Birsa Munda’s mobilization of tribal communities left a lasting legacy, prompting government reforms such as the repeal of the Begar system and the enactment of the Tenancy Act (1903).
• His Death: The movement was violently suppressed and Birsa Munda died in jail on 9 June 1900.

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The Conservation and Cultural Archives Division of Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA) hosted an exhibition and lecture celebrating Rabindranath Tagore’s birth anniversary in New Delhi.

About Rabindranath Tagore

About Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts (IGNCA)

• The IGNCA, New Delhi is a premier government-funded arts organisation in India.
• It is an autonomous institute under the Union Ministry of Culture.
• It was established on 19 November 1985 by Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi.
• IGNCA is envisioned as a centre for the study and experience of arts in the field of:

1. Creative literature – written and oral;
2. Visual arts inclusive of architecture;
3. Sculpture, painting and graphics to general material culture, photography and film; and
4. Performing arts of music, dance and theatre.

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The Mahad Satyagraha is hailed as the foundational event of the Dalit movement, marking the community’s collective rejection of the caste system and assertion of human rights.

About Mahad Satyagraha

• The Mahad Satyagraha, also known as Chavdar Tale (Lake) Satyagraha, was led by B. R. Ambedkar on 20 March 1927 in Mahad, Raigad District of Maharashtra.
• Its aim was to assert the right of untouchables to use water from a public tank.

1. Background:

• Untouchables (Dalits) were segregated in Indian society and banned from using public water bodies and roads used by other Hindu castes.
• In August 1923, the Bombay Legislative Council passed a resolution allowing depressed classes to use government-maintained places, but it faced opposition from savarna Hindus.
• In January 1924, Mahad passed a resolution in its municipal council to enforce the act but failed to implement it due to protests.

2. Satyagraha:

• In 1927, Ambedkar launched a satyagraha to assert untouchables’ rights to use water in public places.
• Mahad was chosen for the event due to its support from ‘caste Hindus’.
• Surendranath Tipnis, president of the Mahad municipality, invited Ambedkar to hold a meeting there.
• Ambedkar drank water from the tank, followed by thousands of untouchables.
• He encouraged Dalit women to abandon customs of untouchability and wear saris like high-caste women, which they embraced.
• A riot erupted over rumors of Ambedkar planning to enter a Hindu temple, and the tank was purified with cow-urine and cow-dung.
• Ambedkar planned a second conference in Mahad in December 1927 but faced legal obstacles due to a case filed by caste Hindus.
• On 25 December 1937, the Bombay High Court ruled that untouchables have the right to use water from the tank.

3. Legacy:

• On 19 March 1940, Ambedkar arranged a rally in Mahad to commemorate the Satyagraha as “Empowerment Day.”

Back2Basics: Key Initiatives and Movements Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar

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Why in the news?

On April 13, 1919, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer ordered British troops to open fire on a peaceful gathering in Jallianwala Bagh, Amritsar, leaving a deep scar on India’s collective memory.

Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

1. Background: Protesting the contentious Rowlatt Act

• The act officially known as the Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act, 1919 was passed in 1919 by the Imperial Legislative Council.
• It had authorized the British government to arrest anybody suspected of terrorist activities.
• It also authorized the government to detain such people arrested for up to 2 years without trial.
• It empowered the police to search a place without a warrant. It also placed severe restrictions on the freedom of the press.
• The primary intention of colonial govt. was to repress the growing nationalist movement in the country.
• The British were also afraid of a Ghadarite Revolution in Punjab and the rest of the country.

1. The day

• The massacre took place on 13 April 1919 when troops of the British Indian Army (Gurkha and Sikh infantry regiments) under the command of Col. Reginald Dyer fired rifles into a crowd of Indians.
• The civilians had assembled for a peaceful protest to condemn the arrest and deportation of two national leaders, Satya Pal and Saifuddin Kitchlew.
• Dyer without warning ordered his troops to fire at the unarmed crowd which included children as well.
• The indiscriminate firing went on for about 10 minutes which resulted in the deaths of at least 1000 people and injured more than 1500 people.

1. Aftermath

• In protest against the massacre, Rabindranath Tagore gave up his knighthood.
• Gandhiji relinquished his title ‘Kaiser-e-hind’ bestowed on him by the British for his services during the Boer War in South Africa.
• Michael O’Dwyer, the then Lieutenant-Governor of Punjab, who had approved the actions of Dyer, was assassinated by Udham Singh in London in 1940 as revenge against the massacre.
• The heroic treatment of Dyer’s heinous act again set a benchmark of colonial arrogance.

Hunter Commission for Inquiry

• In October 1919 the Secretary of State for India, Edwin Montagu, ordered the formation of a committee of inquiry into the events in Punjab.
• Referred to as the Disorders Inquiry Committee, it was later more widely known as the Hunter Commission (Not to be confused with Hunter Education Commission).
• The commission inquiry was concluded without any significant conclusion.
• Still, there are long-standing demands in India that Britain should apologize for the massacre.

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Why in the news?

• Prime Minister recently suggested a link between the Congress manifesto and the Muslim League (which is responsible for the Partition of India), prompting a political debate.
• In rebuttal, critics reminded of a coalition governments formed by Hindu Mahasabha in Bengal, Sindh, and North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) in the 1940s with the Muslim League.

Ideological Alignment and Political Alliances

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar noted ideological similarities between the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League, both advocating for the two-nation theory.
• This ideological convergence paved the way for short-lived political alliances, particularly during the turmoil following Congress’s resignation from provincial ministries in 1939.

Reasons for such Alliance

• Opposition to Quit India Movement:  When Mahatma Gandhi launched the Quit India Movement in 1942, the Muslim League and Hindu Mahasabha refrained from participating, opting to support the British war effort.
• Support for British War Efforts: Savarkar, in a letter, instructed Mahasabha members to remain loyal to their positions and not join the movement, while Syama Prasad Mookerjee pledged support to suppress any internal disturbances.
• Increased Push for Partition: Jinnah, meanwhile, intensified his campaign for Pakistan, capitalizing on the absence of Congress leaders and positioning himself as the sole spokesman for Muslims.

 Implications of this Coalition

• The period following Congress’s participation in the Quit India Movement saw the rise of the Muslim League’s influence, with League ministries established in several provinces by 1943.
• Jinnah’s strategy to capitalize on Congress’s absence contributed to his claim as the sole representative of Indian Muslims, furthering the demand for Pakistan.

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Why in the news?

This year April 1^st marks 100 years of the Vaikom Satyagraha, in Kottayam, Kerala.

About Vaikom Satyagraha

• Vaikom was the epicentre of the Vaikom Satyagraha, which began in 1924.
• This movement aimed to challenge the ban imposed on marginalized communities from entering the vicinity of the Vaikom Mahadevar Temple in the princely state of Travancore.
• It sparked similar temple entry movements across India, advocating for the rights of untouchables and backward castes.
• It introduced nonviolent public protest as a method of resistance in Kerala.

A Precursor to the Vaikom Satyagraha

1. Social and Political Developments

• Backdrop of Social Injustice: Travancore, characterized by feudal and caste-based governance, imposed stringent restrictions on lower castes, denying them entry to temples and public spaces.

• Emergence of Social Consciousness: By the late 19th century, progressive reforms and missionary activities led to increased awareness and education among lower castes, particularly the Ezhavas.
• Rise of Educated Elite: Educated individuals from diverse backgrounds, including lower castes, began to challenge social norms and demand equality in opportunities and rights.

2. Beginning of Agitation

• Advocacy for Change: Ezhava leader T K Madhavan spearheaded efforts to challenge temple entry restrictions, advocating for direct action to confront discriminatory practices.
• Influence of Gandhi’s Ideals: Inspired by Gandhi’s principles of non-cooperation, Madhavan sought support from the Indian National Congress (INC) to mobilize a mass movement against untouchability.

Actual Course of Events

1. Agitation

• Leaders such as T.K. Madhavan, K.P. Kesava Menon, and George Joseph spearheaded the agitation.
• Despite facing resistance and arrests by the police, the Satyagrahis persisted in their protest for over a year, resulting in numerous arrests and jails.
• Notable figures like Mahatma Gandhi, Chattampi Swamikal, and Sree Narayana Guru extended their support to the movement, which gained nationwide recognition.
• The involvement of women and support from various regions, including Punjab, highlighted the widespread impact of the Satyagraha.

2. Suspension:

• Initially suspended in April 1924 at Gandhi’s suggestion, the movement resumed when attempts to resolve the issue with caste Hindu leaders failed.
• The absence of leaders like T.K. Madhavan and K.P. Kesava Menon, who were arrested, posed challenges to the movement.
• V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) lent support from Tamil Nadu before also being arrested.
• The resolution for the right to temple entry faced resistance in the Assembly, thwarted by traditionalist support and government pressure.

3. Aftermath

• On October 1, 1924, a procession of Savarnas (forward castes) submitted a petition to the Regent Maharani Sethu Lakshmi Bai of Travancore, signed by around 25,000 individuals, urging for the temple’s open entry.
• Gandhi’s meeting with the Regent Maharani and the procession led by Mannath Padmanabhan Nair underscored the growing support for the cause.
• Eventually, on November 23, 1925, all temple gates were opened to Hindus except the eastern gate, marking a significant victory.
• The Vaikom Satyagraha laid the groundwork for the temple entry proclamation of Kerala in 1936 and inspired similar movements’ nationwide, promoting social justice and equality.

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Why in the news?

• Recently premiered on an OTT Platform, the film “Ae Watan Mere Watan” delves into the narrative of Usha Mehta and Congress Radio during the Quit India Movement of 1942.

Who was Usha Mehta (1920-2000)?

• Usha Mehta was born on March 25, 1920, in Mumbai, India.
• Inspired by Mahatma Gandhi’s principles of nonviolent resistance and civil disobedience, Usha Mehta became actively involved in the Indian independence movement from a young age.
• One of Usha Mehta’s most notable contributions to the freedom struggle was her involvement in the radio broadcasting network known as the “Secret Congress Radio.”
• She was conferred the Padma Vibhushan, one of India’s highest civilian honours in 1998.

The Secret ‘Congress Radio’

• On August 8, 1942, the historic Quit India Resolution was passed during the All India Congress Committee meeting in Bombay.
• In this response, the idea of an underground radio station, known by various names such as the Freedom Radio, the Ghost Radio, or the Congress Radio, was conceived to counter the British-controlled AIR.
• Usha Mehta, a 22 YO master’s student at Wilson College, became the voice of the Congress Radio.
• The radio was an expensive endeavour, but funds were procured through various means, including contributions from Mehta’s colleague, Babubhai Khakhar.
• Radio engineering expert Nariman Abarbad Printer constructed the Congress Radio transmission set.
• Their first broadcast was on 14 August 1942.
• Welcome line in her voice: “This is the Congress Radio calling on 42.34 from somewhere in India.”
• In the beginning, they were broadcasting twice a day, in Hindi and English. But they reduced it to just once in the evening between 30 and 8.30 pm.
• On 12^th November 1942, the police raided the radio while Vande Mataram was being played and arrested Mehta and others.

PYQ:

2011: With reference to Indian freedom struggle, Usha Mehta is well-known for-

1. Running the secret Congress Radio in the wake of Quit India Movement
2. Participating in the Second Round Table Conference
3. Leading a contingent of Indian National Army
4. Assisting in the formation of Interim Government under Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru

2021: With reference to 8th August, 1942 in Indian history, which one of the following statements is correct?

1. The Quit India Resolution was adopted by the AICC.
2. The Viceroy’s Executive Council was expanded to include more Indians.
3. The Congress ministries resigned in seven provinces.
4. Cripps proposed an Indian Union with full Dominion Status once the Second World War was over

Practice MCQ:

In context to the Secret ‘Congress Radio’ in modern Indian history, consider the following statements:

1. It was established to supplement the Civil Disobedience Movement of 1930s.
2. Usha Mehta was the voice of Congress Radio.
3. It was broadcasted twice a day, in Hindi and English

How many of the given statements is/are correct?

1. One
2. Two
3. Three
4. None

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Why in the news-

• The Maharashtra cabinet has resolved to request the Ministry of Railways to rename Mumbai Central station after Nana Jagannath Shankarseth, a revered social reformer, educationist, and philanthropist often hailed as the “architect” of Mumbai.

About Nana Jagannath Shankarseth (1803-1865)

• Born on February 10, 1803, in Murbad, Thane, into the affluent Murkute family.
• His father, Shankar Murkute, earned the nickname “Shankar Sheth” due to his success in the jewellery and diamond trade.
• He contributed in terms of both ideas and money to multiple sectors, to lay a strong foundation for the Bombay City.
• He was greatly inspired by the legendary merchant and philanthropist Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy.

Contribution of Nana Jagannath Shankarseth

• Founded the Bombay Association in 1852, the first political organization in Mumbai, fostering a platform for civic engagement and political discourse.
• Played a pivotal role as one of the founding members of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway in 1853, contributing to India’s infrastructural development.
• Recognized the importance of education in societal progress and opened the first school for girls in Mumbai in 1849, pioneering educational reform.
• Co-founded the School Society and the Native School of Bombay, laying the foundation for educational institutions that nurtured future leaders such as Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale.
• Established the Bombay Native Education Society in 1822, the first of its kind in Western India, to promote education among the masses.
• Collaborated with Sir George Birdwood and Dr Bhau Daji in major reconstruction efforts in Mumbai starting in 1857, transforming the city’s urban landscape.
• Became the first Indian to be nominated to the Bombay Legislative Council in 1861, advocating for policies that improved public welfare and urban amenities.
• Honored with a marble statue at the Asiatic Society of Mumbai a year after his death in 1865, commemorating his contributions to society.

Try this PYQ from CSE Prelims 2012:

Q.The most effective contribution made by Dadabhai Naoroji to the cause of Indian National Movement was that he-

1. exposed the economic exploitation of India by the British
2. interpreted the ancient Indian texts and restored the self-confidence of Indians
3. stressed the need for eradication of all the social evils before anything else

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(c) 1 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Practice MCQ:

Q. Consider the following events:

He founded the Bombay Association in 1852, the first political organization in Mumbai, fostering a platform for civic engagement and political discourse. Recognizing the importance of education in societal progress, he opened the first school for girls in Mumbai in 1849, pioneering educational reform. He became the first Indian to be nominated to the Bombay Legislative Council in 1861, advocating for policies that improved public welfare and urban amenities.

The above description is mentioned about which of the following personality?

a) Gopal Krishna Gokhale

b) Maharshi Vitthal Ramji Shinde

c) Nana Jagannath Shankarseth

d) Dhondo Keshav Karve

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In the news

• Santiniketan celebrates ‘Gandhi Punyaha Din’ on March 10 every year, honoring Gandhi’s teachings on self-reliance and communal harmony.
• This event highlights the profound friendship between MK Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore that spanned from 1914-15 until Tagore’s passing in 1941.

 About Rabindranath Tagore

Gandhi and Tagore: Genesis of Friendship

• First Encounter (March 6, 1915): Gandhi’s visit to Santiniketan, West Bengal, where he spent nearly a month, profoundly influenced Tagore’s idyllic school and laid the foundation for their friendship.
• Shared Ideals: Both Gandhi and Tagore were proponents of education, social reform, and cultural revival, fostering a deep connection rooted in their common vision for India’s future.

Meeting of Two Titans

• Tagore’s Acclaim: Tagore was already a global figure, having won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913, whereas Gandhi was yet to emerge as the leader he would become.
• Crossing Paths: C F Andrews, recognizing their ideological synergy, facilitated their meeting in Santiniketan, marking the beginning of their enduring friendship.
• Intellectual Exchange: Their initial encounter sparked lively discussions on spirituality, ethics, and the future of India, setting the stage for a profound intellectual partnership.

Diverse Perspectives and Respectful Disagreements

• Philosophical Disputes: Gandhi and Tagore engaged in spirited debates on various issues, including social, political, and economic matters, reflecting their diverse perspectives.
• Respecting Differences: Despite their disagreements, they maintained a deep respect for each other’s viewpoints, fostering a relationship that transcended ideological disparities.
• Intellectual Integrity: Both leaders valued intellectual honesty and integrity, allowing for open dialogue and constructive criticism, even when their opinions diverged.

A Tale of Mutual Admiration

• Endearing Nicknames: Tagore referred to Gandhi as “Mahatma,” signifying his reverence for Gandhi’s moral stature, while Gandhi addressed Tagore as “Gurudev,” acknowledging his role as a spiritual guide.
• Common Ground: Despite their differences, both leaders shared a commitment to truth, non-violence, and service to humanity, which formed the bedrock of their friendship.
• Shared Vision: Gandhi and Tagore envisioned a free and inclusive India, where diversity was celebrated, and social justice prevailed, inspiring generations to strive for a better future.

Legacy and Influence

• Historical Reflections: Their friendship reflected an era of profound intellectual exchange and collaboration, shaping India’s socio-cultural fabric during a pivotal period in its history.
• Modern Interpretations: Scholars continue to analyze their correspondence and interactions, offering insights into the complexity and depth of their relationship, which remains relevant in contemporary discourse.
• Global Impact: The principles espoused by Gandhi and Tagore continue to resonate globally, inspiring movements for peace, justice, and human rights across the world.

Conclusion

• The enduring friendship between Gandhi and Tagore stands as a testament to the power of intellectual exchange, mutual respect, and shared ideals.
• Their bond, characterized by respectful disagreements and a commitment to truth, continues to inspire generations and holds lessons for fostering dialogue and understanding in today’s world.
• As we reflect on their legacy, we recognize the enduring relevance of their teachings in shaping a more inclusive and compassionate society.

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