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Type: Prelims Only

  • Indian Army Updates

    [pib] Exercise ZAPAD 2025

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    An Indian Armed Forces contingent has departed for Mulino Training Ground, Nizhniy, Russia, to participate in Exercise ZAPAD 2025.

    About Exercise ZAPAD:

    • Meaning: “ZAPAD” means West in Russian; a series of large-scale joint strategic military drills led by Russia and Belarus.
    • Origins: Started during the Soviet era with Zapad-77, Zapad-81, Zapad-84, reflecting Cold War dynamics.
    • Post-Soviet Revival: Resumed with Zapad-99 (1999), partly as a response to NATO’s Yugoslavia operations.
    • Frequency: Held about once every 4 years, with major editions in 2009, 2013, 2017, 2021, and 2025.
    • Series Context: Forms part of Russia’s rotating operational drills along with Vostok (East), Tsentr (Central), and Kavkaz (Caucasus).
    • Scale: Zapad-2021 involved ~200,000 personnel from 17 countries, one of the largest recent drills.

    Geopolitical Significance:

    • Deterrence: Sends a strategic message to NATO about Russian readiness.
    • Allied Assurance: Reassures Russia’s partners and allies of its military strength.
    [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?

    1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.

    2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).

    3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.

    4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.

    Select the answer using the code given below:

     

    Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4*

     

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    What was the Harappan Language?

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    The Union Culture Ministry has invited experts to present their research on deciphering the Indus Valley script, also known as the Harappan script.

    What was the Harappan Language?

    Recent Efforts and Theories on the Harappan Script:

    • Taxation & Commerce Theory: Bahata Ansumali Mukhopadhyay argues the script encodes rules of trade and taxation, not phonetic spellings.
    • Religious Hypothesis: Karuna Shankar Shukla claims Indus seals carried Rig Vedic mantras and Puranic references, used mainly for rituals.
    • Proto-Dravidian Claims:
      • Prakash N. Salame (Nagpur engineer) says 90% of symbols represent Proto-Dravidian Gondi, building on Dr. M. C. Kangali.
      • Asko Parpola (Finnish Indologist) supports the Dravidian hypothesis, suggesting a logo-syllabic system of pictograms and rebuses.
      • Bryan K. Wells also backs Proto-Dravidian links.
    • Santali Link: Prabhunath Hembrom connects the script to the Santali language, citing parallels with Parpola’s work.
    • Scholarly Caveats: H. P. Ray stresses need for bilingual objects, contextual clarity, and warns against assuming a single language for the entire civilization.

    Back2Basics: Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

    • Timeline: Flourished 2600–1900 BCE, with roots back to Mehrgarh (7000 BCE).
    • Extent: Covered 1.5 million sq. km across modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan.
    • Discovery: Excavations at Harappa (1921–22, Daya Ram Sahni) and Mohenjo-daro (1922, R. D. Banerji) confirmed as one civilization by John Marshall.
    • Urban Features: Grid-planned cities, fortified towns, granaries, warehouses, dockyards, drainage systems, advanced water management (wells, reservoirs, Great Bath).
    • Seals & Script: Steatite seals with animal motifs and undeciphered script point to complex administration.
    • Crafts & Finds: Pottery, bead-making, weaving, metallurgy, toys, ornaments, figurines; iconic Dancing Girl, Priest-King, Mother Goddess statues.

     

    [UPSC 2001] Which one of the following animals was NOT represented on the seals and terracotta art of the Harappan culture?

    Options: (a) Cow* (b) Elephant (c) Rhinoceros (d) Tiger

     

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    Langkhon Festival of Assam

    Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    Tiwa tribesmen recently celebrated Langkhun festival in Umsowai village in Karbi Anglong district of Assam.

    Langkhon Festival of Assam

    About Langkhon Festival:

    • Overview: A pre-harvest thanks-giving festival of the Tiwa tribe of Assam.
    • Timing: Celebrated in October–November, just before the Rabi crop season.
    • Core Belief: Involves worship of bamboo, seen as a symbol of prosperity and sustenance in Tiwa culture.
    • Deities: Special prayers to Ramsa Devota and other local gods for crop protection, family welfare, and village prosperity.
    • Ritual Practices: Include offerings, sacrifices, and prayers to drive away pestilence and evil forces and ensure a good paddy harvest.
    • Duration: Celebrated for 2–4 days with active community participation.
    • Traditional Dances: Langkhon dance, Moinari Khanthi, and Yangli form the cultural highlights.
    • Folk Songs: Songs such as Lo Ho La Hai (naming, weddings, harvests) and Lali Hilali Lai (weddings) are integral to the festival.
    • Games & Sports: Local games like Plasele and Sam Kava are organised, strengthening community bonds.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following pairs: Tradition | State

    1. Chapchar Kut festival — Mizoram

    2. Khongjom Parba ballad — Manipur

    3. Thong-To dance — Sikkim

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2* (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3

     

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  • Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

    Election of the Vice-President

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    Thiru CP Radhakrishnan has been elected as Vice President of India.

    About Vice-President (VP) of India:

    • Position: Second-highest constitutional post; deputy to the President.
    • Parliamentary Role: Serves as ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha.
    • Succession: Ranks second in order of precedence and first in line to become President.
    • Membership: Is a member of Parliament, not directly elected by the people.

    Qualifications:

    • Citizenship: Must be a citizen of India.
    • Age: Minimum 35 years.
    • Office of Profit: Should not hold any.
    • Parliamentary Eligibility: Must qualify for election to Rajya Sabha (unlike President, who must qualify for Lok Sabha) due to the VP’s role in the Upper House.

    Roles and Responsibilities:

    • Rajya Sabha Chairmanship: Presides over sessions and ensures order.
    • Bill Classification: Refers money bills to the Lok Sabha Speaker.
    • No Independent Powers: Has no executive or legislative powers unless acting as President.

    Election Procedure:

    • Constitutional Basis: Governed by Article 66.
    • Electoral College: Comprises 543 Lok Sabha MPs, 233 elected Rajya Sabha MPs, and 12 nominated Rajya Sabha members.
    • Voting Method: Proportional representation by single transferable vote and secret ballot.
    • No Whip Allowed: Parties cannot issue voting whips.
    • Conduct: Managed by the Election Commission; Returning Officer is the Secretary-General of either House (on rotation).
    • Winning Quota: Requires 50% of valid votes + 1; votes are transferred in rounds if no candidate secures majority in the first round.

    Resignation and Removal:

    Resignation

    • Article 67(a): VP submits his/her resignation to the President. Parliamentary approval is NOT needed, and the resignation takes effect immediately upon receipt.
    • No Acting VP: Constitution doesn’t provide for an acting Vice-President.
    • Presiding in Absence: Deputy Chairman of Rajya Sabha presides in VP’s absence (currently Harivansh Narayan Singh).
    • Example: Dhankhar, who took office in 2022, is only the third VP in Indian history to resign before completing his term, after V.V. Giri and R. Venkataraman.

    Removal

    • Article 67(b): Removal process begins in Rajya Sabha with 14 days’ notice.
    • Voting Requirement: Needs effective majority in Rajya Sabha and simple majority in Lok Sabha.
    • No Grounds Specified: Constitution doesn’t list specific removal grounds.
    • Judicial Immunity: Article 122 bars courts from questioning parliamentary proceedings related to removal.
    • No Precedent: No VP has been removed so far.
    [UPSC 2013] With reference to Parliament, consider the following statements:

    1.The Chairman and the Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha are not the members of that House.

    2.While the nominated members of the two Houses of the Parliament have no voting right in the presidential election, they have the right to vote in the election of the Vice President.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Neurogenesis in the Human Brain

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    A recent study (2025, Science) found young neurons in the adult brain, challenging the old belief that Neurogenesis (neurons formation) occur only in childhood.

    What is Neurogenesis?

    • Overview: Formation of new neurons from stem or progenitor cells.
    • Established in Animals: Well-known in mice, rats, and monkeys; also active during human childhood development.
    • Debate in Humans: Longstanding question if it continues in adulthood, especially in the hippocampus (brain’s memory and learning hub).
    • Hippocampal Role: The dentate gyrus is believed to sustain lifelong neurogenesis, helping in memory formation, flexibility, and stress control.

    Key findings of the Study:

    • Conducted by: Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, published in Science (2025).
    • Study: Analysed 400,000 neurons from post-mortem hippocampus samples of people aged from infants (<1 year) to 78 years.
    • Methodology: Used single nuclei RNA sequencing with machine learning to detect signs of new cells.
    • Outcome: Validated with RNAscope and Xenium imaging, which confirmed the presence of neural stem cells, progenitors, and young neurons (neuroblasts) even in adolescent and adult brains.

    Why are the findings important?

    • Evidence in Adults: Strong proof that new neurons form in adult brains, not just in early years.
    • Evolutionary Insight: Suggests neurogenesis is a conserved feature across mammals, not unique to certain species.
    • Brain Functions: Explains memory flexibility, ability to overwrite memories, and resilience to stress.
    • Therapeutic Potential: Opens up scope for regenerative treatments in brain disorders like Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, and dementia by stimulating local progenitor cells.
    • Lifestyle Link: Implies that exercise, social connections, and stress levels could influence how much neurogenesis happens in individuals.
    [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following is synthesised in human body that dilates blood vessels and increases blood flow?

    Options: (a) Nitric oxide* (b) Nitrous oxide (c) Nitrogen dioxide (d) Nitrogen pentoxide

     

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  • WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML)

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Semaglutide, a drug originally developed for type 2 diabetes but also highly effective for weight reduction has been added to the WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML).

    What is Semaglutide?

    • Overview: A GLP-1 receptor agonist drug developed for Type 2 Diabetes, also effective in weight reduction.
    • Mode of Action: Stimulates insulin secretion, lowers blood glucose, slows gastric emptying, and suppresses appetite.
    • Brand Names: Ozempic (diabetes), Wegovy (obesity/weight loss).
    • WHO Recognition (2025): Added to the 24th EML, highlighting its dual role in diabetes and obesity management.
    • Significance: Its inclusion pressures health systems to expand access and make it more affordable worldwide.
    • Relevance for India: With 100+ million diabetics (2nd highest globally) and a rising obesity burden, Semaglutide could be a public health game-changer if affordability improves.

    About WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicines (EML):

    • What is it: A global reference by WHO listing the most effective, safe, and essential medicines for priority healthcare needs.
    • History: First introduced in 1977 to improve access in developing countries; updated every 2 years by a WHO Expert Committee.
    • Structure:
      • Core list: Basic medicines usable with limited infrastructure.
      • Complementary list:  Need specialised training, facilities, or are costlier.
    • Global Impact: Over 150 countries use EML to build national lists for procurement, reimbursement, and universal health coverage (UHC).
    • Selection Criteria:
      • Public health relevance.
      • Proven efficacy and safety.
      • Cost-effectiveness compared to alternatives.
      • Quality, stability, and reliable formulations.
      • Preference for single-compound formulations unless combinations are better.
    [UPSC 2024] In which of the following are hydrogels used?

    1. Controlled drug delivery in patients 2. Mobile air-conditioning systems 3. Preparation of industrial lubricants

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-United States

    US to update MTCR export control policies 

    IOCRPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    The United States is preparing to reinterpret the 1987 Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR) to expand exports of heavy attack drones, like the MQ-9 Reaper, to partner countries.

    About Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR):

    • Formation: Established in 1987 by the G-7 countries (Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, UK, USA) to prevent the spread of missiles and UAVs capable of delivering nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons.
    • Membership: Today, 35 countries are members; India joined in 2016.
    • Nature: Not a treaty but a voluntary political understanding where members implement export control guidelines.

    • Coverage:

      • Category I items: Complete missile/UAV systems with ≥500 kg payload and ≥300 km range, major subsystems, and production facilities (exports presumed denied).
      • Category II items: Less sensitive or dual-use components/technologies; exports subject to national discretion under strict licensing.
    • Purpose: To limit missile proliferation while allowing peaceful space and aviation cooperation.

    About the Recent Policy Change on MTCR:

    • US Reinterpretation (2025):

      • Large unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) like the MQ-9 Reaper will be treated as “aircraft” instead of missile systems.
      • This removes the “strong presumption of denial” that earlier restricted their export under MTCR.
    • Objective: To make the US the leading drone supplier, countering competition from China, Israel, and Turkiye.

    • Implications:

      • Opens the door for Foreign Military Sales (FMS) of heavy attack drones to partners like Saudi Arabia, India, and Indo-Pacific allies.
      • Still subject to US reviews for regional stability, end-use monitoring, tech security, and human rights compliance.
      • Facilitates India–US space and defence cooperation, lowering barriers for joint ventures and technology partnerships.
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:

    1. Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank 2. Missile Technology Control Regime 3. Shanghai Cooperation Organisation

    India is a member of which of the above?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Freshwater Aquifers found beneath the Atlantic Ocean

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    The recent discovery of a massive freshwater aquifer beneath the Atlantic shelf opens new possibilities for addressing future global water shortages.

    About the Aquifer:

    • Location: Offshore northeastern U.S., stretching possibly from New Jersey to Maine.
    • Expedition 501: Drilled up to 400 m beneath the seabed, retrieving nearly 50,000 liters of water and thousands of sediment cores.
    • Findings: Fresh and nearly fresh water discovered at both shallower and deeper depths than expected, confirming a vast, pressurized aquifer.
    • Global Context: Similar offshore aquifers are suspected or identified near South Africa, Hawai‘i, Jakarta, and Canada’s Prince Edward Island.

    Possible Origins of the Freshwater:

    • Glacial Meltwater Hypothesis: Ancient ice sheets during lower sea levels allowed meltwater to seep into porous sediments.
    • Connected Aquifer Hypothesis: Modern terrestrial groundwater may still slowly flow offshore through geologic formations.
    • Significance: Determining whether the aquifer is finite fossil water or a renewable source is critical for deciding its usability.

    Significance of the Discovery:

    • Water Security: Could supply a metropolis the size of New York City for centuries, if managed sustainably.
    • Climate Change Resilience: Offers backup options as coastal aquifers face saltwater intrusion and urban demand rises (e.g., Cape Town’s “Day Zero” crisis in 2018).
    • Scientific Impact: First direct, systematic drilling of offshore freshwater for mapping and salinity profiling.
    [UPSC 2021] With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements:

    1.The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater.

    2.The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Sri Lanka

    Katchatheevu Island Dispute

    National Parks/WSPrelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Why in the News?

    Sri Lankan President Dissanayake’s visit to Katchatheevu Island, the first ever visit by a head of state, revived debates on the island’s history and ownership.

    Katchatheevu Island Dispute

    About Katchatheevu Island:

    • Overview: Small uninhabited island of about 285 acres in the Palk Strait, ~33 nautical miles from Jaffna (Sri Lanka) and close to Ramanathapuram (Tamil Nadu).
    • History: Once under the Raja of Ramnad (TN), later became disputed during British rule.
    • Agreements: Under 1974 and 1976 pacts, India (under Indira Gandhi govt.) recognised Sri Lanka’s sovereignty and gave up traditional fishing rights.
    • Religious Site: Home to St. Anthony’s Catholic Shrine, visited annually by Indian and Sri Lankan fishermen during a joint festival with visa waiver.
    • Ecology: Though barren and unsettled, serves as a resting point for fishermen and supports marine biodiversity.

    Disputes around Katchatheevu:

    • Fishing Conflicts: Tamil Nadu fishermen often cross into Sri Lankan waters due to declining catch in Indian waters, leading to frequent arrests by the Sri Lankan Navy.
    • Bottom-Trawling Issue: Indian trawlers use bottom-trawling, banned in Sri Lanka, which damages marine ecosystems and escalates tensions.
    • Political Demands: All TN political parties have demanded retrieval of the island.
    • National Politics: Issue often resurfaces during elections, with claims that earlier governments “easily gave away” Katchatheevu.
    • Official Position: India clarified in 2013–14 that no sovereign territory was ceded since the island was disputed, not fully under India’s control.
    • Core Problem: Lies not in sovereignty but in unsustainable bottom-trawling practices and the livelihood crisis faced by Tamil Nadu fishermen.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following statements:

    1. The value of Indo-Sri Lanka trade has consistently increased in the last decade.

    2. “Textile and textile articles” constitute an important item of trade between India and Bangladesh.

    3. In the last five years, Nepal has been the largest trading partner of India in South Asia.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct? (2020)

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only* (c) 2 only (d) 3 only

     

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  • Universe, Solar System Discoveries

    ‘Blood Moon’ and Lunar Eclipse

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Viewers across Asia, Australia, and parts of Africa witnessed a Blood Moon on 8th September, a spectacular form of total lunar eclipse visible.

    About Lunar Eclipse:

    • Overview: Happens when Earth comes between Sun and Moon, blocking sunlight from reaching the Moon.
    • Earth’s Shadow:
      • Umbra: Dark central shadow, causes total or partial eclipses.
      • Penumbra: Outer shadow, causes faint dimming.
    • Types:
      1. Total Eclipse: Moon passes fully through umbra.
      2. Partial Eclipse: Only part of Moon enters umbra.
      3. Penumbral Eclipse: Moon passes through penumbra with subtle darkening.
    • Frequency: Occurs 2–4 times per year, visible from different regions.

    Why lunar eclipse don’t occur every month?

    : Lunar eclipses don’t happen every month because the Moon’s orbit around the Earth is tilted by about 5 degrees relative to the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. This tilt, known as orbital inclination, means that during a full Moon, the Moon often passes above or below Earth’s shadow, preventing a perfect alignment required for an eclipse. Eclipses only occur when the alignment is precise, allowing the Sun, Earth, and Moon to line up in a straight line.

    What is Blood Moon?

    • Meaning: Refers to the reddish glow of the Moon during a total lunar eclipse.
    • Cause: Rayleigh scattering in Earth’s atmosphere.
      • Short wavelengths (blue, violet) scatter away.
      • Longer wavelengths (red, orange) bend around Earth and light the Moon.
    • Colour Intensity:
      • Presence of dust, aerosols, volcanic ash deepens the red shade.
      • Cleaner atmosphere produces a lighter red or orange.
    • Historical Insight: Medieval records of Blood Moons helped identify volcanic eruptions between 1100–1300 CE, confirmed by a 2023 University of Geneva study.

    Significance:

    • Scientific: Acts as a natural indicator of atmospheric composition, dust, and pollution; helps model planetary atmospheres.
    • Historical/Environmental: Provides evidence of past volcanic events and climate conditions.
    • Cultural: Linked to myths and superstitions, though harmless scientifically.
    • Public Engagement: Widely followed celestial event that aids astronomy outreach and awareness.
    [UPSC 2019] On 21st June, the Sun

    Options: (a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle*

    (b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

    (c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

    (d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

     

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