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Type: Prelims Only

  • Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

    What is Free Movement Regime (FMR)?

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

    Why in the News?

    Ahead of PM Modi’s Manipur visit, United Naga Council (UNC) has announced a trade embargo from against the India–Myanmar border fence and the suspension of the Free Movement Regime (FMR).

    What is Free Movement Regime (FMR)?

    About the Free Movement Regime (FMR):

    • Overview: Introduced in the 1970s, FMR allowed residents within 16 km of the India–Myanmar border to travel freely up to 16 km across without visa requirements.
    • Border length: India–Myanmar border stretches 1,643 km across four states: Arunachal Pradesh (520 km), Nagaland (215 km), Manipur (398 km), Mizoram (510 km).
    • Purpose: To recognize ethnic, cultural, and familial ties of communities (Kuki, Naga, Mizo, etc.) living across the unfenced border.
    • Revision: Last revised in 2016 under the Act East Policy.
    • Suspension: On February 8, 2024, MHA formally announced its scrapping, citing:
      • Internal security risks.
      • Illegal immigration and demographic changes in NE states.
      • Cross-border drug trafficking and insurgency links.

    Stakeholder Perspectives:

    • Kuki groups: View FMR suspension and fencing as an attack on shared ethnic ties, even comparing it to the Berlin Wall. Recently reached an understanding with MHA negotiators.
    • Naga groups (UNC): Strongly opposed to border fencing and FMR suspension, claiming it undermines homeland, land rights, and identity. Announced a trade embargo in protest.
    • Meiteis (Valley population): Support suspension, arguing that FMR facilitated illegal migration, illicit drug trade, and aggravated ethnic tensions.
    • Government of India: Defends suspension on security and demographic grounds, while attempting to balance peace talks with tribal groups.
    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

    I. Assam shares a border with Bhutan and Bangladesh

    II. West Bengal shares a border with Bhutan and Nepal

    III. Mizoram shares a border with Bangladesh and Myanmar

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) I, II and III * (b) I and II only (c) II and III only (d) I and III only

     

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  • Internal Security Architecture Shortcomings – Key Forces, NIA, IB, CCTNS, etc.

    Immigration and Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 2025

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has issued the Immigration and Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 2025, notified under Section 33 of the Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025.

    What is Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025?

    • Enactment: Passed by Parliament, effective 1 Sept 2025.
    • Objective: Unifies scattered immigration laws into a single framework, balancing national security, demographic protection, humanitarian obligations, and economic openness.
    • Repeals: Passport (Entry into India) Act, 1920; Registration of Foreigners Act, 1939; Foreigners Act, 1946; Immigration (Carriers’ Liability) Act, 2000.
    • Key Provisions:
      • All foreigners must enter, stay, exit with valid passport & visa, unless exempted.
      • Digital system with biometrics, AI-based monitoring, and real-time agency coordination.
      • New visa categories: Skilled Talent, Startup, Investor, Digital Nomad, Business Plus.
      • Mandatory reporting by hotels, landlords, universities, hospitals on foreign guests/students/patients.
      • Entry to protected/restricted areas subject to special permits; mountaineering expeditions need prior approval.
    • Penalties: Up to 7 years imprisonment and ₹10 lakh fine for forged documents; detention centres allowed for illegal foreigners till deportation.
    • Institutions:
      • National Immigration Authority for policy and central database.
      • Bureau of Immigration, led by Commissioner, for operations.

    About Immigration and Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 2025:

    • Overview: Issued by Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) on 1 Sept 2025 under Section 33 of the Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025.
    • Objective: Consolidates earlier scattered exemptions to simplify rules, enable regional mobility with Nepal & Bhutan, extend humanitarian relief to refugees/persecuted minorities, and provide legal clarity to carriers.
    • Replaces: The Registration of Foreigners (Exemption) Order, 1957 and Immigration (Carriers’ Liability) Order, 2007.
    • Exemptions:
      • Indian Armed Forces members on duty and families using govt transport.
      • Indian citizens entering via Nepal/Bhutan borders.
      • Nepal & Bhutan citizens (except if entering from China, Hong Kong, Macau, Pakistan).
      • Tibetans registered with India, religious minorities from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Pakistan (who entered before Dec 31, 2024), and Sri Lankan Tamils sheltered till Jan 9, 2015.
      • Diplomats, visa-on-arrival nationals, foreign military personnel on goodwill or exercises.
    • Carriers’ Liability: Rail, road, air, sea operators exempted where forged documents need expert verification or ships/aircraft are diverted.
    [UPSC 2021] With reference to India, consider the following statements:

    1.There is only one citizenship and one domicile.

    2.A citizen by birth only can become the Head of State.

    3.A foreigner, once granted citizenship, cannot be deprived of it under any circumstances.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only* (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 (d) 2 and 3

     

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  • Goods and Services Tax (GST)

    GST Council approves two-rate tax slab effective September 22

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Government Budgeting

    Why in the News?

    In its 56th meeting, the Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council approved a two-rate structure with special category rates, effective 22 September 2025.

    What is GST?

    • Overview: A comprehensive, multi-stage, destination-based indirect tax on goods and services.
    • Launch: Introduced 1 July 2017 via 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016.
    • Objective: “One Nation, One Tax” to reduce cascading taxes, simplify compliance, and expand base.
    • Earlier Structure: Five slabs initially (0, 5, 12, 18, 28%) plus cess on luxury/sin goods.
    • Exemptions: Essential items like food grains, medicines, education; petroleum, alcohol, electricity remain outside GST.

    About GST Council:

    • Constitutional Basis: Created under Article 279A (inserted by the Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016).
    • Composition: Chaired by Union Finance Minister, with MoS Finance and all state finance/taxation ministers.
    • Voting: Centre – one-third weight, States – two-thirds; requires 75% weighted votes for decisions.
    • Meetings: Held quarterly; over 55 meetings so far.
    • Role: Decides on rates, exemptions, compliance, and dispute resolution, making it a key fiscal federal institution.

    GST Council approves two-rate tax slab effective September 22

    New GST Rate Structure:

    • Simplification: At the 56th GST Council meeting (Sept 2025), slabs reduced to two rates plus a special rate.
    • Main Slabs: 5% and 18% apply on most goods and services.
    • Special 40% Rate: Levied on sin goods (tobacco, pan masala, aerated drinks) and super-luxury items (large cars, yachts, private aircraft).
    • Rate Reductions:
      • Daily-use items (soap, shampoo, toothpaste, bicycles, kitchenware) now at 5%.
      • Cement down from 28% to 18%.
      • Small cars, motorcycles <350cc, ACs, TVs, dishwashers shifted to 18%.
      • Food staples (milk, paneer, rotis, chapatis, parathas) at 0%.
      • Life-saving drugs, spectacles corrected to 0–5%.
    • Inverted Duty Fix: Man-made fibre, yarn, fertilizers, acids, ammonia cut to 5%.
    • Revenue Impact: Estimated loss of ₹48,000 crore, expected to be offset by higher compliance and buoyancy.
    [UPSC 2017] What is/are the most likely advantages of implementing ‘Goods and Services Tax (GST)’?

    1. It will replace multiple taxes collected by multiple authorities and will thus create a single market in India.

    2. It will drastically reduce the ‘Current Account Deficit’ of India and will enable it to increase its foreign exchange reserves.

    3. It will enormously increase the growth and size of the economy of India and will enable it to overtake China in the near future.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) 1 only * (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    [pib] Coconut Development Board (CDB)

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

    Why in the News?

    The World Coconut Day (2nd September) was recently celebrated by the Coconut Development Board (CDB).

    About Coconut Development Board (CDB):

    • Establishment: Created on 12 January 1981; statutory body under the Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
    • Headquarters & Offices: HQ at Kochi, Kerala; regional offices in Bengaluru, Chennai, Guwahati, and Patna.
    • Mandate: Integrated development of coconut production and utilization with focus on productivity, processing, and product diversification.
    • Functions: Provides technical advice and financial aid to farmers/processors; promotes modern technology adoption, value addition, pricing & marketing measures, and export promotion.
    • Welfare Schemes: Implements farmer-focused programs like Coconut Palm Insurance Mission and Kera Suraksha.

    Back2Basics: Coconut Cultivation in India

    • Global Standing: India is the third-largest coconut producer, contributing about 31.45% of world output.
    • Production: In 2023–24, India produced 153.29 lakh MT from an area of 23.33 lakh ha.
    • Productivity: Average productivity at 9,871 nuts/ha, among the highest globally.
    • Leading States: Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh account for ~90% of production. Kerala and TN lead, Karnataka has risen sharply, AP contributes ~8%.
    • Economic Value: Sector contributed ₹27,199.5 crore GVO and ₹30,795.6 crore GDP share in 2022–23.
    • Exports: In 2022–23, India exported coconut products worth ₹3,554.23 crore (US $452 million) including copra, oil, coir, activated carbon, and value-added foods.
    • Employment Impact: Supports 12+ million livelihoods; 15,000+ coir industries employ nearly 6 lakh workers.

     

    [UPSC 2022] With reference to the “Tea Board” in India, consider the following statements:

    1. The Tea Board is a statutory body.

    2. It is a regulatory body attached to the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.

    3. The Tea Board’s Head Office is situated in Bengaluru.

    4. The Board has overseas offices at Dubai and Moscow.

    Which of the statements given above are correct ?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 3 and 4 (d) 1 and 4*

     

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  • Citizenship and Related Issues

    Foreigners Tribunal (FT) can issue Arrest Warrants

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Why in the News?

    The Union Home Ministry empowered Foreigners Tribunals (FTs), especially in Assam, to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated camps, a power earlier exercised only through executive orders.

    About Foreigners Tribunal (FT):

    • Nature: Quasi-judicial bodies constituted under the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, framed under the Foreigners Act, 1946.
    • Purpose: Decide whether a person is a foreigner/illegal immigrant, especially in the context of Assam’s border migration issues.
    • Cases handled:
      • References from border police against suspected foreigners.
      • Cases of “D” (doubtful) voters flagged by the Election Commission.
    • Composition: Members drawn from retired judges, advocates, and civil servants with judicial experience; capped at 3 members per tribunal.
    • Functioning:
      • FTs exercise powers of a civil court (summons, evidence, witness examination).
      • Required to dispose of cases within 60 days of reference.
      • Burden of proof lies on the individual to establish citizenship (Section 9, Foreigners Act).
    • Present Status: About 100 FTs operational in Assam (expanded after NRC-2019). No FTs in other states, where suspected foreigners are tried in local courts.

    New Provisions under the Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025:

    • Replacement: Replaces the Foreigners (Tribunal) Order, 1964, now part of the comprehensive Immigration and Foreigners Act, 2025.
    • Detention Powers: For the first time, FTs are empowered to detain suspected illegal immigrants in designated transit camps, a power earlier exercised through executive orders.
    • Judicial Authority:
      • Powers of a civil court under CPC, 1908.
      • Powers of a judicial magistrate (first class) under Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita, 2023 — including issuing arrest warrants, ordering detention, and directing personal appearance.
    • Ex-parte Orders: Can be set aside if the appellant files a review within 30 days.
    • Scope: Though applicable nationwide, functional relevance remains in Assam.
    • Restrictions on Employment: Bars foreigners from working in strategic sectors (defence, nuclear energy, petroleum, power, water supply, space, human rights) without Central government approval.
    • Border Security Measures: Border forces/Coast Guard to record biometrics and demographic data of illegal entrants before pushing them back.
    • Grounds for Refusal of Stay: Foreigners convicted of terrorism, espionage, narcotics trafficking, organized crime, human trafficking, cybercrime, child abuse, crimes against humanity, etc., can be refused entry or deported.
    • Exemptions: Citizens of Nepal, Bhutan, Tibetans, and Sri Lankan Tamils exempted under a special 2025 order.
    [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:

    1. Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT) was set up during the Prime Ministership of Lal Bahadur Shastri.

    2. The Members for CAT are drawn from both judicial and administrative streams.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdictions (BBNJ) Agreement

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Earth Sciences has formed a 12-member committee led by SC lawyer Sanjay Upadhyay to draft a new national law safeguarding India’s maritime and economic interests under the 2023 High Seas Treaty (BBNJ Agreement).

    About the BBNJ (High Seas Treaty) Agreement:

    • Overview: International treaty under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), focusing on biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (high seas).
    • Objective: Conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in international waters (covering ~64% of the world’s oceans).
    • Scope of Provisions:
      • Establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) in high seas.
      • Regulation of seabed mining and extractive activities.
      • Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from marine genetic resources.
      • Mandatory environmental impact assessments (EIAs) before major projects.
      • Use of both scientific and traditional knowledge, guided by the precautionary principle.
    • Relation to UNCLOS: Would be the third implementing agreement, alongside:
      • 1994 Part XI Implementation Agreement (seabed mineral resources).
      • 1995 UN Fish Stocks Agreement (conservation of migratory fish stocks).
    • Adoption & Status:
      • Agreed in March 2023, open for signature for 2 years from September 2023.
      • Enters into force 120 days after the 60th ratification (currently ratified by 55 countries).
    [UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:

    1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.

    2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.

    3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    [pib] PRATUSH Mission

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Raman Research Institute (RRI) has devised the Probing ReionizATion of the Universe using Signal from Hydrogen (PRATUSH) Telescope to study the “Cosmic Dawn” by detecting radio signals from neutral hydrogen gas.

    About the PRATUSH Mission:

    • Developer: Designed by the Raman Research Institute (RRI), Bengaluru, an autonomous institute under the Department of Science and Technology (DST).
    • Main Goal: To study the Cosmic Dawn – the period when the first stars and galaxies formed – by detecting the faint 21-cm radio signal from neutral hydrogen.
    • Why from the Moon? On Earth, these signals get lost due to radio noise (like FM signals) and atmospheric distortions. The lunar far side is the quietest place in the inner Solar System for radio astronomy, making it the best site.
    • Scientific Importance: Will help scientists understand how the first stars heated and ionized hydrogen gas, how the early Universe changed, and may even give clues about dark matter and fundamental physics.

    Key Features:

    • Compact Design: Small, lightweight, low-power, and cost-effective – in line with the global trend of miniaturized space instruments.
    • Digital Receiver System:
      • Uses a single-board computer (like Raspberry Pi prototype).
      • Equipped with FPGA (Field Programmable Gate Array) for high-speed radio data processing.
    • How it Works:
      • Antenna collects faint hydrogen signals.
      • Analog receiver amplifies them.
      • Digital receiver + FPGA convert them into detailed spectral fingerprints of sky brightness.
    • Test Results: Lab trials (352 hours) showed extremely low noise (few millikelvins), proving it can detect faint cosmic signals.
    • SWaP Advantage: Optimized for Size, Weight, and Power (SWaP), making it highly suitable for space deployment.
    [UPSC 2010]  In the context of space technology, what is Bhuvan, recently in the news?

    Options:

    (a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India

    (b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II

    (c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India *

    (d) A space telescope developed by ISRO

     

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  • Governor vs. State

    Appointment of Vice Chancellors by Governor

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Why in the News?

    A recent controversy arose in Kerala, where the Governor (ex-officio Chancellor of State Universities) urged the Supreme Court to exclude the Chief Minister from the process of selecting Vice-Chancellors (VCs).

    Who is the Vice-Chancellor?

    • Position: Serves as Principal Academic and Executive Officer of the university.
    • Functions: Bridges executive and academic wings; ensures compliance with Acts, Statutes, and Regulations.
    • Authority: Chairs key bodies such as the Executive Council, Academic Council, Finance Committee, and Selection Committees.
    • Qualities Emphasized: Historical commissions (Radhakrishnan 1948, Kothari 1964–66, Gnanam 1990, Ramlal Parikh 1993) stressed academic excellence, administrative skill, integrity, and vision.
    • Significance: Maintains quality, relevance, and reform in higher education.

    About the Role of Governor and President in Universities:

    1. State Universities:
      1. Chancellor’s Position: The Governor is ex-officio Chancellor, functioning independently of the State Cabinet in university matters.
      2. VC Appointment: As per UGC Regulations, 2018, the Chancellor appoints Vice-Chancellors from a panel recommended by a Search-cum-Selection Committee.
      3. Legal Supremacy: In conflicts between UGC regulations and State laws, UGC norms prevail under Article 254 of the Constitution.
    2. Central Universities:
      1. Visitor Role: The President of India is the Visitor under the Central Universities Act, 2009.
      2. Chancellor: A ceremonial head, appointed by the President.
      3. VC Appointment: The President selects from a panel suggested by a Search Committee and can demand a fresh panel if unsatisfied.
      4. Oversight Powers: The President can authorize inspections and inquiries into universities.
    [UPSC 2014] Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

    1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule

    2. Appointing the Ministers

    3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India

    4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) a) 1 and 2 only (b) b) 1 and 3 only (c) c) 2, 3 and 4 only (d) d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

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  • Electronic System Design and Manufacturing Sector – M-SIPS, National Policy on Electronics, etc.

    Vikram 32-Bit Processor

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

    Why in the News?

    Union Minister for Electronics & IT has presented PM with a memento containing the first ‘Made in India’ Vikram 32-bit Launch Vehicle Grade Processor (VIKRAM3201).

    About Vikram 32-bit Processor (VIKRAM3201):

    • Overview: India’s first fully indigenous 32-bit space-grade microprocessor, developed by VSSC–ISRO with Semiconductor Laboratory (SCL), Chandigarh.
    • Lineage: Successor of 16-bit VIKRAM1601 (used since 2009 in ISRO launch vehicles), designed for avionics, navigation, guidance, and mission control.
    • Launch & Validation: Unveiled at Semicon India 2025 as a symbol of India’s semiconductor self-reliance. Validated in space during PSLV-C60 (2025) via POEM-4 experiments.
    • Applications: Primarily for space missions, but also suited for defence, automotive, and energy systems due to its rugged reliability.
    • Policy Support: Developed under India Semiconductor Mission and Design Linked Incentive (DLI) scheme, reflecting policy thrust on indigenous chip design and manufacturing.

    Key Technical Features:

    • Architecture: 32-bit design with support for 16/32-bit fixed-point and 64-bit floating-point (IEEE754) operations, essential for trajectory precision.
    • Registers & Memory: 32 registers (32-bit wide), capable of addressing up to 4096M words of memory.
    • Instruction Set: 152 instructions with microprogrammed control for flexibility in aerospace computations.
    • Performance: Operates at 100 MHz, single 3.3V supply, consumes <500 mW power, with <10 mA quiescent current.
    • Environmental Tolerance: Functions between –55°C to +125°C, fit for space and military conditions.
    • Interfaces: Equipped with four 32-bit timers, 256 software interrupts, and dual on-chip 1553B bus interfaces for avionics communication.
    • Software Compatibility: Optimised for Ada language (aerospace standard); C compiler support under development by ISRO.
    • Packaging & Fabrication: Built in a 181-pin ceramic PGA package, fabricated on 180 nm CMOS process at SCL, Mohali.
    [UPSC 2008] Which one of the following laser types is used in a laser printer?

    Options: (a) Dye laser  (b) Gas laser (c) Semiconductor laser  (d) Excimer laser

     

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  • Judicial Reforms

    Recusal of Judges

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Seperation Of Power

    Why in the News?

    A Madhya Pradesh High Court judge has recused himself from hearing a petition in an alleged illegal mining case, saying that a MLA had “attempted to call him” to have a discussion regarding the matter.

    About Recusal:

    • Overview: Recusal is the act of a judge or official abstaining from a case due to conflict of interest or a possible perception of bias.
    • Legal Basis:
      • There are no codified laws, but multiple Supreme Court rulings provide guiding principles.
      • In Ranjit Thakur v. Union of India (1987), SC held that the test of bias is the reasonableness of the apprehension in the mind of the affected party.
    • Grounds for Recusal:
      • Prior personal/professional association with a party.
      • Having appeared for a party in the case earlier.
      • Ex parte communications with parties involved.
      • Cases where a judge may be reviewing his own earlier judgment (e.g., SC appeals against HC orders delivered by the same judge earlier).
      • Financial or personal interests (e.g., shareholding in a company party to the case).
    • Underlying Principle: Rooted in the maxim “nemo judex in causa sua” — no one should be a judge in their own cause.

    Process of Recusal:

    • Judge’s Discretion:
      • Decision usually rests with the judge’s conscience and discretion.
      • Judges may orally inform the parties, record it in the order, or sometimes recuse silently without explanation.
    • On Request:
      • Lawyers or parties may request recusal; final decision still rests with the judge.
      • Some judges have recused even without conflict, merely to avoid doubt. Others refuse if no genuine bias exists.
    • Procedure: Once recusal is declared, the case is placed before the Chief Justice for reassignment to another Bench.

    Concerns Related to Recusal:

    • Judicial Independence at Risk: Can be misused by litigants to bench hunt (cherry-pick a judge), undermining judicial impartiality.
    • Lack of Uniform Standards: Absence of formal rules might lead to inconsistent approaches by different judges.
    • Potential for Abuse:
      • Requests for recusal may be used to delay proceedings, intimidate judges, or obstruct justice.
      • This undermines both the integrity of courts and timely justice delivery.
    [UPSC 2019] With reference to the Constitution of India, prohibitions or limitations or provisions contained in ordinary laws cannot act as prohibitions or limitations on the constitutional powers under Article 142. It could mean which one of the following?

    Options:

    (a) The decisions taken by the. Election Commission of India while discharging its duties cannot be challenged in any court of law.

    (b) The Supreme Court of India is not constrained in the exercise of its powers by the laws made by Parliament.

    (c) In the event of grave financial crisis in the country, the President of India can declare Financial Emergency without the counsel from the Cabinet.

    (d) State Legislatures cannot make laws on certain matters without the concurrence of Union Legislature.

     

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