PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2016] Present an account of the Indus Water Treaty and examine its ecological, economic and political implications in the context of changing bilateral relations.
Linkage: The decision to put the IWT in ‘abeyance’ is discussed in the article within the context of changing bilateral relations between India and Pakistan following a terror attack. The article highlights the political implications and the strategic considerations behind the decision, which aligns with examining the treaty’s implications in changing bilateral relations. |
Mentor’s Comment: On April 24, India declared that it would temporarily suspend the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960 until Pakistan stops supporting cross-border terrorism. The term “abeyance” means a temporary pause, with the possibility of restarting the treaty if Pakistan takes real actions to stop terrorism, especially following the Pahalgam terror attack on April 22.
Today’s editorial discusses India’s temporary suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) of 1960. This topic is relevant for GS Paper II (International Relations).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Using water resources as a strategic tool may offer short-term gains, but it could ultimately harm India in the long run.
Why has India placed the Indus Waters Treaty in abeyance?
- Response to Cross-Border Terrorism: India used the IWT as a strategic pressure tool following the Pahalgam terror attack (April 22, 2024), holding Pakistan accountable for supporting terrorism. Eg: Similar to the 2016 Uri attack response (surgical strikes), this move sends a message of zero tolerance.
- Political Messaging and Public Sentiment: The decision caters to domestic outrage and shows a firm stance, particularly after recurring terror incidents. It helps the government project decisive action without immediate military escalation. Eg: After the Pulwama attack in 2019, India took firm actions like revoking Article 370 — a similar pattern of assertiveness is evident.
- Leverage to Expedite Infrastructure Projects: India aims to use this pause to accelerate stalled or disputed hydropower and irrigation projects like Ratle and Tulbul Navigation on western rivers. Eg: Pakistan’s objections delayed the Kishenganga and Baglihar projects — abeyance reduces procedural hurdles temporarily.
- Legal Dispute over Treaty Mechanism: India had already accused Pakistan of violating dispute resolution provisions of the IWT by unilaterally approaching the Permanent Court of Arbitration in 2023. Eg: India considers this a material breach and is using “abeyance” as a middle path instead of outright termination.
- Strategic Signalling Amid Regional Instability: Given Pakistan’s current political and economic instability, India sees an opportunity to reshape the narrative and strengthen its own water security posture. Eg: With Pakistan’s military losing public support and the government under pressure, India is testing diplomatic leverage.
Can using water resources strategically bring short-term gains but harm India long-term?
- Diplomatic Strain: Using water as a tool for leverage can strain diplomatic relations with neighbouring countries, potentially leading to prolonged conflicts. Eg: If India disrupts water-sharing agreements under the Indus Waters Treaty, it could escalate tensions with Pakistan, affecting regional stability.
- International Reputation: Strategic manipulation of water resources may damage India’s global image as a responsible water-sharing partner, undermining trust in future agreements. Eg: India’s suspension of the IWT may invite international criticism for violating treaty obligations, harming its reputation in the international community.
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What are the legal limitations under the IWT and international law regarding unilateral suspension or abeyance of a treaty?
- Principle of Pacta Sunt Servanda: Under international law, treaties must be honored in good faith. This principle (pacta sunt servanda) ensures that once a treaty is ratified, it cannot be unilaterally suspended or abrogated without serious justification. Eg: In the IWT, India and Pakistan are obligated to maintain water-sharing arrangements despite political tensions.
- Article 60 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties: A treaty can only be suspended or terminated unilaterally if there is a “material breach” or a fundamental change in circumstances (rebus sic stantibus), and this must be declared after due process. Eg: If one party to a treaty deliberately violates its terms, the other party might argue that the treaty is no longer binding.
- Specific Treaty Provisions: Many treaties, including the IWT, include specific provisions about suspension, termination, or modification in certain circumstances. These provisions must be followed. Eg: In the IWT, disputes are to be resolved through a permanent commission rather than unilateral suspension of obligations.
- Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Most treaties include mechanisms for resolving disputes rather than allowing unilateral suspension, reinforcing the need for cooperation and dialogue. Eg: The IWT mandates the use of a Permanent Indus Commission to address any disputes regarding the water-sharing arrangement.
How might India use the term “abeyance” to affect procedural cooperation mechanisms under the Indus Waters Treaty?
- Suspension of Dispute Resolution Mechanism: The term “abeyance” suggests temporarily putting something on hold rather than full termination, which could lead to the suspension of mechanisms like the Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) for resolving water-sharing disputes. Eg: If India places certain provisions of the IWT in abeyance, it could halt the regular meetings and communication under the PIC, leading to delayed resolutions.
- Impact on Technical Cooperation: The IWT relies on continuous technical cooperation to monitor water flows and manage the shared river systems. “Abeyance” may disrupt such technical collaboration, affecting data sharing and joint assessments. Eg: India’s use of “abeyance” could delay joint inspections or data exchange related to water quality or infrastructure projects, impacting the treaty’s smooth functioning.
- Erosion of Trust: Using “abeyance” could signal a lack of commitment to the treaty, potentially undermining trust between India and Pakistan and hindering future cooperation under the IWT. Eg: If India temporarily halts cooperation on the IWT, Pakistan may view it as a breach of good faith, weakening the foundation of trust that is critical for long-term collaboration.
- Escalation of Diplomatic Tensions: The term could be interpreted as a politically motivated pause, which may lead to diplomatic tensions between the two countries. This would make it harder to revive procedural cooperation when needed. Eg: India’s declaration of “abeyance” after the 2019 Pulwama attack could escalate tensions and make it more difficult to resume dialogue on water-related issues, as the diplomatic focus shifts to security concerns.
Way forward:
- Engage in Diplomatic Dialogue: India and Pakistan should prioritize re-engaging through the Permanent Indus Commission to address grievances and resume cooperation on water-sharing, ensuring that the IWT remains intact while managing political tensions.
- Strengthen Dispute Resolution Mechanisms: Both countries should strengthen the dispute resolution mechanisms under the IWT, ensuring that any concerns over violations are addressed through legal channels rather than unilateral actions, preserving long-term stability and trust.
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Why in the News?
Assam’s immigration detention system not only harms the freedom and well-being of the people held there, but also raises serious questions about whether it follows the basic rules and values of the Constitution.
What laws are used to detain non-citizens in India?
- Foreigners Act, 1946: Allows the government to detain and deport individuals deemed as foreigners without valid documents. Eg: In Assam, many people declared as “foreigners” by Foreigners Tribunals were detained under this Act.
- National Security Act (NSA), 1980: Permits preventive detention of individuals if they pose a threat to national security or public order. Eg: Non-citizens suspected of disturbing public order can be detained for up to 12 months without trial.
- Passports Act, 1967: Penalizes entry or stay in India without valid passport or travel documents; used in conjunction with the above laws. Eg: A person found without a passport may be prosecuted and detained before deportation proceedings begin.
How do they impact detainees?
- Indefinite and Arbitrary Detention: Many non-citizens are detained for years without trial or clear deportation prospects. Eg: In Assam, over 1.5 lakh people declared foreigners, but only a few dozen have actually been deported.
- Lack of Legal Safeguards and Due Process: Detainees are often denied proper legal representation, and decisions are based on minor discrepancies in documents. Eg: Variations in spelling or lack of pre-1971 documentation have led to detention, despite lifelong residence in India.
- Harsh Living Conditions and Psychological Distress: Detention camps have been criticised for overcrowding, poor facilities, and causing mental trauma. Eg: Many families are separated and live in uncertainty for years in Assam’s detention centres.
Why have many people in Assam been stripped of citizenship through the NRC process?
- Stringent Documentation Requirements: Applicants had to prove ancestry from before March 24, 1971, using official documents. Eg: Many rural residents could not furnish land or birth records from that period due to illiteracy or displacement.
- Loss or Inaccessibility of Records: Natural disasters, especially floods, led to the destruction or loss of vital documents. Eg: In flood-prone areas of Assam, many families lost old records multiple times over decades.
- Minor Discrepancies Rejected: Minor differences in names or spelling between documents led to rejection. Eg: A person listed as “Rafiqul” in one document and “Rafiqul Islam” in another was flagged as suspicious.
- Exclusion of Marginalised Communities: The verification process disproportionately affected Bengali Muslims, women, and tribal groups who lacked formal documentation. Eg: Women often lacked independent proof of lineage due to patriarchal registration systems.
- Unfair and Opaque Procedures: Many claims were rejected by Foreigners Tribunals without transparent reasoning or opportunity for appeal. Eg: Individuals were declared foreigners without being adequately notified or heard by the tribunal.
How does the detention of non-citizens in Assam violate constitutional safeguards under Article 21 and 22?
- Violation of Right to Life and Personal Liberty (Article 21): Detention without fair reason or legal justification breaches the fundamental right to life and liberty. Eg: People who have committed no crime are detained for years without any realistic prospect of deportation.
- Absence of Procedural Safeguards (Article 22): Article 22 requires clear legal procedures and rights during preventive detention, such as being informed of grounds and access to legal counsel. Eg: Many detainees in Assam are not told why they’re detained or given timely legal aid.
- Detention Without Conviction or Trial: Under Indian law, liberty can be curtailed mostly through judicial sanction, such as after conviction or during trial — not arbitrarily. Eg: People declared “foreigners” by tribunals (quasi-judicial bodies) are detained despite not being criminals or facing trial.
- Detention Without Legitimate Preventive Purpose: Preventive detention must be for a specific, imminent threat — not indefinite holding due to lack of documents. Eg: Detainees are held even when deportation is not possible, making the detention purposeless.
- Executive Overreach Undermines Judicial Role: Detention decisions are taken by the executive or tribunals without proper judicial oversight, undermining separation of powers. Eg: Tribunals and officials act without court direction, limiting detainees’ access to judicial remedy.
Way forward:
- Ensure due process and legal aid: Establish transparent procedures with timely legal representation for those declared non-citizens, ensuring compliance with Articles 21 and 22.
- Pursue humane alternatives to detention: Introduce community release programs or supervised residency for non-deportable individuals instead of indefinite detention.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2017] Examine the scope of Fundamental Rights in the light of the latest judgement of the Supreme Court on Right to Privacy.
Linkage: The scope of fundamental rights, including Article 21, which is central to the discussion on the legality of detention in the article.
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Why in the News?
In India, a study published in The Lancet found that between 2008 and 2019, breathing in high levels of PM2.5 air pollution for short periods caused around 30,000 deaths each year in 10 major cities—making up about 7.2% of all deaths in those areas.
What are the major health impacts of urbanisation-related air pollution in Indian cities, as reported by the Lancet study?
- High Mortality Due to PM2.5 Exposure: Short-term exposure to fine particulate matter (PM2.5) caused nearly 30,000 deaths annually across 10 major Indian cities from 2008 to 2019.
- Significant Share of Urban Deaths: These pollution-related deaths represented about 7.2% of all deaths in these cities, indicating a severe public health burden directly linked to air quality.
- City-Specific Impact – Mumbai: Mumbai recorded the highest number of annual deaths due to PM2.5, with approximately 5,100 deaths each year attributed to air pollution.
- Severe Effects in Eastern and Southern Metropolises: Kolkata and Chennai also showed worrying trends, with 4,678 deaths/year in Kolkata and 2,870 deaths/year in Chennai due to polluted air.
- Urbanisation Intensifies Health Risks: Rapid urban growth increases traffic congestion and emissions, compounding the effects of air pollution and increasing the risk of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
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Why are Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) considered more suitable for long-distance travel and extreme conditions despite their low adoption?
- Longer Driving Range: FCEVs offer greater range than battery electric vehicles (BEVs) due to the higher energy density of hydrogen fuel. Eg: Hydrogen-powered vehicles can travel 500–700 km on a single tank, ideal for intercity transport.
- Quick Refuelling Time: FCEVs can be refuelled in just 5–15 minutes, similar to petrol or diesel vehicles, unlike BEVs which may take hours to recharge. Eg: Hydrogen buses can be quickly refuelled during breaks, making them suitable for continuous long-haul operations.
- Better Performance in Cold Weather: FCEVs are less affected by cold temperatures, which often reduce the efficiency and range of battery-powered vehicles. Eg: FCEVs are more reliable in regions with harsh winters like high-altitude or Himalayan areas.
- Lighter Vehicle Weight: Hydrogen fuel cells are generally lighter than large lithium-ion battery packs, improving efficiency and payload capacity. Eg: Fuel cell trucks can carry more cargo weight over rugged terrain compared to heavier BEVs.
- Ideal for Heavy-Duty and Rugged Use: Due to their durability and efficiency, FCEVs are well-suited for buses, trucks, and long-range vehicles on varied terrains. Eg: Countries like Japan and South Korea are deploying hydrogen buses for public transport in hilly and industrial regions.
Which countries and regions are leading in global electric car sales and how does India compare?
| Country/Region |
2023 EV Sales |
Market Share |
Key Highlights |
| China |
9.05 million |
37% of total car sales |
World’s largest EV market; accounts for ~58% of global EV consumption |
| Europe |
3.02 million |
24% of total car sales |
Strong adoption in countries like Norway, Germany, and the Netherlands |
| United States |
1.39 million |
9.5% of total car sales |
Third-largest EV market globally |
| India |
80,000 |
~5% of total car sales |
Rapid growth; EV sales nearly doubled in 2023; leading in electric three-wheeler sales |
When will hydrogen vehicle costs match battery-electric vehicles?
- Cost Convergence Expected by 2030: Experts predict that the initial purchase cost of hydrogen Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles (FCEVs) will match that of BEVs by around 2030, due to advancements in hydrogen fuel cell technology and mass production. Eg: A hydrogen-powered bus may cost the same as a battery-electric bus by 2030, narrowing today’s 20–30% cost gap.
- Technology and Manufacturing Scale-Up: As production scales up, the cost of fuel cells, hydrogen storage systems, and related components is expected to fall significantly. Eg: Mass production of hydrogen tanks and cheaper catalysts could lower vehicle costs similar to how lithium-ion battery costs declined over time.
- Infrastructure Development and Government Support: Increased investment in hydrogen refuelling infrastructure and government subsidies are crucial for cost parity. Eg: Japan and South Korea are funding hydrogen highways and offering tax incentives to make hydrogen cars more affordable.
- Operational Costs to Remain High: While initial costs may match BEVs by 2030, running costs are expected to remain significantly higher beyond that due to fuel prices. Eg: Operating a green hydrogen bus currently costs around $0.91/km, compared to $0.17/km for electric buses.
- Limited Market Segments for Parity: Cost matching is likely only in specific segments like heavy-duty transport, not across all vehicle categories. Eg: Long-haul hydrogen trucks may achieve cost parity with electric trucks sooner than passenger cars due to their high utility.
What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?
- FAME India Scheme: Launched in 2015, it offers financial incentives for EV adoption and charging infrastructure development. Phase II (2019) focuses on public transport EVs and charging stations.
- PLI Scheme: A ₹26,000 crore initiative to boost domestic EV and hydrogen vehicle manufacturing, reduce imports, create jobs, and support ‘Make in India.’
- Customs Duty Reduction: Import duties on EVs above $35,000 have been reduced from up to 100% to 15%, with a cap of 8,000 vehicles annually for five years, provided manufacturers commit to local production.
- NEMMP: The 2013 National Electric Mobility Mission Plan aims to boost EV and hybrid vehicle adoption through technology, infrastructure, and demand generation.
- State-Level Initiatives: States like Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi have implemented various EV policies, including subsidies, tax waivers, and electric auto rickshaw programs to promote adoption.
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Way forward:
- Enhance R&D and Subsidies: Support innovation and provide financial incentives to reduce the cost of hydrogen vehicles and fuel.
- Build Targeted Infrastructure: Develop hydrogen refuelling stations along key freight corridors and urban hubs.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?
Linkage: Electric vehicles (which often implies BEVs) and their role in reducing carbon emissions, aligning with the “clean public transport”.
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Why in the News?
The National Dam Safety Authority (NDSA) has reported major structural and operational defects in Telangana’s Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP), citing “irreparable damage” to three key barrages, including Medigadda.
About Kaleshwaram Lift Irrigation Project (KLIP)
- KLIP, located on the Godavari River in Telangana, is the world’s largest multi-stage lift irrigation project, inaugurated on June 21, 2019.
- The project aims to irrigate 45 lakh acres, supply drinking water to Hyderabad, and support industrial use.
- It plans to lift 240 TMC of water, with 195 TMC from Medigadda, 20 TMC from Sripada Yellampalli, and 25 TMC from groundwater.
- The infrastructure includes 7 links, 28 packages, a 500 km span, 1,800+ km canal network, 20 reservoirs, and Asia’s largest pump house at Ramadugu.
- Estimated cost: ₹80,000 crore to ₹1.2 lakh crore.
Issues with the Project
- In October 2023, Pillar No. 20 of the Medigadda barrage sank, causing flood-related damages.
- NDSA’s April 2024 report identified structural distress in all 3 barrages (Medigadda, Annaram, Sundilla) due to poor design, lack of geotechnical studies, and inadequate safety protocols.
- Overloading of barrages (10 TMC water stored instead of 2 TMC) caused foundation damage.
- The state incurs ₹16,000 crore annually in loan and interest repayments, despite the project being criticized as a “man-made disaster.”
Back2Basics: Godavari River
- The Godavari, also known as Dakshin Ganga, is the largest peninsular river in India.
- Originates from Trimbakeshwar in Maharashtra, flowing 1465 km to the Bay of Bengal.
- Its basin spans: Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and parts of Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Puducherry.
- Right bank tributaries include Pravara, Manjira, and Maner; Left bank tributaries include Purna, Pranhita, Indravati, and Sabari.
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| [UPSC 2024] Recently, the term “pumped-storage hydropower” is actually and appropriately discussed in the context of which one of the following?
Options: (a) Irrigation of terraced crop fields (b) Lift irrigation of cereal crops (c) Long duration energy storage* (d) Rainwater harvesting system |
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Why in the News?
India’s SVAMITVA Scheme will be showcased at the World Bank Land Conference, highlighting its role in land governance reform, climate action, and rural empowerment.
About SVAMITVA (Survey of Villages and Mapping with Improvised Technology in Village Areas):
- Launched on 24th April 2020 by the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, the SVAMITVA Scheme aims to provide legal ownership of residential properties in rural areas using drone and geospatial technology.
- It is a Central Sector Scheme, fully funded by the Centre.
- It involves the Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Revenue Departments at the state level, and the Survey of India as the technical partner.
- The scheme issues property cards to rural households, reducing land disputes and enhancing financial inclusion.
- These cards serve as legally valid ownership documents (e.g., Gharauni in Uttar Pradesh, Adhikar Abhilekh in Madhya Pradesh), and the scheme aims to formalize property rights in rural India.
Key Features:
- Drone-based technology ensures high-resolution mapping of village areas for transparency and accuracy.
- Uses Continuous Operating Reference System (CORS) to achieve mapping precision up to 5 cm.
- The Gram Manchitra platform helps in village-level development planning, disaster risk mitigation, and infrastructure management.
- Aims to unlock land value estimated at USD 1.162 trillion, formalizing property ownership and enabling its use as a financial asset.
- Promotes collaboration between central and state governments and aims to reduce litigation and improve rural governance.
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to the Digital India Land Records Modernisation Programme, consider the following statements:
1. To implement the scheme, the Central Government provides 100% funding.
2. Under the Scheme, Cadastral Maps are digitised.
3. An initiative has been undertaken to transliterate the Records of Rights from local language to any of the languages recognized by the Constitution of India.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
NASA has released an image of a fractured structure in the Milky Way’s galactic centre. The feature, named G359.13, was captured using X-ray data from Chandra and radio data from South Africa’s MeerKAT array.
What is G359.13?
- G359.13 is a long, linear structure near the centre of the Milky Way.
- It is often referred to as a cosmic bone due to its shape and density.
- It stretches about 230 light-years in length, making it one of the longest and brightest features of its kind in the galaxy.
- It lies about 26,000 light-years from Earth, close to the Milky Way’s centre.
- For context, over 800 stars exist within a radius of 230 light-years from Earth—the same length as this cosmic bone.
New Discovery: A Fracture in G359.13
- Astronomers identified a distinct break or fracture in the structure’s continuous body.
- An X-ray and radio source was also detected precisely at the location of the fracture.
- Scientists believe a pulsar—a magnetised, rotating neutron star—collided with G359.13.
- The pulsar was likely moving at a speed of 1–2 million miles per hour at the time of impact.
- The collision disrupted the structure, creating a visible fracture.
Back2Basics: What is a Pulsar?
- A pulsar is a neutron star that emits beams of electromagnetic radiation from its magnetic poles.
- Though only about 20 km in diameter, it is more massive than the Sun.
- Pulsars rotate extremely rapidly, some spinning hundreds of times per second.
- When their radiation beam crosses Earth’s line of sight, we observe pulses of radiation, hence the name.
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| [UPSC 2003] The time taken by the sun to revolve around the centre of our galaxy is
Options: (a) 25 million years (b) 100 million years (c) 250 million years* (d) 500 million years |
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Why in the News?
A study published in Nature reveals that microplastics have deeply infiltrated the ocean, affecting the planet’s biogeochemical and carbon cycles.
Key Findings of the Study:
- Microplastics (1–100 micrometres) dominate the ocean’s water column, especially below surface layers, unlike larger plastic fragments (100–5,000 micrometres) which remain near the surface.
- Subsurface microplastics were found as deep as 100 metres within ocean gyres—rotating currents that trap and accumulate debris.
- Data was compiled from 1,885 ocean stations (2014–2024), focusing on 50 cm below surface (subsurface layer).
- Over 56 polymer types were detected; buoyant polymers, common in global plastic production, were most prevalent.
- Sources identified:
- Fishing gear, including nylon and polyester nets, was a significant contributor to deep-sea microplastics.
- Plastics sampled often had production dates from the 20th century, highlighting their long degradation timelines.
- Atmospheric deposition contributes 0.013–25 million tonnes annually, with polyester dominant in airborne microplastics.
About Allochthonous Carbon:
- Allochthonous carbon is carbon from external sources introduced into an ecosystem, not produced within it.
- In oceans, plastics are a major source of allochthonous carbon, as they come from land-based human activities.
- Microplastics contribute measurable carbon mass to marine systems, altering natural carbon ratios in ocean layers.
- This distorts the marine carbon pump by affecting the flow and composition of particulate organic carbon (POC).
- Impacts:
- Plastic-derived carbon lacks radiocarbon, which may cause marine POC samples to appear around 420 years older.
- It disrupts microbial activity, nutrient cycling like nitrification and denitrification, and organic matter decomposition.
- Marine microbes ingest plastic-C, affecting food chains and altering biological processes at the base of ecosystems.
| [UPSC 2012] What would happen if phytoplankton of an ocean is completely destroyed for some reason?
Statements:
1. The ocean as a carbon sink would be adversely affected.
2. The food chains in the ocean would be adversely affected.
3. The density of ocean water would drastically decrease.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only* (b) 2 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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