PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.
Linkage: The concept of a “new study making a controversial weather-tweaking idea more realistic” because it directly asks for a discussion of “alternative technologies” and their “key merits and demerits” in the context of solving a global crisis. This framework perfectly aligns with the detailed discussion of Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) found in the sources, which is presented as a controversial, weather-tweaking idea made more realistic by new research. |
Mentor’s Comment: The world needs to rely less on fossil fuels, but progress has been slow because of problems like war, poverty, and rising prices. As a result, greenhouse gas emissions are still going up. To deal with this, some scientists suggest using new technologies to cool the Earth directly, instead of only focusing on cutting emissions. One such method is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI), where tiny particles are sprayed into the upper atmosphere to block sunlight and reduce warming.
Today’s editorial discusses the Stratospheric Aerosol Injection technique, a key topic for GS Paper III (Science, Technology & Environment), highlighting its potential, challenges, and relevance to climate change mitigation efforts.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
A recent study in the journal Earth’s Future shared a new idea that could make SAI cheaper and easier to use, even though many people are still against it.
What was the new idea?
- Use of Existing Aircraft: Instead of waiting a decade and spending billions to build special high-altitude planes, the study proposes modifying existing aircraft (like the Boeing 777F) to spray aerosols at lower altitudes.
- Low-Altitude Injection in Polar Regions: The study suggests carrying out aerosol injections at lower altitudes (around 13 km) in polar and extratropical regions, where the stratosphere is more easily reachable. This approach is more cost-effective, technically simpler, and can be implemented sooner.
What is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)?
SAI is a proposed method of cooling the planet by injecting tiny reflective particles (aerosols) into the stratosphere. It is inspired by volcanic eruptions, which naturally cool the Earth by spewing particles that reflect sunlight. These aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, creating a cooling effect. |
Why is the spraying of aerosol needed?
- To Reflect Sunlight and Cool the Planet: Aerosols (like sulphur dioxide) reflect some of the sun’s rays back into space, reducing the heat reaching Earth’s surface. Eg: The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption released sulphur dioxide, cooling Earth by about 0.5°C for over a year.
- To Temporarily Reduce Global Warming Effects: SAI can lower atmospheric temperatures temporarily, helping to reduce severe climate effects like heatwaves, ice melt, and sea-level rise. Eg: A study showed spraying 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide at 13 km altitude could cool the planet by 0.6°C.
- To Buy Time for Emissions Reductions and Climate Adaptation: While long-term solutions like clean energy are built, SAI could provide a temporary buffer against extreme climate impacts. Eg: It could delay serious effects like crop failure or habitat loss, allowing time for sustainable reforms.
Why is low-altitude SAI seen as cost-effective?
- No Need for Specialized Aircraft: Low-altitude SAI can be conducted using existing aircraft, avoiding the high costs of developing planes that fly above 20 km. Eg: Standard jets like the Boeing 777F can reach stratospheric levels in polar regions, making deployment more affordable.
- Technically Less Challenging: Operating at lower altitudes reduces technical complexity, such as extreme temperature and pressure challenges faced at higher elevations. Eg: Modifying existing jets with pressurized tanks is easier than designing new high-altitude aircraft.
- Faster Implementation Timeline: It enables quicker deployment, avoiding the 10-year delay and multi-billion dollar investment needed for high-altitude SAI systems. Eg: Using current infrastructure, SAI programs could begin much earlier to address urgent climate risks.
Where is low-altitude injection feasible and why?
- Feasible in Polar and Extratropical Regions: In these regions, the stratosphere starts at lower altitudes, making it accessible to standard aircraft. Eg: Over the Arctic or Antarctic, the tropopause (boundary between troposphere and stratosphere) is around 8–13 km, suitable for existing jets.
- Infeasible Near the Equator: At equatorial regions, the stratosphere begins at 18 km or higher, which is beyond the reach of most commercial or military jets. Eg: Areas like Indonesia or the Amazon basin would require specially built aircraft for SAI.
- Altitude Determines Aerosol Effectiveness: While higher altitude injections last longer in the atmosphere, lower altitude in polar zones allows SAI to be conducted with less cost and effort. Eg: Studies show that even at 13 km altitude in polar spring and summer, SAI can cool the planet by ~0.6°C with 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide.
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How does the use of existing aircraft like the Boeing 777F influence the implementation of SAI technology?
- Reduces Deployment Costs: Using existing aircraft avoids the high capital expenditure needed to design and build specialized high-altitude jets. Eg: The Boeing 777F, a widely available cargo aircraft, can be adapted for SAI at lower stratospheric levels, cutting costs significantly.
- Speeds Up Implementation: Existing jets can be modified and deployed faster, enabling earlier testing and potential use of SAI to address urgent climate risks. Eg: Building high-altitude aircraft may take nearly a decade, but using modified commercial planes could allow operations to start much sooner.
- Requires Feasible Technical Modifications: Though not originally built for aerosol spraying, planes like the Boeing 777F can be retrofitted with specialized equipment. Eg: An August 2024 study proposed adding insulated double-walled pressurized tanks to safely carry and release sulphur dioxide.
What are the Risks and Controversies of SAI?
- Environmental and Health Side Effects: SAI could lead to acid rain, delayed ozone recovery, and unknown ecological disruptions due to aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Eg: Sulphur dioxide, commonly proposed for SAI, can form sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, harming ecosystems and human health.
- Uneven Global Effects: SAI’s cooling impact may not be uniform worldwide, potentially benefiting some regions while worsening droughts, rainfall patterns, or crop yields in others. Eg: Cooling could be stronger in polar regions, while tropical areas, which face the worst climate impacts, may not benefit equally.
- Governance and Ethical Concerns: SAI affects the entire planet, raising questions about who decides when, where, and how it’s used. It may lead to geopolitical tensions and misuse. Eg: A single country unilaterally injecting aerosols could trigger international disputes, especially if neighbouring regions suffer unintended consequences.
Way forward:
- Establish a Global Governance Framework: International collaboration is essential to regulate research, testing, and potential deployment of SAI, ensuring transparency, accountability, and consent from all affected nations.
- Focus on Complementary Climate Strategies: SAI should be treated as a temporary, supplementary tool, not a replacement for emission reduction. Massive investments must continue in renewables, carbon capture, and adaptation strategies.
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Why in the News?
India’s main financial regulators — the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) — have, for the first time, created clear step-by-step procedures for how they will create and update their rules.
What procedural reforms have the RBI and SEBI recently introduced in regulation-making?
- Mandatory Public Consultation: Both RBI and SEBI now require a 21-day window for public feedback before finalizing regulations. Eg: When SEBI proposes changes to investment guidelines, stakeholders can submit suggestions during this consultation period.
- Introduction of Impact Analysis and Regulatory Objectives: RBI must conduct an impact analysis to assess the effect of new regulations. SEBI must state the regulatory intent and objectives behind any proposed rule. Eg: Before introducing digital lending norms, RBI must assess how it affects NBFCs and consumers.
- Periodic Review of Existing Regulations: Both regulators are now required to periodically review existing laws to ensure relevance and effectiveness. E.g.: SEBI may revisit earlier mutual fund rules to assess if they align with current market dynamics.
Why is identifying economic rationale important for regulatory interventions?
- Targets Actual Market Failures: Ensures that regulations are introduced to solve real economic issues, not just perceived ones. Eg: RBI introducing regulations on digital lending platforms to tackle predatory lending practices.
- Improves Resource Allocation: Helps in the efficient use of regulatory capacity and government resources by focusing only where intervention is necessary. Eg: SEBI focusing surveillance on high-risk investment products rather than low-risk ones.
- Enables Evidence-Based Policy Making: Economic rationale demands data-backed decision-making, leading to more robust and defensible policies. Eg: Mandating minimum capital buffers after analysing risk exposure in banks post-2008 crisis.
- Strengthens Cost-Benefit Analysis: Clarifies whether the expected benefits outweigh the compliance and administrative costs. Eg: Before enforcing stricter disclosure norms, SEBI can evaluate if the benefits to investors justify the burden on companies.
- Increases Public and Stakeholder Trust: When the rationale is transparent, it builds confidence in the regulator’s objectivity and fairness. Eg: Clearly stating economic reasoning behind banning front-running in trading enhances credibility.
How do international practices like those in the US and EU guide regulatory impact assessment?
- Mandatory Cost-Benefit Analysis: US regulators must evaluate the economic impact of any regulation before adoption to ensure benefits outweigh costs. Eg: The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) reviews federal regulations to minimize economic burdens.
- Problem Identification and Alternatives Assessment: The EU’s Better Regulation Framework requires identifying the core problem, evaluating alternative policy options, and selecting the most effective one. Eg: EU energy efficiency regulations involved assessing multiple alternatives before finalizing appliance labeling norms.
- Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks: Both the US and EU emphasize post-implementation reviews to check if regulations achieve intended goals. Eg: The EU conducts ex-post evaluations as part of its regulatory cycle to ensure continuous improvement.
When should regulations be reviewed and why?
- At Pre-defined and Regular Intervals: Regulations should be reviewed periodically (e.g., every 3 years) to assess continued relevance. Eg: The IFSCA mandates review of its regulations every 3 years to align with changing market needs.
- After Significant Economic or Sectoral Changes: Major changes like market failures, technological advancements, or crises should trigger a regulatory review. Eg: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a re-evaluation of financial sector norms to support liquidity and credit flow.
- To Evaluate Effectiveness and Stakeholder Impact: Reviews help assess whether regulations have achieved their intended goals and consider public feedback. Eg: SEBI may review listing regulations based on feedback from companies and investors to enhance market transparency.
Who can ensure uniform regulatory standards in India?
- Parliament through Enactment of a Common Law: Parliament can introduce a standardised law (similar to the U.S. Administrative Procedure Act) to ensure consistent regulatory practices like impact assessments, public consultations, and periodic reviews across all regulators. Eg: A central Regulation-Making Procedure Act could mandate that all financial regulators follow uniform protocols.
- Government Agencies Issuing Common Guidelines: The Central Government or NITI Aayog can issue model guidelines or frameworks to harmonise regulation-making procedures among regulators. Eg: Like the UK and Canada, India can adopt unified regulatory guidelines to promote transparency and accountability across SEBI, RBI, IFSCA, etc.
Way forward:
- Enact a Unified Regulatory Procedure Law: Parliament should legislate a comprehensive framework for regulation-making that mandates impact analysis, public consultation, and periodic review across all regulators to ensure transparency and consistency.
- Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Oversight: Build the capacity of regulatory bodies through training, digital tools, and staffing, and set up an independent oversight mechanism to monitor compliance with procedural norms and ensure accountability.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] “Citizens’ Charter is an ideal instrument of organizational transparency and accountability, but it has its own limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness or the Citizens Charter.”
Linkage: The theme of “consultative regulation-making that should go further” as discussed in “Crafting India’s Regulatory Future”. In the article primarily discusses financial regulators and the PYQ addresses the Citizens’ Charter, both embody the fundamental principle of existing governance mechanisms needing to evolve and be strengthened to achieve their stated objectives of transparency, accountability, and more effective public engagement, moving beyond a “nascent stage” or “welcome start” to truly “go further.”
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Why in the News?
After Operation Sindoor, India’s military strike against Pakistan in May, there has been a lot of talk about strategy — but it has also given a strong boost to India’s defence sector, especially to private companies and small businesses (MSMEs) involved in defence manufacturing.
What impact did Operation Sindoor have on the performance of defence company stocks?
- Sharp Rise in Defence Stocks: Defence company stocks surged by nearly 21% in the week when India conducted Operation Sindoor, significantly outperforming the broader market’s 3.1% rise in the Nifty50 index during the same period.
- Sustained Positive Momentum: In the week following Operation Sindoor, defence stocks continued to rise by 5.4%, whereas the Nifty50 index actually declined by 0.5%, showing sustained investor confidence in the defence sector.
- Reversal of Previous Underperformance: Before Operation Sindoor, defence stocks were lagging behind the top 50 companies on the National Stock Exchange, but the operation acted as a catalyst that boosted their performance substantially.
Why is the growth in India’s defence production and exports significant?
- Enhances Self-Reliance: The growth signals India’s increasing capability to produce defence equipment domestically, reducing dependence on imports. Eg, defence production reached a record ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24, showing strong progress in indigenous manufacturing.
- Boosts Economic and Strategic Strength: Rising defence exports, which have doubled since FY20 and crossed ₹20,000 crore in recent years, help strengthen India’s global defence market presence and contribute to economic growth. The government’s export target of ₹30,000 crore for the current fiscal reflects this ambition.
- Encourages Innovation and Industry Growth: Sustained double-digit growth since FY22 encourages innovation and investment in defence technology, benefiting both public and private sectors.
How have private companies and MSMEs contributed to India’s defence sector in recent years?
- Growing Share in Defence Production: Private defence companies increased their share of total defence production from about 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, showing their expanding role in the sector. Eg, companies like Paras Defence and Space Technologies have become prominent players.
- Leading Role in Defence Exports: Private firms now account for the majority share of defence exports due to export authorisations, helping India expand its footprint in the global defence market. Eg, several private companies contribute to exports of small arms and protective gear.
- MSMEs as Key Component Suppliers: MSMEs supply crucial components to the defence industry, with government procurement from MSMEs doubling the target to ₹13,000 crore in FY25. Eg, MSMEs provided goods worth around ₹3,000 crore between FY18 and FY20, with larger orders thereafter.
When did defence production begin steady growth?
- Defence production contracted by 2.5% in FY20 (pre-pandemic).
- Since FY22, defence production has been seeing consistent double-digit growth.
- The growth momentum continues with production touching nearly ₹90,000 crore by December 2024 against a target of ₹1.6 lakh crore for FY25.
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What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Promoting Domestic Manufacturing: The government has set ambitious targets to boost indigenous defence production, encouraging self-reliance. Eg, defence production crossed ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24 and is targeted at ₹1.6 lakh crore in FY25.
- Supporting MSMEs through Procurement: Mandatory public procurement targets have been set to ensure MSMEs receive steady orders and support. Eg, goods worth ₹13,000 crore were procured from MSMEs in FY25, more than double the target.
- Encouraging Private Sector Participation: Policies have facilitated the growing involvement of private companies in defence production and exports. Eg, private companies increased their production share from 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, and dominate defence exports.
Way forward:
- Enhance Technology Upgradation and Innovation: Invest more in R&D and foster collaboration between public and private sectors to develop cutting-edge defence technologies, ensuring global competitiveness and self-reliance.
- Strengthen MSME Integration and Export Support: Expand financial and policy support to MSMEs for scaling up production capacity and quality, and create dedicated export facilitation mechanisms to boost India’s defence exports further.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2014] Defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. What influence this is expected to have on Indian defence and economy in the short and long run?
Linkage: Recent data from the article clearly demonstrates a significant “fillip” in India’s defence production, directly linked with the “nascent stage” described in the 2014 PYQ. This 2014 question is highly relevant as it highlights a past perception that “defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. In this articel, the discussions on the efficacy and confidence in India’s home-grown defence capabilities have increased. Following “Operation Sindoor,” defence stocks of 18 companies on the Nifty Defence Index rose by almost 21% in a week in May, significantly outperforming the Nifty50 index.
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Why in the News?
Despite the imposition of President’s Rule in Manipur, the situation on the ground remains volatile, with fresh instances of violence being reported.
What is President’s Rule?
- About: It is the situation where the central government takes over a state’s administration due to the failure of constitutional machinery, as per Article 356 of the Indian Constitution.
- Historical Origins:
- Article 356 draws from Section 93 of the Government of India Act, 1935, where the British Governor could take over provincial governance.
- First used in 1951 in Punjab and later in 1959 to dismiss Kerala’s elected communist government under Jawaharlal Nehru.
- Indira Gandhi’s tenure saw frequent imposition of President’s Rule, often to topple opposition-ruled states, raising concerns over political misuse.
- Constitutional Articles involved:
- Article 355 mandates the Union to protect states against external aggression and internal disturbance.
- Article 356 empowers the President to impose President’s Rule when a state’s constitutional machinery fails.
- Article 357 allows Parliament to make laws on behalf of the state during President’s Rule.
- Article 365 provides that if a state fails to follow Union directions, it can be deemed as having a breakdown of constitutional governance.
- Grounds for Imposition:
- Under Article 356, if the President is satisfied, based on the Governor’s report or otherwise, that the state cannot function according to constitutional provisions.
- Under Article 365, if a state does not comply with Union directives, it can trigger the presumption of constitutional breakdown.
- Approval and Duration:
- The proclamation must be approved by both Houses of Parliament within 2 months.
- Once approved, it remains in force for 6 months and can be extended in 6-month intervals for up to 3 years.
- Revocation of Rule:
- President’s Rule can be revoked at any time by a new proclamation by the President.
- No parliamentary approval is required for revocation.
Consequences of President’s Rule:
- Effect on State Executive:
- The CM and the Council of Ministers are dismissed immediately.
- The Governor administers the state, often with the help of civil servants or advisors appointed by the President.
- Effect on State Legislature:
- The state assembly may be dissolved or suspended.
- The Parliament assumes the power to legislate on state subjects and to pass the state’s budget.
- During recess, the President can authorize expenditure from the state’s Consolidated Fund.
- All laws passed under President’s Rule remain valid until explicitly repealed by the newly elected assembly.
- Effect on State Judiciary:
- The High Court’s powers and jurisdiction remain unaffected.
- The President cannot assume judicial functions or alter the constitutional status of the judiciary.
- Misuse and Political Abuse:
- Over the decades, Article 356 was used as a political tool by successive central governments to undermine state autonomy.
- It became a controversial provision, criticized for damaging federalism and violating democratic norms.
Judicial Safeguard against arbitrary President’s Rule: S.R. Bommai Case (1994):
- The Supreme Court laid down strict guidelines to prevent the arbitrary use of Article 356.
- The Court ruled that President’s Rule must be based on objective material, not merely the Governor’s report.
- The majority of a state government must be tested on the floor of the assembly, not through the Governor’s personal opinion.
- Importantly, the Court stated that the President’s decision is subject to judicial review, reinforcing constitutional accountability.
- The judgment emphasized that Article 356 should only be used as a last resort, and not as a political weapon.
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| [UPSC 2018] If the President of India exercises his power as provided under Article 356 of the Constitution in respect of a particular State, then-
Options: (a) the Assembly of the State is automatically dissolved (b) the powers of the Legislature of that State shall be exercisable by or under the authority of the Parliament* (c) Article 19 is suspended in that State (d) the President can make laws relating to that State |
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Why in the News?
In a major achievement for adult education in India, Mizoram and Goa have declared themselves “fully literate” under the ULLAS Scheme (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society).
What does “Fully Literate” mean under ULLAS?
- As per the Ministry of Education (August 2024):
- A person is literate if they can read, write, and compute with comprehension, including essential life skills.
- A state is considered fully literate if it achieves 95% literacy or more.
- This aligns with the National Education Policy, 2020 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target of achieving universal youth and adult literacy by 2030.
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About the ULLAS Scheme:
- Launch: It is a centrally sponsored scheme launched in 2022.
- Vision: It is based on the spirit of ‘Kartvya Bodh’ (DUTY) and is being implemented through volunteerism.
- Official Name: It is formally known as the New India Literacy Programme and is being implemented over a five-year period (2022–2027).
- Core Objective: The scheme aims to provide foundational literacy and numeracy to 5 crore non-literate individuals aged 15 years and above.
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- Beyond Basics: In addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic, learners are taught critical life skills, such as financial literacy and digital literacy.
- Beneficiary Identification: Individuals are identified through door-to-door surveys conducted by schools and local officials across states and UTs.
- Volunteer Teaching Model: Teaching is provided by volunteers, including school and college students, teacher trainees, and community members.
- Learning Support and Certification:
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- Learning Materials: The NCERT develops the core content, which is translated and adapted into 22 languages of India by state authorities.
- Digital and Offline Modes: A mobile app supports the learning process, though offline teaching is also included for inclusive access.
- Assessment Process: Learners appear for the Functional Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT) — a 150-mark exam in multiple languages.
- Certification: Those who pass the FLNAT are certified by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) for achieving basic literacy and numeracy.
Key Achievements on Full Literacy under ULLAS:
- State Declarations:
- Ladakh: First region to be declared fully literate (June 2024)
- Goa: Declared fully literate with 99.72% literacy
- Mizoram: Declared fully literate with 98.2% literacy
- Performance Insights:
- 100% pass rate in Goa and Tamil Nadu
- Over 95% in Punjab, Assam, UP
- Women-majority participation in several states (over 70% in Mizoram, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, etc.)
- Historical Context: ULLAS Scheme builds on earlier adult literacy programs such as:
- Saakshar Bharat (2009–2018)
- National Literacy Mission (1988–2009)
- National Adult Education Programme (1970s–1980s)
| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements: As per 2001 Census:
1. the two States with the lowest sex ratio are Haryana and Punjab. 2. the two States with the lowest population per sq. km of area are Meghalaya and Mizoram. 3. Kerala has both the highest literacy rate and sex ratio.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 3 only* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.
About the Khadir Island Sites:
- Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
- Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
- Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
- Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
- Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
- Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
- Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.
Key Findings:
- Archaeological Significance:
- Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
- Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
- A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
- Diet and Food Practices:
- Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
- The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
- Lifestyle and Settlement:
- These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
- They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
- Tool Use:
- Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
- Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
- Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
- Trade and Cultural Links:
- Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
- Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:
Historical place : Well known for
1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines
2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art
3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3* |
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Why in the News?
According to a new World Bank report, extreme poverty in India has fallen from 27.1% in 2011–12 to just 5.3% in 2022–23, based on a revised international poverty line.
Understanding World Bank’s Poverty Lines:
- The World Bank defines extreme poverty as living on less than a fixed amount per person per day, adjusted using Purchasing Power Parity (PPP) to account for inflation and cost of living.
- PPP compares currencies by showing how much money is needed in different countries to buy the same goods. It helps measure real cost of living and economic strength.
- Previous thresholds:
- $1.90 per day (2011 PPP)
- $2.15 per day (2017 PPP)
- Revised in June 2025:
- Low-income countries: $3 per day
- Lower middle-income countries (LMIC): $4.20 per day (up from $3.65)
- Upper middle-income countries: $8.40 per day (up from $6.85)
- Why it matters: These new thresholds help track progress in poverty reduction and align better with today’s economic conditions.
India’s Progress and Challenges:
- Reduction in Poverty:
- At the $3/day level, poverty dropped from 27.1% (2011–12) to 5.3% (2022–23).
- At the $2.15/day level, poverty fell from 16.2% to 2.3%, lifting 171 million people.
- At the $4.20/day level, poverty declined from 61.8% to 28.1%, benefiting 378 million people.
- Rural-Urban Trends:
- Rural poverty dropped from 69% to 32.5%, and urban poverty from 43.5% to 17.2%.
- The rural-urban gap narrowed from 25 to 15 percentage points.
- Inequality Measures:
- Consumption inequality improved (Gini fell from 28.8 to 25.5).
- Income inequality, however, worsened (Gini rose from 52 to 62).
- Employment Trends:
- Since 2021–22, employment growth has outpaced the working-age population.
- Urban unemployment dropped to 6.6%, the lowest since 2017–18, but youth unemployment remains high at 13.3%, and 29% among graduates.
- State-Level Dynamics:
- UP, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and MP contributed to 65% of the extreme poor (2011–12) and now represent 54% of the remaining poor.
- Multidimensional Poverty:
- Declined significantly from 53.8% in 2005–06 to 15.5% in 2022–23, reflecting progress in health, education, and living standards.
| [UPSC 2019] In a given year in India, official poverty lines are higher in some States than in others because:
Options: (a) poverty rates vary from State to State (b) price levels vary from State to State* (c) Gross State Product varies from State to State (d) quality of public distribution varies from State to State |
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Why in the News?
IIT Kharagpur has made a web app called Dynamic Route Planning for Urban Green Mobility (DRUM) to help people choose travel routes that are not just fast but also have cleaner air and better energy use.
About DRUM:
- Purpose: It is a navigation tool that prioritises air quality and energy efficiency, offering a greener alternative to traditional mapping apps.
- Data Usage: DRUM uses real-time data on air pollution and traffic conditions to recommend optimal routes.
- Sources: Pollution information is collected from the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and the World Air Quality Index.
Important Features:
- Routing Logic: DRUM applies a rank-based elimination method that prioritizes time, followed by distance, pollution exposure, and energy use.
- Technical Tools: The app uses GraphHopper for route generation and Mapbox for live traffic updates.
- Route Options: Users can choose from 5 routes — shortest, fastest, least pollution (LEAP), least energy use (LECR), and a balanced suggested route.
- Live Updates: It retrieves real-time route data when a query is entered, not through scheduled updates.
- Performance: In Delhi trials, the LEAP route cut pollution exposure by over 50%, and the LECR route reduced energy use by up to 28%.
- Non-Motorized Inclusion: DRUM will expand to serve cyclists, pedestrians, and other non-motorized users.
- Predictive Upgrade: DRUM 2.0, currently in development, will use machine learning to forecast pollution and traffic and recommend best routes and departure times.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following types of vehicles:
I. Full battery electric vehicles II. Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles III. Fuel cell electric hybrid vehicles How many of the above are considered as alternative (powertrain) vehicles?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
In a groundbreaking discovery, an international team of nuclear physicists from Finland has measured the proton emission and half-life of 188Astatine (188At)—the heaviest proton-emitting isotope ever observed.
What is Proton Emission?
- Atomic Structure: Atoms are made up of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons.
- Radioactive Decay: When atoms are unstable, they become stable by emitting particles through a process called radioactive decay.
- Common Emissions: Most atoms emit alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays during decay.
- Rare Emission: In very rare cases, an atom can emit a proton, a process known as proton emission.
- Conditions for Emission: Proton emission occurs only in proton-rich nuclei that lie on the extreme edge of nuclear stability.
- Detection Difficulty: These atoms are extremely hard to create in laboratories and usually exist for less than a second, making them hard to study.
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Discovery of Proton Emission in 188-Astatine:
- What is Astatine: Astatine (At) is a radioactive, halogenous element with atomic number 85, belonging to the halogen family (Group 17) on the periodic table. It’s a rarest natural element on Earth, not naturally occurring in significant quantities due to its short half-life.
- Research Breakthrough: Scientists from Finland, India, and Portugal jointly studied a rare isotope called 188-Astatine.
- Method: The atom was made by bombarding a silver target with strontium ions in a high-powered accelerator.
- Observed Event: After its formation, 188-Astatine emitted a proton and transformed into polonium within 190 microseconds.
- Role of Indian Scientists: Experts from IIT Roorkee used computer simulations to confirm the event and revealed that the atom’s shape resembled a watermelon, elongated and stretched.
Significance of the Discovery:
- Scientific First: This was the first recorded instance of proton emission from astatine, a rare and heavy element.
- Understanding Atomic Limits: The discovery helps scientists learn how unstable atoms behave and where the proton-holding limits of atomic nuclei lie.
- Contribution to Nuclear Science: It enhances our understanding of element formation in extreme environments like stars and nuclear reactors.
- Future Implications: Such discoveries can contribute to medical advances, especially in developing radioactive materials for cancer treatment.
| [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:
1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors. 2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts. 3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The Centre has launched DIGIPIN, a geo-coded digital address system that aims to bring precision and efficiency to address identification across the country.
Tap to read more about PIN Codes in India.
What is DIGIPIN?
- About: DIGIPIN is a digital address system introduced by the Government of India to improve location identification across the country.
- Development Team: The system was developed by the Department of Posts, in collaboration with IIT Hyderabad and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) under ISRO.
- Technology Base: It uses GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) data to geo-code each physical location with high accuracy.
- Key Features:
- Accessibility: Users can access their DIGIPIN through the India Post’s online portal, and it works seamlessly on any GPS-enabled device.
- Nature of the System: It is open source, interoperable, and privacy-focused, meaning it is publicly accessible, works across platforms, and does not store personal data.
- Code Format: Each location is assigned a unique 10-character alphanumeric code (e.g., 39J-53M-TJF9) that corresponds to an area of approximately 4×4 square meters.
- Coverage Area: DIGIPIN works across urban, rural, forest, and oceanic regions throughout India, even where no formal addresses exist.
Significance of DIGIPIN:
- Precision Mapping: DIGIPIN enables highly accurate geolocation, even in places without traditional street addresses or house numbers.
- E-Commerce Enhancement: The system boosts last-mile delivery efficiency for platforms like Amazon, Flipkart, and other logistics providers.
- Emergency Response: DIGIPIN supports police, ambulance, and fire services in reaching destinations quickly, especially in dense or unmapped areas.
- Public Service Delivery: It improves government outreach by making it easier to deliver welfare schemes, notices, and essential services in remote areas.
- Inclusion of Remote Regions: The system brings digital address visibility to forests, tribal regions, and maritime zones, aiding national mapping efforts.
| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following:
1. Aarogya Setu
2. CoWIN
3. DigiLocker
4. DIKSHA
Which of the above are built on top of open-source digital platforms?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2, 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 3 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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