PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2019] The long-sustained image of India as a leader of the oppressed and marginalised Nations has disappeared on account of its new found role in the emerging global order”. Elaborate.
Linkage: Under President Erdogan, Türkiye has moved away from its earlier identity as a secular, peaceful Cold War ally. Instead, it is now trying to become a strong regional power by following a foreign policy influenced by Islamic values. This question looks at how a country’s image and role are changing in today’s world. |
Mentor’s Comment: Türkiye’s bold and ideology-driven foreign policy under President Recep Tayyip Erdoğan is changing the political balance in West Asia, North Africa, and the Caucasus. By mixing Islamic revival ideas with smart diplomacy, Türkiye has become a unique player — a NATO member that backs Islamic groups and also works closely with Russia and Iran. Its support for HTS in Syria, military presence in Qatar, and use of drones in Azerbaijan and Ukraine show a carefully planned but risky push to expand its regional influence.
Today’s editorial discusses Türkiye’s bold and belief-based foreign policy, which is an important topic for GS Paper II (International Relations).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, under President Recep Tayyip Erdogan, Türkiye has followed a foreign policy that leans towards Islamic values and focuses on making closer friendships with Muslim countries. But knowing Türkiye’s limits, he has also used a practicaland flexible approach along with his Islamic ideas.
What are the key features of Türkiye’s foreign policy under President Erdogan?
- Islamist-leaning tilt: Türkiye has shifted from secular foreign policy to an Islamist-oriented approach, drawing from Ottoman-era ideology like Ittihad-i Islam (Unity of Islam).
- Strategic activism: Ankara has actively intervened in conflict zones (Syria, Libya, Caucasus) to expand influence and protect Islamist groups.
- Balanced diplomacy: Despite its Islamist foreign policy, Türkiye continues to be a key NATO member and maintains military cooperation with the West.
- Pragmatism with ideology: Erdogan blends ideological objectives with pragmatic diplomacy to gain leverage in regional and global affairs.
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Why has Türkiye blended Islamist ideology with pro-Western alliances in recent years?
- Strategic Leverage: Türkiye blends Islamist ideology with pro-Western alliances to expand its influence in the Muslim world while continuing to benefit from Western military and economic support. Eg: It supported the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt while remaining a NATO member and hosting U.S. nuclear weaponsat Incirlik Airbase.
- Geopolitical Balancing: By engaging with both the West and rivals like Russia, Türkiye positions itself as a key regional power using diplomatic flexibility. Eg: It supplied drones to Ukraine but refused to impose sanctions on Russia, and also bought Russia’s S-400 missile defence system.
- Domestic Political Gains: The blend allows Erdogan to satisfy his conservative and Islamist voter base while keeping ties with the West to boost Türkiye’s global standing. Eg: While supporting Islamist groups in Syria and Libya, he also pursued EU accession negotiations and maintained U.S. relations.
- Reclaiming Regional Influence: Erdogan aims to revive Türkiye’s past Ottoman glory by asserting leadership in the Islamic world through both ideology and realpolitik. Eg: Türkiye supported HTS in Syria, deployed troops in Qatar, and backed Azerbaijan against Armenia—moves tied to its historical influence in those regions.
How has Türkiye’s involvement in Syria, Libya, and the Caucasus expanded its regional influence?
- Support for Islamist Groups in Syria: Türkiye backed anti-Assad factions, including the Free Syrian Army and later Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), to expand its presence near the Israeli border and counter Kurdish militias. Eg: Türkiye created a buffer zone on the Turkish-Syrian border and opposed military operations against HTS, enhancing its influence in northern Syria.
- Military Presence in Libya: Türkiye supported the Tripoli-based government, which was dominated by Islamist groups, against the eastern faction supported by Egypt and Russia. Eg: Its intervention shifted the power balance in Libya’s civil war, strengthening its role as a decisive actor in North Africa.
- Backing Azerbaijan in the Caucasus: During the 2023 Armenia-Azerbaijan war, Türkiye supported Azerbaijanmilitarily and diplomatically against Russia-backed Armenia. Eg: Türkiye’s supply of drones and training helped Azerbaijan gain territory in Nagorno-Karabakh, solidifying Ankara’s role in Caucasian geopolitics.
- Neo-Ottoman Strategic Depth: These interventions reflect Türkiye’s goal of restoring its Ottoman-era influence in regions it historically controlled. Eg: By actively engaging in conflicts across West Asia and the Caucasus, Türkiye revives its historical footprint under a neo-Ottoman vision.
- Diplomatic Bargaining Power: Türkiye’s involvement in regional conflicts enhances its bargaining power with both the West and Russia, giving it room to extract concessions. Eg: Despite tensions over S-400, Türkiye supported Sweden and Finland’s NATO entry, using its strategic role to influence Western policy decisions.
What are the ethical issues?
- Support for Militant Groups: Backing groups like Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), which has links to terrorist networks, raises serious ethical concerns regarding state sponsorship of violence. Eg: Türkiye’s protection of HTS in Syria, despite its al-Qaeda roots, may undermine international counter-terrorism norms.
- Civilian Impact and Regional Instability: Türkiye’s military involvement in conflict zones (Syria, Libya, Caucasus) can lead to civilian casualties and human rights violations, raising questions about just war ethics. Eg: Drone strikes in Libya and Azerbaijan, though tactically effective, risk collateral damage and contribute to prolonged violence.
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What would be the impact on India?
- Strengthened Türkiye-Pakistan Alliance: Türkiye’s open support for Pakistan in regional disputes, especially during India-Pakistan tensions, could undermine India’s diplomatic interests. Eg: During the India-Pakistan flare-up, Türkiye backed Islamabad, which may influence international forums like the UN or OIC against India.
- Rival Narrative in the Muslim World: Türkiye’s Islamist foreign policy positions it as a champion of Muslim causes, potentially creating a counter-narrative to India’s efforts to engage Gulf and West Asian countries. Eg: Türkiye’s support for Kashmir-related discussions at the OIC can affect India’s relations with Muslim-majority countries.
- Strategic Presence Near India’s Periphery: Türkiye’s increasing engagement in South Asia and Central Asia through military and diplomatic ties (e.g., with Azerbaijan and Pakistan) may reduce India’s strategic space in the extended neighbourhood. Eg: Türkiye’s participation in military drills with Pakistan and support for joint defence production could enhance Islamabad’s military capabilities.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Strategic Partnerships in West Asia and Eurasia: India should deepen ties with countries like Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iran, and Central Asian republics to counterbalance Türkiye’s growing regional influence. Eg: Expanding the International North-South Transport Corridor (INSTC) and increasing energy and security cooperation with Gulf nations can help secure India’s interests.
- Enhance Global Diplomacy and Narrative Building: India must actively engage in multilateral platforms (like OIC, UN, SCO) to neutralize anti-India rhetoric and promote a moderate, inclusive image. Eg: Leveraging its civilizational diplomacy and diaspora to reinforce its role as a responsible power in the Islamic world.
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Why in the News?
Recently, Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla’s trip to the International Space Station (ISS) on the Axiom-4 mission is not just a proud moment but an important step forward in India’s growing space journey.
What distinguishes Shukla’s Axiom-4 mission from Rakesh Sharma’s 1984 spaceflight?
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Rakesh Sharma’s 1984 Spaceflight |
Shubhanshu Shukla’s Axiom-4 Mission (2025) |
| Nature of Participation |
Symbolic participation as part of a Soviet mission |
Strategically integrated with India’s own space goals (e.g., Gaganyaan) |
| Technological & Program Context |
India lacked space infrastructure and human spaceflight roadmap |
ISRO is a global space leader with advanced plans, including space station |
| Practical Value & Experience |
Limited scope for operational follow-up and knowledge transfer |
Provides real-life experience and critical inputs for Gaganyaan and beyond |
Why is Shukla’s mission crucial for India’s Gaganyaan programme?
- Real-life Operational Experience: Shukla’s direct experience in space provides practical insights that simulations and training cannot replicate. Eg: As designated pilot, he will operate systems, respond to contingencies, and interact with international crew — skills critical for Gaganyaan’s success.
- Validation of Safety Protocols: Human spaceflight demands rigorous safety and risk management strategies. Eg: Shukla’s feedback will help ISRO refine life-support systems, re-entry safety measures, and astronaut training for Gaganyaan.
- Technology Testing and Experimentation: Axiom-4 allows ISRO to test custom-designed biological and technological experiments in zero gravity before Gaganyaan. Eg: Muscle degradation studies and moong dal growth experiments can inform long-duration crew health planning.
- Knowledge Transfer and Crew Preparation: Shukla becomes a knowledge resource for other Gaganyaan astronauts and mission planners. Eg: His debriefings and experience logs can train upcoming Indian astronauts in real mission dynamics.
- Interface with the ISS and International Best Practices: Gaganyaan and future Indian missions will benefit from understanding ISS operational standards. Eg: Shukla’s ISS stay gives ISRO insights into modular space living, docking operations, international coordination, etc., crucial for building India’s own space station.
How do Axiom-4 experiments align with India’s space research goals?
- Focus on Human Physiology in Space: Experiments like muscle behaviour studies in zero gravity help understand health impacts of space travel. Eg: Findings will aid in preparing astronauts for long-duration missions under Gaganyaan and future space station plans.
- Biological Experiments for Space Farming: Studies on sprouting moong dal and micro-algae explore sustainable food solutions in space. Eg: Results can support self-sustaining life-support systems for interplanetary travel or moon habitats.
- Indigenised Research Capabilities: Experiments are customised to Indian needs, marking ISRO’s entry into tailor-made space research. Eg: Conducting India-centric biology and material science experiments builds a national space science ecosystem.
- Data for Technology Development: Outcomes can validate and improve space health-monitoring tools and biological sensors. Eg: Data from Axiom-4 can be used to refine wearables for vital monitoring in Gaganyaan.
- Laying Groundwork for Future Missions: Insights from Axiom-4 serve as trial runs for similar experiments on Gaganyaan and beyond. Eg: Positive results could lead to advanced biotech payloads on future ISRO-led space missions.
What is the role of the private sector in India’s space economy?
- Enhancing Innovation and R&D: Private companies foster cutting-edge research and technological advancements in space applications. Eg: Startups like Skyroot Aerospace and Agnikul Cosmos are developing indigenous launch vehicles.
- Reducing Burden on ISRO: Private participation allows ISRO to focus on core research and strategic missions, while routine tasks are outsourced. Eg: Satellite manufacturing and component fabrication are now being handled by private firms.
- Boosting Economic Contribution: Expanding private sector involvement helps increase India’s share in the global space market, currently at just 2%. Eg: With policy support, India aims to capture 10% of the $1 trillion space economy by 2030.
- Job Creation and Skill Development: The growth of private space ventures leads to new employment opportunities and capacity building. Eg: Space-tech startups are hiring young engineers, promoting STEM education and aerospace skills.
- Encouraging Global Collaborations: Private firms enable international partnerships and technology transfers, enhancing global credibility. Eg: Pixxel has partnered with international clients for hyperspectral imaging satellites.
Way forward:
- Establish a Robust Regulatory Framework: Create a clear, transparent, and enabling policy environment through institutions like IN-SPACe to facilitate private investments, streamline licensing, and ensure intellectual property protection.
- Strengthen Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): Promote joint missions, co-development of technologies, and knowledge sharing between ISRO and private companies to accelerate innovation and reduce development costs.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2017] India has successfully achieved several milestones in space missions including the Chandrayaan and Mars Orbitter Mission, but has not ventured into manned space mission, both in terms of technology and logistics? Explain critically.
Linkage: The article “India’s New Era of Human Spaceflight” explicitly states that Shubhanshu Shukla’s Axiom-4 mission is designed to provide critical inputs for India’s upcoming Gaganyaan mission, which is the nation’s first human spaceflight, thereby filling this very gap in technology and logistics.
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Why in the News?
In May 2025, the Bar Council of India (BCI) officially put into effect new rules called the “Bar Council of India Rules for Registration and Regulation of Foreign Lawyers and Foreign Law Firms in India.” This is a major step in India’s legal system, as it allows foreign lawyers to work in India in a regulated way while protecting Indian legal standards.
What is the Bar Council of India (BCI)?
The BCI is a statutory body established under the Advocates Act, 1961 to regulate the legal profession and legal education in India. |
Why did the Bar Council of India (BCI) enforce the new rules?
- To Regulate and Monitor Foreign Legal Practice in India: With growing cross-border trade and legal demands, there was a need to formally regulate how foreign lawyersoperate in India. The rules provide a clear framework for registration, scope of work, and ethical standards. Eg: Foreign law firms advising Indian clients on international mergers or arbitration cases must now register and follow BCI rules, ensuring accountability.
- To Ensure Reciprocity and Protect Indian Legal Interests: The rules were introduced to allow foreign legal entry based on mutual terms, ensuring Indian lawyers are treated fairly abroad. It also prevents unregulated entry that could undermine local legal professionals. Eg: U.S. law firms can now operate under defined conditions, but only if similar access is given to Indian lawyers in the U.S., ensuring balanced opportunities.
What are the key criticisms of the BCI rules by U.S. law firms?
- Procedural Restrictions as Non-Tariff Barriers: U.S. law firms argue that the BCI rules impose excessive procedural requirements that act as a non-trade barrier, limiting their entry into India. Eg: Mandatory disclosures and registration conditions are seen as restrictive and protectionist.
- Conflicts with U.S. Confidentiality Norms: The requirement to reveal the “nature of legal work” and “client identity” allegedly conflicts with the American Bar Association (ABA) rules on client confidentiality. Eg: U.S. lawyers are bound by rules that prevent even general disclosure of client details.
- Lack of Reciprocity and Sudden Implementation: The fly-in, fly-out rule imposes limits (e.g., 60 days stay) without ensuring similar access for Indian lawyers in the U.S., and critics say the rules were implemented without a transition phase. Eg: No equivalent restrictions exist for U.S. law firms visiting India earlier, but now sudden compliance is required.
Why are legal services excluded from trade agreements in India?
- Constitutional Separation from Trade: Legal services fall under Entries 77 and 78 of the Union List (administration of justice and legal profession), not under trade and commerce entries. Hence, they are constitutionally excluded from trade negotiations. Eg: In the UK-India Free Trade Agreement negotiations, India intentionally excluded legal services, reinforcing this constitutional boundary.
- Nature of Legal Practice as Personal Service: Indian courts have ruled that legal practice is a contract of personal service, not a commercial activity, making it unsuitable for inclusion in trade deals. Eg: In Bar of Indian Lawyers vs D.K. Gandhi (2024), the court held that legal services are distinct from trade or business, confirming their exclusion from trade frameworks.
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How do the BCI rules ensure a balance between openness and standards?
- Structured entry for foreign lawyers and firms: The BCI rules permit foreign law firms and practitioners to operate in India through a registration-based model, ensuring regulated access rather than blanket entry. Eg: Rules 3 and 4 allow entry subject to ethical and professional conditions, preventing unregulated practice.
- Fly-in, fly-out provisions with safeguards: The rules enable temporary legal visits under the fly-in, fly-out model, while imposing limits on duration (60 days/year) and type of legal work, ensuring such visits stay within approved bounds. Eg: Under Rule 3(1) proviso, a foreign lawyer may advise on foreign law but cannot represent clients in Indian courts.
- Flexibility with accountability: The rules allow the BCI to assess foreign qualifications and credentials case-by-case (Rule 6), ensuring professional standards are upheld without being rigid. Eg: Rule 4(h) requires a ‘good standing’ certificate, but the BCI can make exceptions after holistic verification.
Which laws and judgments guide India’s regulation of foreign legal practice?
- Constitutional Framework under Union List: Legal practice in India is governed under Entries 77 and 78 of the Union List (Seventh Schedule, Constitution of India), making it a sovereign regulatory domain, distinct from trade and commerce. Eg: Legal services are not treated as tradable commodities, hence excluded from Free Trade Agreements (FTAs).
- Bar Council of India Act and Professional Standards: The Advocates Act, 1961 and the Bar Council of India (BCI) rules provide the statutory mandate for regulating legal education, enrolment, and conduct of lawyers in India. Eg: The BCI Rules for Registration and Regulation of Foreign Lawyers and Foreign Law Firms (2023) ensure ethical compliance and reciprocity.
- Bar Council of India vs A.K. Balaji (2018): Held that foreign firms can’t set up offices but can advise clients on fly-in, fly-out basis.
- Lawyers Collective vs BCI (2009): Reiterated that foreign firms must follow Indian law to practice in any capacity.
What are the implications of applied ethics?
- Guides Real-World Decision Making: Applied ethics helps individuals and institutions make morally sound decisions in specific practical fields such as medicine, law, business, or environmental policy. Eg: In medical ethics, principles like informed consent ensure that patients are not treated without their knowledge or will.
- Resolves Ethical Dilemmas in Professional Practice: It provides frameworks to address conflicting moral values in complex situations, balancing individual rights, social good, and professional duty. Eg: In business ethics, whistleblowing policies balance the duty to the employer with the public’s right to know about harmful practices.
Note: Applied Ethics is a branch of ethics that deals with the practical application of moral principles to real-world issues and professional fields. |
Way forward:
- Strengthen Bilateral Legal Dialogue Mechanisms: India can establish a structured legal diplomacy framework with countries like the U.S. to address concerns through dialogue rather than trade disputes.
- Introduce a Phased Liberalisation Model with Safeguards: India can consider a calibrated liberalisation of legal services with clearly defined transition periods, limited practice areas (e.g., foreign law, arbitration), and stringent professional standards to ensure reciprocity and ethical compliance while maintaining regulatory control.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] India and USA are two large democracies. Examine the basic tenets on which the two political systems are based.
Linkage: These basic tenets influence legal and regulatory philosophies. The article underscores that India’s rules are not “roadblocks” but a “balanced approach” to liberalizing its legal ecosystem in a “structured and regulated manner. The understanding of the foundational differences in how these two democracies approach regulation, particularly in a professional service sector, is crucial for comprehending India’s justification for its “legal bridge of reciprocity.
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Why in the News?
As part of his upcoming two-week stay on the International Space Station (ISS) under Axiom-4 Mission, Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla will conduct the Voyager Tardigrades experiment.
What are Tardigrades?
- Tardigrades, also called “water bears” or “moss piglets”, are microscopic aquatic animals that have existed for around 600 million years.
- They are about 0.5 mm long, with four pairs of clawed legs and a specialized mouth for sucking nutrients from plant cells and tiny invertebrates.
- Tardigrades live in diverse habitats, including mosses, lichens, mountaintops, ocean depths, and even Antarctica.
- They are famous for their extreme resilience, having survived all five major mass extinction events and capable of enduring conditions that would kill most other life forms.
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About Voyager Tardigrades Experiment:
- Overview: The experiment will be conducted by Indian astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla during his mission aboard the International Space Station (ISS).
- Experimental Process: Tardigrades will be transported in their dormant “tun” state, then revived and observed in microgravity conditions.
- Research Focus: The experiment will examine how space radiation and microgravity affect tardigrade survival, reproduction, and DNA repair mechanisms.
- Scientific Objective: Researchers aim to identify genes responsible for space resilience in tardigrades and apply these insights to enhance astronaut protection and preserve biological materials during long-term space travel.
Significance of Tardigrades in Space Research:
- Extreme Survivors: They are among the most resilient organisms on Earth, capable of surviving temperatures from near absolute zero to over 150°C, intense radiation, deep-sea pressure, and even the vacuum of space.
- Dormancy Mechanisms: Their survival strategy relies on cryptobiosis and anhydrobiosis, where their metabolism drops nearly to zero and water content is drastically reduced.
- Protective Proteins: They produce unique proteins like CAHS, which form a gel-like matrix around cells to protect them from damage in extreme environments.
- Biomedical Applications: Studying these proteins may help scientists develop radiation shields for astronauts, preserve human tissues and organs, and advance cryopreservation techniques.
- Agricultural and Material Use: Insights from tardigrades could also lead to engineering drought-resistant crops and designing new biomaterials for use on Earth and in space.
| [UPSC 2012] Other than resistance to pests, what are the prospects for which genetically engineered plants have been created?
1. To enable them to withstand drought
2. To increase the nutritive value of the produce
3. To enable them to grow and do photosynthesis in spaceships and space stations
4. To increase their shelf life.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the news?
Researchers from Rockefeller University introduced MagIC, a new method that allows cryo-EM to work with samples up to 100 times more dilute, making it easier to study rare or hard-to-purify molecules.
About Cryo-Electron Microscopy (Cryo-EM):
- Cryo-EM is a powerful microscope method used by scientists to see the 3D shapes of very small things like proteins, viruses, and cell parts.
- In cryo-EM:
- The sample is frozen very fast to keep it in its natural shape.
- An electron beam is used instead of light to capture detailed images at extremely cold temperatures.
- It helps in:
- Understanding how diseases work
- Designing new medicines
- Studying cell processes
- Problem: Cryo-EM usually needs a lot of the molecule to work well.
- If the sample is too dilute (too weak), it’s hard to get good images.
- Why MagIC helps: It solves this big problem by concentrating and organizing particles using magnetism and smart software, making cryo-EM work even for rare or tiny amounts of molecules.
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What is MagIC (Magnetic Isolation and Concentration cryo-EM)?
- Overview: It is a new method developed by scientists in the U.S. to make it easier to study rare biological molecules under a special microscope called cryo-EM.
- Sampling involved: Normally, cryo-EM needs the molecules in a sample to be very concentrated, which is hard when the molecules are rare or hard to collect.
- MagIC solves this problem by using:
- Tiny magnetic beads (50 nanometers wide) that stick to the molecules researchers want to study.
- A magnet that pulls these beads together into one area.
- This way, even when the solution has less than 0.0005 milligrams per milliliter of the molecules, scientists can still get useful images.
Key Features of MagIC:
- Magnetic Pulling: After molecules stick to the tiny magnetic beads, a magnet pulls them into clusters, making them easier to see.
- Low Sample Requirement: Only 5 nanograms of sample per grid are needed. That’s a very tiny amount—much less than earlier methods.
- Faster Imaging: The magnetic beads are easy to see, so scientists can quickly find areas with useful particles in the microscope.
- Smart Software – DuSTER (Duplicated Selection to Exclude Rubbish):
- It helps remove bad or blurry images and keep only the clear ones.
- It picks each particle twice and only keeps it if the location matches both times.
- MagIC works with samples that are 100 times more dilute than what cryo-EM could handle before.
| [UPSC 2023] ‘Aerial metagenomics’ best refers to which one of the following situations?
Options: (a) Collecting DNA samples from air in a habitat at one go* (b) Understanding the genetic makeup of avian species of a habitat (c) Using air-borne devices to colect blood samples from moving animals (d) Sending drones to inaccessible areas to collect plant and animal samples from land surfaces and water bodies |
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Why in the News?
According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) report titled “State of the World Population 2025: The Real Fertility Crisis”, India’s population has reached an estimated 146.39 crore, officially making it the world’s most populous nation.
About United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA):
- Origin: The organisation was established in 1969 as the UN Fund for Population Activities and renamed in 1987 as the UN Population Fund.
- Headquarters: Its global headquarters is located in New York.
- Mission Statement: UNFPA works to ensure that every pregnancy is wanted, every childbirth is safe, and every young person’s potential is fulfilled.
- Mandate: To promote sexual and reproductive health and rights, including family planning, safe motherhood, and gender equality.
- Governance Structure: UNFPA reports to a 36-member Executive Board, with representation from all regions, and receives guidance from ECOSOC and the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA).
- Global Presence: UNFPA operates in over 150 countries, in coordination with national governments and UN development partners.
- Key Functions: It supports population censuses, family planning programs, and thematic health surveys, and engages in interagency frameworks like UN Development Group (UNDG) and UN Chief Executives Board (CEB).
- Technical Role: UNFPA also provides research funding, technical assistance, and advocacy support to promote reproductive health and demographic planning.
Key Population Trends from the UNFPA Report (2025):
- Data Sources: The report draws on Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS), Multiple Indicator Cluster Surveys (MICS), and projections from the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UN DESA).
- India’s Population: As of 2025, India’s population is estimated at 146.39 crore (1.4639 billion), making it the most populous country in the world.
- China’s Population: China’s population now stands at 141.61 crore (1.4161 billion), placing it second.
- Total Fertility Rate: India’s TFR has declined to 1.9, which is below the replacement level of 2.1, indicating a trend toward population stabilisation.
- Population Forecast: India’s population is expected to peak at around 170 crores in the coming decades and begin to decline within 40 years.
- Life Expectancy: As of 2025, the average life expectancy is 71 years for men and 74 years for women.
- Age Distribution: 68% of Indians are in the working-age group (15–64), while 7% are aged 65 and above, with life expectancy at 71 years (men) and 74 years (women).
Back2Basics: Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
- TFR measures the average number of children a woman would have over her reproductive lifetime.
- A TFR of 2.1 is considered the replacement level, where each generation replaces itself without growing or shrinking.
- According to the 2021 Sample Registration System by the Registrar General of India, the TFR had already reached 2.0, indicating that India had attained replacement level fertility nationally.
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| [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the statements given abova is/are correct ?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2* |
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Why in the News?
The Karlsruhe Tritium Neutrino Experiment (KATRIN) in Germany has achieved a major breakthrough in the search to measure the mass of the neutrino.
What are Neutrinos?
- Neutrinos are tiny, electrically neutral subatomic particles with an extremely small mass.
- They come in 3 types (or “flavours”): electron, muon, and tau neutrinos.
- Neutrinos are produced in nuclear reactions, such as those in the Sun, nuclear reactors, and supernovae.
- They rarely interact with matter, making them very difficult to detect.
- Their ability to change from one flavour to another (called oscillation) proves they have mass.
- Neutrinos challenge the Standard Model of physics, hinting at undiscovered particles or forces.
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About KATRIN Experiment:
- What is it: The KATRIN experiment is based at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology in Germany and aims to measure the absolute mass of electron antineutrinos with unmatched precision.
- Launch and Operation: It was inaugurated in 2018 and began data collection in 2019, with its latest results derived from 259 days of measurements.
- Scientific Principle: KATRIN uses tritium beta decay, where tritium breaks into helium, an electron, and a neutrino, to study the energy spectrum of emitted electrons.
- Focus Area: The experiment analyzes electrons near the energy endpoint, since they are most influenced by the neutrino mass.
How KATRIN measures Neutrino mass?
- KATRIN focuses on electrons that are emitted with energies close to the maximum limit (called the endpoint), which are most affected by the neutrino mass.
- A retarding electric field filters out lower-energy electrons, allowing only the highest-energy ones to be measured precisely.
- By analyzing millions of such decay events, KATRIN estimates the upper limit on the neutrino mass.
India’s Achievements in Neutrino Observations:
- Historical Detection: India was among the first countries to detect atmospheric neutrinos in 1965 at the Kolar Gold Fields (KGF), marking a pioneering achievement in neutrino physics.
- INO Project: The India-Based Neutrino Observatory (INO) is under development in Tamil Nadu, set to become a premier underground research facility.
- Flagship Detector: INO will house the Iron Calorimeter (ICAL), a 50,000-tonne magnetized detector, which will be the largest of its kind in the world.
- Applications: INO will advance detector technologies, enable training in high-energy physics, and have potential applications in medical imaging and electronics.
- Global Integration: India’s involvement in neutrino science positions it to contribute unique insights to global efforts, complementing projects like IceCube.
| [UPSC 2010] India-based Neutrino Observatory is included by the Planning Commission as a mega science project under the 11th five-Year Plan. In this context, consider the following statements:
1. Neutrinos are chargeless elementary particles that travel close to the speed of light.
2.Neutrinos are created in nuclear reactions of beta decay.
3.Neutrinos have a negligible, but nonzero mass.
4.Trillions of Neutrinos pass through human body every second.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 1,2 and 3 (c) 2,3 and 4 (d) 1,2,3 and 4 * |
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Why in the News?
At the Third United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC3) in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica, India made a powerful case for urgent international cooperation to protect the world’s oceans.
About United Nations Ocean Conference (UNOC)
- What is it: The UNOC is a major international forum dedicated to supporting Sustainable Development Goal 14 (SDG 14): Life Below Water.
- Primary Focus: It promotes the conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas, and marine resources.
- Multi-Stakeholder Participation: UNOC brings together governments, NGOs, academia, intergovernmental organizations, private companies, and Indigenous communities to address ocean-related challenges.
- Key Themes: The conference tackles issues like marine pollution, overfishing, climate change, and habitat degradation, and encourages policy coordination and financial pledges.
- Timeline of Conferences:
- 2017: First conference in New York, co-hosted by Fiji and Sweden
- 2022: Second in Lisbon, co-hosted by Portugal and Kenya
- 2025: Third in Nice, co-hosted by France and Costa Rica
- 2028: Fourth conference to be hosted by Chile and South Korea (yet to be announced officially)
- Legal Framework: UNOC operates within the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).
- Financial and Policy Impact: Since 2014, UNOC has mobilized over $130 billion and generated 2,160+ voluntary commitments toward protecting ocean health.
Major Indian Initiatives Showcased at UNOC3 (2025):
- Deep Ocean Mission: India showcased progress on the ‘Samudrayaan’ mission, a deep-sea manned submersible targeting 6,000-meter depth by 2026.
- Plastic Pollution Action: India emphasized the national ban on single-use plastics and the ‘Swachh Sagar, Surakshit Sagar’ campaign, which has cleaned 1,000+ km of coastline and removed over 50,000 tonnes of plastic waste. A draft Marine Litter Policy has been prepared and India strongly supports a Global Plastics Treaty.
- Blue Economy Development: Under the Sagarmala Programme, $80 billion has been invested in port-led infrastructure. An additional $2.5 billion has been deployed under PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, leading to a 10% rise in fish production and creation of 1,000+ fish farmer producer organizations.
- Marine Biodiversity Efforts: India expanded Marine Protected Areas to 6.6% of its Exclusive Economic Zone and restored over 10,000 hectares of mangroves.
- Marine Data Transparency: India launched the SAHAV Portal, a digital ocean governance platform for science-based and transparent decision-making.
- International Leadership: India co-led the ‘Blue Talks’ with France and Costa Rica, participated in high-level panels, and advocated for equitable ocean data access and capacity-building in developing nations.
Back2Basics: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)
- The UNCLOS is a global treaty that regulates all maritime activities and ocean space.
- It defines maritime zones such as: Internal Waters (within the baseline), Territorial Sea (up to 12 nautical miles), Contiguous Zone (up to 24 nautical miles), Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (up to 200 nautical miles), High Seas, which lie beyond national jurisdiction.
- It came into force in 1994 and has 169 parties (as of 2024), including India, but not the U.S.
- It established the International Seabed Authority and declared the deep seabed as the “common heritage of mankind.”
- India ratified UNCLOS in 1995 and uses it to claim maritime rights, including its extended continental shelf.
- It supports freedom of navigation and advocates for a rules-based maritime order under UNCLOS.
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| [UPSC 2022] With reference to the United Nations Convention on the Law of Sea, consider the following statements:
1. A coastal state has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles, measured from baseline determined in accordance with the convention.
2. Ships of all states, whether coastal or land-locked, enjoy the right of innocent passage through the territorial sea.
3. The Exclusive Economic Zone shall not extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3* |
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