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Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

[30th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: SSTC is more than a diplomatic phrase

op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2021] If the last few decades were of Asia’s growth story, the next few are expected to be of Africa’s.” In the light of this statement, examine India’s influence in Africa in recent years.

Linkage: South-South Cooperation is the foundation of India–Africa engagement. India’s role in Africa through capacity building (ITEC), concessional credit, food security projects, and the India-UN Development Partnership Fund reflects SSTC principles of mutual respect, replicability, and shared growth, positioning India as a partner in Africa’s expected rise.

Mentor’s Comment

With only a fraction of time left to achieve the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, the global community is exploring new models of partnership. South-South and Triangular Cooperation (SSTC) has emerged as a vital mechanism, providing frugal, replicable, and contextually relevant solutions. India, rooted in the philosophy of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam, has positioned itself as a leader in this space, particularly in food security, digital transformation, and inclusive growth. This article unpacks the significance of SSTC, India’s role, and why this cooperative model is central to a more equitable world order.

Introduction

The United Nations Day for South-South and Triangular Cooperation (September 12) commemorates the 1978 Buenos Aires Plan of Action (BAPA), which laid the foundation for solidarity-based cooperation among developing nations. Far from being a mere diplomatic phrase, SSTC today is a lifeline for billions, offering cost-effective, innovative, and scalable models of development at a time when traditional aid flows are shrinking. India, with its rich developmental experience and global outreach, is shaping the SSTC discourse through initiatives like the India-UN Development Partnership Fund, Voice of the Global South Summits, and collaboration with the World Food Programme (WFP).

Why in the News?

SSTC has gained renewed significance as the world approaches the 2030 deadline for SDGs with urgency, amid declining international aid and mounting challenges like climate change, conflict, and inequality. For the first time, SSTC is being recognised not merely as supplemental but as a core pathway to equitable and sustainable global development. India’s leadership — from digital public infrastructure exports to food system innovations like Grain ATMs and rice fortification, has transformed it into a hub of replicable global solutions. The 2025 UN Day theme, “New Opportunities and Innovation through SSTC”, underscores this transition, making the issue both timely and transformative.

India’s Role and Philosophy of Cooperation

  1. Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam: India’s developmental philosophy sees the world as one family, placing emphasis on sovereignty, equality, and mutual respect.
  2. Transition to food surplus: Once a food-deficit nation, India now runs one of the world’s largest food safety nets, offering models for the Global South.
  3. Global leadership: From hosting the Voice of the Global South Summits to securing AU’s membership in the G20, India promotes inclusivity in global governance.

What is the Relevance of SSTC Today?

  1. Cost-effectiveness: SSTC provides better returns on investment at a time when funding for humanitarian and development sectors is shrinking.
  2. Replicability and relevance: Local innovations like India’s food distribution optimisation or UPI have global application.
  3. Solidarity-based model: Unlike traditional aid, SSTC is grounded in mutual respect and shared learning, crucial for trust-building in the Global South.

How Has India Contributed to SSTC?

  1. Institutional frameworks: India set up the Development Partnership Administration in its Foreign Ministry to coordinate development partnerships.
  2. Capacity-building: Through the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) programme, India has trained professionals in 160+ countries.
  3. India-UN Development Partnership Fund: Established in 2017, it has financed 75 transformative projects across 56 developing countries, especially LDCs and SIDS.
  4. Digital diplomacy: Export of Aadhaar, UPI, and digital infrastructure models as low-cost, inclusive tools.

What Role Has the India-WFP Partnership Played?

  1. Testing ground for innovations: Over 60 years, India served as a laboratory for WFP to pilot globally relevant solutions.
  2. Grain ATMs (Annapurti): Automated grain dispensing machines ensuring efficient access to food.
  3. Supply chain optimisation: Strengthened the PDS through digitalisation.
  4. Women-led Take-Home Ration programme: Empowering communities while tackling malnutrition.
  5. Rice fortification: India’s national initiative to enhance nutrition replicated in countries like Nepal and Laos.

How Does Triangular Cooperation Add Value?

  1. Linking South-South with North-South: Brings in traditional donors, amplifying resources and best practices.
  2. Inclusive partnerships: Extends beyond governments to involve civil society, private sector, and grassroots communities.
  3. UN Fund contributions: Over the last three decades, 47 governments have funded projects in 70+ countries, benefiting people in 155 nations.

Conclusion

SSTC embodies a renewed spirit of partnership, rooted in equality, mutual respect, and innovation. For countries of the Global South, it is not merely a diplomatic mechanism but a pathway to resilience and empowerment. India’s leadership in digital public goods, food security, and inclusive governance has given SSTC tangible models of success. As the 2030 deadline looms, scaling such innovations and ensuring triangular cooperation will be crucial for achieving a sustainable and equitable world order.

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Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

An anti-terror role that defies logic

Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: External State & Non-State Actors: Challenges To Internal Security.

Introduction

The global fight against terrorism is rooted in credibility, trust, and collective responsibility. Yet, the United Nations’ recent decision to entrust Pakistan with leadership positions in the Taliban Sanctions Committee and as Vice-Chair of the UNSC Counter-Terrorism Committee has sparked disbelief. For a country long accused of sheltering terrorists, from Osama bin Laden to Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad, this appointment is not just ironic but deeply unsettling. Coupled with financial support such as the IMF’s billion-dollar loan to Pakistan despite concerns of terror financing, these developments expose critical vulnerabilities in the UN system. For India, which continues to suffer from cross-border terrorism, this represents a significant diplomatic and security challenge.

Why is this in the news?

Pakistan, accused for decades of harbouring terrorists and backing attacks on Indian soil, has been elevated to leadership in global counter-terrorism mechanisms. The timing is striking: the move came just weeks after the April 2025 Pahalgam attack where terrorists killed Indian tourists, followed by India’s Operation Sindoor against terror launchpads. To add to the irony, Pakistan also assumed the UNSC Presidency in July 2025. This is not the first time the UN has made such questionable appointments (Libya on Human Rights, Saudi Arabia on Women’s Rights), but Pakistan’s case is especially alarming given its record of state-sponsored terror. The decision casts doubt on the UN’s integrity, raises questions about its vetting process, and undermines India’s global campaign to expose Pakistan as a terror sponsor.

How has Pakistan’s role in terrorism been established?

  1. Osama bin Laden Shelter: Found in Abbottabad, near Pakistan’s military academy.
  2. Cross-border attacks: From the 2008 Mumbai attacks to the 2019 Pulwama bombing and the 2025 Pahalgam attack, evidence points to Pakistan-backed groups.
  3. Terror groups supported: Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT), Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), and networks across Afghanistan and Balochistan.
  4. Public protection of terrorists: Hafiz Saeed, despite being a UN-designated terrorist, continues to appear at PoK launchpads and public events under the watch of Pakistan’s security forces.

Why is Pakistan’s UN role a paradox?

  1. Contradiction with objectives: Pakistan’s terror links directly undermine the goals of the Counter-Terrorism Committee.
  2. FATF leniency: Removal from the FATF grey list in 2022 despite unresolved financing concerns highlights weak vetting.
  3. Geopolitical trade-offs: Powerful nations enable Pakistan’s elevation to secure their own strategic and economic interests.
  4. Dangerous precedent: It signals that state-sponsored terror can be diplomatically whitewashed.

What loopholes in the UN system does this expose?

  1. Selection flaws: No stringent vetting for compliance with counter-terrorism standards.
  2. Inconsistent moral compass: Earlier cases include Libya chairing the UNHRC and Saudi Arabia heading UN Women’s Rights Commission.
  3. Financial contradictions: IMF’s $1 billion loan in May 2025, just after the Pahalgam attack, raises ethical red flags.
  4. Rewarding duplicity: Pakistan even announced â‚ą14 crore compensation to families of terrorists, including kin of JeM chief Masood Azhar.

How does this affect India’s security and diplomacy?

  1. Narrative war: Pakistan may use its position to shift blame for regional instability onto India.
  2. UNSC power play: As vice-chair, Pakistan can obstruct India’s efforts to sanction Pakistan-based terrorists.
  3. Taliban equation: Pakistan could derail India’s outreach to the Taliban regime.
  4. Increased threats: Likely escalation of infiltration, asymmetric warfare, and cyber-attacks on India.

What counter-measures can India adopt?

  1. Diplomatic alliances: Leverage partnerships with UNSC members to balance Pakistan’s influence.
  2. Narrative building: Intensify global campaigns via media, academia, and diaspora to expose Pakistan’s duplicity.
  3. Engage Taliban directly: Humanitarian missions in Kabul to weaken Pakistan’s monopoly.
  4. Security strengthening: Bolster intelligence and counter-infiltration mechanisms.
  5. Push for accountability: Advocate for periodic reviews and performance audits of UN counter-terrorism bodies.

Conclusion

The UN’s decision to entrust Pakistan with counter-terrorism roles is more than a diplomatic anomaly, it is a strategic failure with global repercussions. For India, it signifies a heightened threat environment, a greater diplomatic challenge, and a call for proactive global engagement. What begins as “a seat at the table” could soon translate into control over the agenda. The real danger is not Pakistan’s presence in UN committees but the global community pretending it does not matter.

UPSC Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Terrorist activities and mutual distrust have clouded India-Pakistan relations. To what extent the use of soft power like sports and cultural exchanges could help generate goodwill between the two countries? Discuss with suitable examples.

Linkage: Pakistan’s elevation to UN counter-terrorism roles despite its proven terror links deepens mutual distrust with India, underscoring why soft power avenues like sports and cultural exchanges remain fragile yet essential tools to rebuild limited goodwill.

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Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

More Women employed in agriculture, but half of them are unpaid

Explained | Agriculture | Mains Paper 1: Primary, Secondary, & Tertiary Sector Industries In Various Parts Of The World

Introduction

Women-led development is increasingly recognised as a structural game-changer for India’s economic ambitions. Nowhere is this more urgent than in agriculture, which not only sustains livelihoods but also employs the largest share of India’s female workforce. However, while women’s participation in farming has risen sharply due to men shifting to non-farm jobs, their contributions remain largely invisible, unpaid, and undervalued. This contradiction calls for a deeper exploration of systemic inequities and emerging opportunities to turn agriculture into a vehicle for women’s empowerment and national growth.

The Feminisation of Agriculture: Numbers Behind the Shift

  1. Surge in women workers: Women’s employment in agriculture rose by 135% in a decade, now accounting for 42% of the agricultural workforce.
  2. Unpaid work: The number of women as unpaid family workers increased 2.5 times, from 23.6 million in 2017–18 to 59.1 million in 2023–24 (PLFS).
  3. Regional inequities: In States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, over 80% of women workers are in agriculture, and more than half receive no wages.
  4. National picture: Today, one in three working women in India is unpaid.

Why Women’s Work in Agriculture Remains Invisible

  1. Lack of recognition: Women are not officially recognised as farmers despite constituting a large share of labour.
  2. Skewed land ownership: Only 13–14% of land holdings are in women’s names, limiting access to credit, insurance, and government support.
  3. Wage gap: Women earn 20–30% less than men for equivalent agricultural tasks.
  4. Concentration in low-value work: Women are locked into subsistence farming and low-margin tasks without decision-making power.
  5. Macro impact: Despite higher participation, agriculture’s share in GVA fell from 15.3% (2017–18) to 14.4% (2024–25), reinforcing inequities instead of enabling empowerment.

Global Trade Trends as an Opportunity

  1. India–U.K. FTA: Expected to boost agricultural exports by 20% within three years, covering 95% of agricultural and processed food products duty-free.
  2. Export-oriented crops: Women already have strong representation in spices, tea, millets, rice, dairy- sectors poised for expansion.
  3. From labourers to entrepreneurs: With training, credit access, and market linkages, women could transition to income-generating entrepreneurs in value-added exports.

Technology as a Game-Changer

  1. Digital agriculture: Platforms like e-NAM, mobile advisory services, precision tools connect women to markets and pricing systems.
  2. Language and literacy gap: Women face low digital literacy, language barriers, and lack of devices, restricting adoption.
  3. Promising models:
    1. BHASHINI platform and Microsoft–AI4Bharat’s Jugalbandi provide multilingual, voice-first government access.
    2. L&T Finance’s Digital Sakhi programme has built digital and financial literacy among rural women in seven States.
    3. Odisha’s Swayam Sampurna FPOs and Jhalawari Mahila Kisan Producer Company (Rajasthan) leverage digital tools for branding and exports.

Structural Reforms Needed

  1. Land reforms: Promote joint or individual land ownership to strengthen women’s eligibility for formal support.
  2. Labour reforms: Recognise women as independent farmers to ensure fair wages, rights, and credit.
  3. Value chain inclusion: Shift women into higher-margin activities like processing, branding, packaging, and exporting.
  4. Institutional support: Scale multi-stakeholder programs (government, NGOs, FPOs) to dismantle structural inequities.

Conclusion

The feminisation of agriculture in India highlights a double-edged reality: while women have become indispensable to the sector, their economic contributions remain unrecognised and unpaid. With global trade shifts, digital innovations, and land-labour reforms, India now stands at a crossroads. Whether women remain invisible labourers or emerge as empowered entrepreneurs will depend on how decisively policymakers, private actors, and civil society act to bridge systemic inequities. Women’s empowerment in agriculture is not just a gender issue, it is central to India’s economic transformation.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Distinguish between gender equality, gender equity and women’s empowerment. Why is it important to take gender concerns into account in programme design and implementation?

Linkage: The question probes the conceptual clarity between equality, equity, and empowerment while testing their application in real policy frameworks. It aligns with the article as the feminisation of agriculture highlights how ignoring gender concerns in land, labour, and trade programmes perpetuates invisibility of women’s work, whereas equity-driven reforms can transform participation into genuine empowerment.

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Gravitational Wave Observations

Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Scientists are planning the Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project on the Moon to bypass seismic noise, atmosphere, and frequency limits faced by Earth-based detectors like Laser Interferometer Gravitational-wave Observatory (LIGO).

What are Gravitational Waves?

  • Overview: Gravitational waves are ripples in the spacetime continuum created when massive objects such as black holes or neutron stars collide.
  • Speed & Effect: They travel at the speed of light, subtly stretching and compressing spacetime. On small scales, effects are extremely weak (e.g., Earth–Moon distance altered by less than an atom’s diameter).
  • Prediction: Proposed by Albert Einstein (1916) in his General Theory of Relativity.
  • First Detection: In 2015, LIGO recorded the first gravitational waves from two colliding black holes 1.3 billion light-years away, confirming their existence.

Detection on Earth and Challenges:

  • Ground Observatories: LIGO (USA), Virgo (Italy), KAGRA (Japan), GEO600 (Germany) use laser interferometers to detect minuscule delays in light caused by waves.
  • Working of LIGO: Two L-shaped detectors (Louisiana, Washington), each with 4 km arms; differences in reflections signal gravitational waves.
  • Detection Range: Sensitive to events up to 7 billion light years away; frequency range ~100–1,000 Hz.
  • Challenges: Seismic noise, atmosphere, and human activity mask weaker signals.
  • Future Space Missions:
    • LISA (Laser Interferometer Space Antenna, 2030s): Three satellites in triangular formation, sensitive to 0.1 millihertz–0.1 hertz.
    • SKA (Square Kilometre Array, Australia & South Africa): Monitors pulsars for nanohertz waves.
    • Decihertz Gap: Frequencies 0.1–10 Hz remain unexplored, which LILA aims to study.

About Laser Interferometer Lunar Antenna (LILA) Project

  • Overview: Proposed by Vanderbilt Lunar Labs, USA, to build a gravitational-wave detector on the Moon.
  • Ideal Conditions: The Moon’s polar shadow zones provide ultra-low seismic activity, natural vacuum, and no atmospheric or radio interference.
  • Focus: Sub-hertz gravitational waves, vital for studying intermediate-mass black holes and the early universe.
  • Phases:
    • LILA Pioneer: Can be deployed within this decade using American lunar landers (Blue Origin, Intuitive Machines) and possibly India’s Chandrayaan programme.
    • LILA Horizon: Advanced phase requiring astronauts for setup.
  • Cosmic Symphony Analogy:
    • SKA: Captures low-frequency “bass notes.”
    • LIGO (and future LIGO-India): Detects high-pitched bursts from stellar collisions.
    • LILA: Covers missing middle frequencies, completing the “cosmic raag.”
  • Historical Note: Since Apollo, retro-reflectors on the Moon track Earth–Moon distance. Some scientists suggest the Earth–Moon system itself acts as a natural detector.

Significance:

  • Scientific Advancement: Opens the decihertz frontier, inaccessible so far.
  • Global Collaboration: Complements LIGO-India (IndIGO project), operational by 2030.
  • Research Potential: Helps study intermediate-mass black holes, cosmic mergers, and universe origins.
  • Lunar Astronomy: Marks the start of using the Moon as a laboratory for space science.
  • Holistic Coverage: With LISA, SKA, and Earth detectors, LILA would map the entire gravitational-wave spectrum, giving a complete picture of the universe.
[UPSC 2020] The experiment will employ a trio of spacecraft flying in formation in the shape of an equilateral triangle that has sides one million kilometres long, with lasers shining between the craft.”  The experiment in question refers to

Options: (a) Voyager-2 (b) New Horizons (c) LISA Pathfinder (d) Evolved LISA*

 

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Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

[pib] Siphon-Based Thermal Desalination System

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

Researchers at the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) have developed a siphon-based thermal desalination system that overcomes siltation issues, offering a low-cost and scalable solution.

About Siphon-Based Thermal Desalination System:

  • Overview: Developed by Indian Institute of Science (IISc) researchers to overcome the inefficiencies of conventional solar stills.
  • Purpose: Designed as a low-cost, scalable, and sustainable freshwater solution for off-grid and water-stressed regions.

  • Working: 

    • Principle: Works on siphonage, where a fabric wick draws salty water and gravity maintains continuous flow.
    • Innovation: A grooved metallic surface flushes away salt deposits before crystallization, preventing clogging.
    • Process: Salty water evaporates as a thin film on a heated surface and condenses just 2 mm away on a cooler surface, ensuring high efficiency.

Key Features:

  • High Efficiency: Generates >6 liters of freshwater per sq. m per hour under sunlight — several times more than conventional solar stills.
  • Multistage Design: Uses stacked evaporator–condenser pairs to recycle heat and boost output.
  • Salt Resistance: Handles up to 20% salinity without clogging, making it effective even for brine treatment.
  • Affordable Materials: Built from aluminum and fabric, keeping costs low.
  • Energy Flexibility: Operates on solar power or waste heat, adaptable to different settings.
  • Scalable Applications: Useful for villages, disaster zones, and island communities.
  • Sustainability: Offers a clean, low-maintenance desalination method without reliance on complex machinery.
[UPSC 2008] Where was the first desalination plant in India to produce one lakh liters of freshwater per day based on low-temperature thermal desalination principle commissioned?

Options: (a) Kavaratti * (b) Port Blair (c) Mangalore (d) Valsad

 

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Foreign Policy Watch: India-SAARC Nations

Kokrajhar-Gelephu and Banarhat-Samtse Railway Lines to Bhutan

Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood - Relations

Why in the News?

India and Bhutan have launched their first-ever rail links, connecting Kokrajhar–Gelephu (69 km, Assam–Bhutan) and Banarhat–Samtse (20 km, West Bengal–Bhutan).

Kokrajhar-Gelephu and Banarhat-Samtse Railway Lines to Bhutan

About India–Bhutan Railway Connectivity:

  • Overview: Agreements were signed during PM Modi’s visit to Bhutan (March 2024) and formalised in 2025.
  • Projects:
    1. Kokrajhar–Gelephu line: 6 stations, multiple bridges, viaducts, designed for Vande Bharat trains; expected completion in 4 years.
    2. Banarhat–Samtse line: 2 stations, major & minor bridges, flyovers, underpasses; expected completion in 3 years.
  • Both lines will be fully electrified, giving Bhutan direct access to India’s 1,50,000 km railway network, boosting passenger and goods transport.

Significance of the Project for India:

  • Bilateral Relations: Strengthens ties with Bhutan, India’s closest neighbour and largest recipient of Indian development assistance.
  • Strategic Security: Enhances regional security and serves as a counterbalance to China’s influence in South Asia.
  • Economic Integration: Supports Bhutan’s trade (80% with India), boosts hydropower exports, and aids industrial development.
  • Tourism & Culture: Improves people-to-people exchanges, especially linking Gelephu’s Mindfulness City and Samtse’s industrial hub.
  • Act East Policy: Advances India’s policy through cross-border infrastructure in the eastern and northeastern region.
  • Rail Diplomacy: Positions Indian Railways as a strategic enabler of diplomacy and connectivity in the neighbourhood.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements:

1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.

2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.

3. Bangladesh-China-India-Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China.

How many of the above statements are correct?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

 

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Wetland Conservation

Bihar adds 2 more Wetlands to Ramsar List

Places in newsPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

India has added two new wetlands in Bihar — Gokul Jalashay (Buxar district) and Udaipur Jheel (West Champaran district) to the global Ramsar list of Wetlands of International Importance.

Important Facts:

  • With this, India’s Ramsar sites rise to 93, consolidating its top rank in Asia and third in the world, after the UK (176) and Mexico (144).
    • Bolivia has the largest Ramsar wetland area (Llanos de Moxos wetlands – 6.9 million ha).
  • India’s Ramsar sites have expanded from 26 in 2012 to 93 in 2025, covering 13.6 lakh hectares, with 51 sites added since 2020.
  • Globally, there are 2,544 Ramsar sites.

Facts about the two Wetlands:

  1. Gokul Jalashay (Buxar District):

    • Oxbow lake spread over 448 hectares on the southern edge of the Ganga River.
    • Acts as a flood buffer during high water events.
    • Supports 50+ bird species and provides livelihoods through fishing, farming, and irrigation.

  2. Udaipur Jheel (West Champaran District):

    • Oxbow lake covering 319 hectares, part of the Udaipur Wildlife Sanctuary ecosystem, formed by the Gandaki River.
    • Enhances ecological connectivity and supports the Central Asian Flyway for migratory birds.

About the Ramsar Convention:

  • Establishment: Signed on 2 February 1971 in Ramsar, Iran.
  • Objective: Provide a framework for conservation and wise use of wetlands and their resources.
  • Functions:
    • Identify and designate wetlands of international importance.
    • Promote effective management of wetlands.
    • Foster international cooperation for conservation.
  • Members: 173 countries (as of 2025).
  • India and Ramsar:
    • India joined in 1982.
    • First Ramsar site: Chilika Lake, Odisha (1981).
    • Current total: 93 sites (Sept 2025), covering 13,60,718 hectares.
    • Growth: From 26 sites in 2012 to 93 in 2025 (51 added since 2020).
    • State-wise: Tamil Nadu has the highest (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
    • About 10% of India’s total wetland area is under Ramsar listing.
  • Montreux Record: List of Ramsar sites under threat of ecological change.
    • 48 sites globally (2025).
    • 2 Indian sites included: Keoladeo National Park (Rajasthan) and Loktak Lake (Manipur).
  • World Wetlands Day: Celebrated on February 2nd every year.
    • 2025 Theme: “Protecting Wetlands for Our Common Future”.

Criteria for Declaration (9 Criteria):

A wetland can be declared a Ramsar site if it meets at least one of these:

  1. Has unique, rare, or representative wetland types.
  2. Supports vulnerable, endangered, or endemic species.
  3. Provides critical habitat for waterfowl, especially during migration.
  4. Contains significant ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological features.
  5. Supports biodiversity conservation and scientific research.
  6. Provides ecosystem services like flood control, groundwater recharge, and water purification.
  7. Has cultural, spiritual, or recreational importance.
  8. Ensures sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
  9. Faces threats requiring international cooperation for conservation.
[UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

Wetland/Lake Location

1. Hokera Wetland — Punjab 2. Renuka Wetland — Himachal Pradesh

3. Rudrasagar Lake — Tripura 4. Sasthamkotta Lake — Tamil Nadu

How many pairs given above are correctly matched?

Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs

 

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The Crisis In The Middle East

What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

Protests erupted over Microsoft after allegations that its cloud services (Azure) are aiding Israeli military operations, harming Palestinian civilians, raising concerns under the Wassenaar Arrangement.

What is Wassenaar Arrangement?

  • Establishment: Created in 1996 as a successor to the Cold War-era COCOM (Coordinating Committee for Multilateral Export Controls).
  • Name Origin: Named after Wassenaar, a suburb of The Hague, where the agreement was reached in 1995.
  • Headquarters: Vienna, Austria.
  • Membership: 42 countries; India joined in 2017. Includes most NATO/EU states and all UNSC P5 except China.
  • Objective: Promote transparency, responsibility, and control in transfers of conventional arms and dual-use technologies.
  • Mechanism: Works through voluntary information-sharing, export license denials, and notifications on controlled transfers.
  • Control Lists:
    • Munitions List: Covers conventional arms including tanks, combat aircraft, UAVs, helicopters, missiles, small arms.
    • Dual-Use List: Covers sensitive technologies and equipment with both civilian and military applications.

Wassenaar Arrangement and Software:

  • Initial Scope: Designed for hardware exports (equipment, chips, devices).
  • 2013 Expansion: Included “intrusion software” that can bypass or defeat cyber protections.
  • Challenges:
    • Cloud/SaaS blurs what counts as an “export.”
    • Inconsistent interpretations among members for software transfer and access.
    • Grey areas: defensive research exemptions, cross-border data flows, and digital surveillance.
  • Gap: Rapid rise of AI, cloud computing, and biometrics has outpaced WA’s traditional framework.

  • Reform Needs:

    • Broaden lists to explicitly cover cloud, AI, surveillance, and biometric systems.
    • Recognize remote access as exports.
    • Establish technical committees for frequent updates and agile controls.

Wassenaar Arrangement and India:

  • Membership (2017): Enhanced India’s profile in non-proliferation and arms control, bolstering its case for entry into the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG).
  • Export Controls: Aligns India’s SCOMET list (Special Chemicals, Organisms, Materials, Equipment, and Technologies) with global norms.
  • Technology Access: Opens pathways to sensitive dual-use technologies vital for space, defence, and digital industries.
  • Diplomacy: Supports India’s counter-terrorism efforts, including the No Money for Terrorism (NMFT) initiative.
[UPSC 2011] Recently, the USA decided to support India’s membership in multilateral export control regimes called the “Australia Group” and the “Wassenaar Arrangement”. What is the difference between them?

1. The Australia Group is an informal arrangement which aims to allow exporting countries to minimize the risk of assisting chemical and biological weapons proliferation, whereas the Wassenaar- Arrangement is a formal group under the OECD holding identical objectives.

2. The Australia Group comprises predominantly of Asian, African, and North American countries, whereas the member countries of Wassenaar Arrangement are predominantly from the European Union and American continents.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

 

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World’s highest bridge opens to traffic in China 

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Huajiang Grand Canyon Bridge in Guizhou province, China, is now the world’s tallest bridge, standing 625 m above the Beipan River.

World's highest bridge opens to traffic in China 

About Huajiang Grand Canyon Bridge:

  • Height: Rises 625 m above the Beipan River, surpassing the previous record-holder, the Beipanjiang Bridge (565 m).
  • Connectivity: Links the Liuzhi Special District and Anlong Special District, reducing travel time from 2 hours to just 2 minutes.
  • Transport Network: Part of the Guizhou S57 Expressway and the 190 km Shantian–Puxi Expressway, boosting transport, economy, and tourism.
  • Engineering Hub: Guizhou, called the “bridge museum of the world”, now has nearly half of the world’s 100 tallest bridges, showcasing China’s leadership in high-altitude civil engineering.

Key Features of the Bridge:

  • Height Record: Deck-to-water clearance of 625 m, taller than most skyscrapers.
  • Span & Length: Total length 2,890 m, with a 1,420 m suspension span, the longest in any mountainous region globally.
  • Construction: Began January 2022, completed in just over three years; final truss installed January 2025; load-tested with 96 trucks.

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