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Day: October 17, 2025

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

[18th October 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Ensure safeguards for India’s carbon market

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2015] Should the pursuit of carbon credit and Clean Development Mechanism set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.

Linkage: The article directly aligns with this PYQ as it examines how India can sustain carbon credit mechanisms while ensuring justice and inclusivity in its domestic carbon market. It stresses that ethical safeguards and equitable benefit-sharing are essential to reconcile climate finance with India’s growth needs.

Mentor’s Comment

In an era when climate markets are rapidly gaining traction, India’s push to create its own carbon credit trading system represents a major step towards balancing growth and sustainability. However, as global experiences reveal, the promise of carbon markets often hides complex questions of equity, consent, and justice. This article examines how India can build a just, transparent, and credible carbon market, drawing lessons from global failures and aligning with its developmental and environmental priorities.

Why in the News

India is rolling out its Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS), a landmark move that will create a domestic carbon market for emission trading and offset generation. The scheme comes amid a global boom in carbon credits, with 175–180 million credits retired annually. Yet, recent controversies such as the Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project suspension by Verra (2023, 2025) have exposed how poorly governed carbon projects can violate community rights and reproduce colonial-style exploitation. This makes it crucial for India to institutionalize safeguards to prevent land alienation, ensure free, prior and informed consent (FPIC), and guarantee fair benefit-sharing, especially for farmers and marginalized communities who stand at the frontline of climate action.

Introduction

The industrial era’s growth model has pushed the Earth beyond its planetary boundaries, creating a need to decouple economic expansion from environmental degradation. For developing nations like India, degrowth is neither feasible nor just. The path forward lies in green growth, powered by cleaner energy, sustainable agriculture, and carbon crediting mechanisms that reward climate-positive behavior.

However, as India builds its carbon market, it must ensure that climate justice is not sacrificed at the altar of climate finance.

Growth and Sustainability, A Delicate Balance

  1. Decoupling growth from pollution: The industrial revolution model is no longer viable; India must grow while reducing emissions through renewable energy, micro-irrigation, and sustainable farming.
  2. Equitable development: Developing countries cannot afford “degrowth”; instead, they must innovate for green growth pathways that align prosperity with environmental protection.
  3. Indian examples: Rapid progress in solar energy and micro-irrigation exemplifies how growth and sustainability can reinforce each other.

What Are Carbon Credits and Why Do They Matter?

  1. Definition: A carbon credit represents a certified reduction or removal of greenhouse gases (GHGs), measured in COâ‚‚-equivalents.
  2. Generation sources: Created through mitigation activities like renewable energy or sequestration measures such as reforestation, agroforestry, and biochar.
  3. Global scenario: Annually, about 175–180 million credits are retired, with most originating from renewable energy and nature-based projects like REDD+.
  4. India’s initiative: The CCTS sets emission-intensity benchmarks for industries and includes voluntary offsetting mechanisms, managed through a national registry and trading platform.
  5. Emerging sectors: Draft methods for biomass, compressed biogas, and low-emission rice cultivation have already been released.

The Promise and Peril of Carbon Projects

  1. Untapped agricultural potential: Despite 64 Indian projects listed under Verra, only four are registered, none have issued credits yet, largely due to weak farmer engagement and training gaps.
  2. Risk of exploitation: Without safeguards, carbon projects can mirror colonial plantation logic, especially as carbon prices rise.
  3. Global warning signs: The Northern Kenya Rangelands Carbon Project (2012) faced suspension for bypassing consent and misrepresenting community participation.

Violations documented:

  1. Lack of FPIC from indigenous communities.
  2. Projects implemented on unregistered community land.
  3. Enforced by armed rangers; governance opaque.
  4. 2025 Kenyan court judgment confirmed absence of public participation.
  5. Parallel cases: The Lake Turkana Wind Project fenced 150,000 acres of community land — cutting herders off from water and grazing.

India’s Vulnerability: A Warning from Kenya

  1. Community impact: Carbon projects on village commons, forest fringes, or grazing lands can disrupt traditional livelihoods without proper consent.
  2. Caste and equity issues: Agricultural carbon projects have shown tendencies to exclude marginalized caste farmers, offering minimal benefits.
  3. Regulatory gap: India’s CCTS prioritizes procedural compliance but neglects land rights, FPIC, and benefit-sharing — leaving space for exploitation.
  4. Potential consequence: Without reforms, India risks replicating extractive climate models that alienate vulnerable communities.

Towards a Fair and Transparent Carbon Market

  1. Balanced regulation: Overregulation deters genuine actors, while underregulation invites exploitation. India needs a “light but firm” regulatory model.

Core safeguards needed:

  1. Transparency: Mandatory disclosure of benefit-sharing agreements.
  2. Community consent: Institutionalize FPIC before project initiation.
  3. Adaptive regulation: Policies that evolve through stakeholder consultations.
  4. Trust building: Incorporate third-party audits and grievance redressal.
  5. Justice as the foundation: Climate action must empower, not exploit, those sustaining the land.

Conclusion

India’s journey toward a low-carbon future cannot rely solely on markets, it must rest on ethics, equity, and empowerment. As the Carbon Credit Trading Scheme (CCTS) takes shape, the focus must move beyond procedural compliance to protecting land rights, ensuring free, prior, and informed consent (FPIC), and guaranteeing fair benefit-sharing with those who nurture the environment. Learning from global pitfalls, India has the opportunity to design a carbon market that is transparent, just, and inclusive, turning climate finance into a true instrument of climate justice and sustainable development. Only then can India demonstrate that growth and green governance are not competing goals, but two sides of the same equitable future.

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Finance Commission – Issues related to devolution of resources

Restoring fiscal space for the states

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

Introduction

India’s fiscal federalism has long been guided by the principle of cooperative balance, where both the Centre and States share resources, responsibilities, and accountability. However, the post-GST era has altered this equilibrium. The recent merger of the GST compensation cess with regular tax marks a watershed moment, ending an era of fiscal cushioning for States and raising pressing questions about States’ financial independence.

With rising public aspirations, widening service delivery gaps, and increased welfare commitments, States are grappling with constrained fiscal space. The centralisation of taxation powers, growing dependence on Central transfers, and the limited flexibility to raise revenue are redefining India’s fiscal federalism.

Why in the News?

The abolition of the GST compensation cess, after five years of implementation, marks a turning point in India’s fiscal framework. For the first time since GST’s rollout in 2017, the compensation mechanism, which assured States 14% annual revenue growth, has ended.

This is significant because:

  • The cess previously cushioned States from revenue shortfalls during GST transition.
  • Its removal exposes the true fiscal capacity of States, revealing wide disparities in revenue generation.
  • The Centre’s growing use of cesses and surcharges, which are not shareable with States, has further squeezed State finances.
  • The resulting imbalance has rekindled the debate on “fiscal autonomy versus fiscal efficiency.”

Evolving Fiscal Architecture

How has GST altered India’s tax landscape?

  1. Shift from origin-based to destination-based taxation: GST replaced multiple State taxes with a unified structure, eroding the States’ control over indirect taxes.
  2. Shared tax base: Both Centre and States levy GST, but decision-making lies with the GST Council, where the Centre has a dominant role.
  3. Erosion of fiscal autonomy: States lost independent authority to adjust tax rates or design fiscal responses tailored to their economies.
  4. Cess and surcharge dominance: These have become a parallel fiscal instrument for the Centre, bypassing the divisible tax pool.

Changing Centre–State Financial Relations

How have constitutional mechanisms evolved over time?

  1. Articles 268–293 define the fiscal relationship between Centre and States.
  2. The Finance Commission (Article 280) determines devolution, but several States allege that the criteria penalise progressive, industrial States.
  3. With the abolition of the Planning Commission in 2014, only two main transfer channels remain, Finance Commission grants and Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS).
  4. Article 282 allows discretionary Central grants, often perceived as politically influenced, affecting opposition-ruled States disproportionately.

Declining Devolution and Fiscal Dependence

How serious is the resource imbalance between Centre and States?

  1. Despite recommendations of 42% devolution (14th Finance Commission), actual transfers as a share of gross tax revenue have declined.
  2. Cesses and surcharges, which are non-shareable, reached ₹3.86 lakh crore (RE 2024–25) and are projected at ₹4.23 lakh crore (BE 2025–26).
  3. Central transfers still account for 44% of States’ revenue receipts, ranging from 72% for Bihar to 20% for Haryana, highlighting the uneven dependency landscape.
  4. The Centre collects 67% of total tax revenue, while States handle over 52% of total expenditure, particularly in health, education, and agriculture.
  5. This structural mismatch constrains States’ fiscal flexibility and deepens intergovernmental friction.

Emerging Demands for Fiscal Reforms

What are States and experts proposing for fiscal autonomy?

  1. Restructuring tax-sharing principles: Revisiting Finance Commission formulas to reflect true expenditure needs and reward performance equitably.
  2. Personal Income Tax sharing: Proposal to share or allow States to “top up” the personal income tax base to reduce fiscal dependence.
  3. Learning from Canada: Canadian provinces collect 54% of taxes and spend 60%, offering a model of greater subnational flexibility.
  4. Transparent devolution: Merging cesses and surcharges into the divisible pool could enhance transparency and equity.
  5. Independent fiscal oversight: Establishing a permanent intergovernmental fiscal council for mediation and coordination.

The Way Forward: Towards Cooperative Fiscal Federalism

How can fiscal space be restored to States?

  1. Revisit GST architecture: Grant States limited powers to vary tax rates within a band for specific commodities or services.
  2. Rationalise CSS schemes: Allow greater flexibility for States to design locally suited welfare interventions.
  3. Enhance fiscal responsibility: Encourage States to improve tax compliance, widen base, and adopt technology-driven revenue administration.
  4. Periodic fiscal reviews: Institutionalise data-based monitoring to balance efficiency with equity.
  5. Political cooperation: Encourage a non-partisan GST Council model where fiscal debates remain guided by economic logic, not politics.

Conclusion

India’s growth story is fundamentally federal. The vitality of its States determines the resilience of its economy. As the GST compensation era ends and States’ expenditure responsibilities rise, restoring their fiscal autonomy is essential for sustainable growth. True cooperative federalism demands not just consultation but real power-sharing in fiscal decision-making. Empowering States fiscally is not a concession — it is a constitutional necessity for a balanced and vibrant India.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] What changes has the Union Government recently introduced in the domain of Centre-State relations? Suggest measures to be adopted to build the trust between the Centre and the States and for strengthening federalism.

Linkage: The phasing out of the GST compensation cess and rising use of non-shareable cesses and surcharges reflect the Centre’s growing fiscal dominance, compelling States to seek reforms in tax devolution to rebuild trust and uphold true cooperative federalism.

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Empower ASI to do its job

Explained | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters

Introduction 

The government’s move to allow private oversight of protected monuments is a watershed moment. For decades, ASI has been the statutory guardian of India’s tangible past, born in the colonial era and burdened by bureaucracy, underfunding and a shrinking sense of mission. Simultaneously, private actors and civic organisations have shown how resources, managerial skill and community energy can revive museums and sites. The question is not whether to choose one side; it is how to combine ASI’s technical authority with the creativity, funds and operational capability that partnerships bring, without commodifying culture.

The Human Cost of Institutional Drift

The shrinking imagination of public stewardship

  1. Institutional fatigue: ASI carries a legacy of scholarship but suffers from low morale and an inward-looking culture that treats conservation as paperwork rather than cultural care.
  2. Loss of interpretive vision: When custodians stop telling stories, monuments become inert props rather than living places of memory and identity.
  3. Urban neglect: Historic neighbourhoods, bazaars and ritual spaces around monuments decay when site management ignores everyday people.

The emotional stakes for communities

  1. Cultural dislocation: For villagers, priests and artisans, monuments are part of life, losing access or ritual meaning severs social ties.
  2. Livelihoods at risk: When heritage is mismanaged, local guides, craftspeople and small vendors lose incomes tied to respectful tourism.

The Promise of Partnerships and PPPs

Partnerships as custodianship boosters

  1. Financial rescue: PPPs can create endowments and recurring funding streams for long-term maintenance, freeing conservation from short political cycles.
  2. Example: Museum restorations in Mumbai combined corporate funding, municipal support and conservation expertise to revive institutions.
  3. Operational professionalism: Private sector expertise in project management, visitor services and marketing improves site upkeep and interpretive programming.
  4. New experiences, same respect: Thoughtful PPPs design museum displays, lighting, interpretation centres and guided routes that invite learning, not spectacle.

PPPs and local empowerment

  1. Livelihood integration: PPP projects that hire local artisans and vendors create shared incentives for conservation.
  2. Example: Community-run craft stalls and guided-walk programs increase earnings and local ownership.
  3. Skill-building: Partnerships can fund training for conservators, guides, and site managers, expanding the conservation workforce.

When PPPs get it right: conditions of success

  1. ASI oversight: Technical conservation plans must be approved and monitored by ASI or accredited conservation experts.
  2. Community clauses: Contracts should guarantee access, rituals and a share of revenue for local stakeholders.
  3. Transparent accountability: Public dashboards, audited accounts and sunset clauses prevent permanent privatization.

The Risks of Commercialisation and How to Guard Against Them

Commodification and loss of sacredness

  1. Over-entertainment danger: Turning a temple or tomb into a stage for events can strip its sanctity and alienate devotees.
  2. Tourist-first trap: If revenue becomes the sole metric, conservation values degrade.
  3. Equity and access concerns
  4. Paywall problem: Higher fees and exclusive events can exclude local communities; safeguards must keep access affordable and meaningful.

Technical and ethical lapses

  1. Skill imbalance: Corporates without heritage expertise may favour cosmetic changes over reversible, scientifically sound conservation.
  2. Short-termism: Event-driven models can fund repairs but not create long-term technical capacity for conservation.

A Practical, Human-Centred Roadmap

Reinventing ASI as knowledge steward and regulator

  1. Autonomy with accountability: Grant ASI managerial freedom and stable budgets while insisting on transparency and citizen oversight.
  2. Specialist cadres: Create conservation architect and urban heritage cadres, fellowships and cross-disciplinary teams (historians, anthropologists, conservators).

Designing PPPs for people and preservation

  1. Model MoU essentials: ASI-approved conservation plan, community benefit clause, revenue-sharing mechanism, independent monitoring, exit/sunset clause.
  2. Performance metrics: Conservation integrity, community welfare indicators, visitor-impact thresholds, financial sustainability.
  3. Phased pilots: Start with clearly defined pilot projects (museums, small sites) before scaling to larger or sacred monuments.

Community as co-custodians

  1. Local governance: Empower panchayats, municipal trusts and temple committees in day-to-day stewardship with technical backup from ASI.
  2. Benefit linking: Ensure training, employment and revenue-sharing for local craftspeople and service providers.

Modern tools for timeless care

  1. Digital records: 3D scans, GIS mapping and condition-monitoring dashboards to track deterioration and plan interventions.
  2. Public access to data: Open reports and accessible interpretive material strengthen democratic stewardship.

Conclusion — A human promise, not a transaction

Heritage is ethical work: it asks us to keep memory alive while serving the living. The ASI must be renewed into a vibrant, expert body that sets standards and guarantees access. PPPs — when framed by clear agreements, community rights and technical oversight — can supply funds, skills and fresh ideas. The aim is not to monetise memory but to steward it: to ensure that stones continue to tell stories, and that those stories remain deeply, unmistakably, Indian.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Public charitable trusts have the potential to make India’s development more inclusive as they relate to certain vital public issues. Comment.

Linkage: This PYQ highlights how non-state actors and philanthropic trusts can complement government efforts in addressing public issues. It is linked to the article as PPPs and heritage trusts similarly expand conservation beyond ASI’s limited capacity, ensuring inclusive and sustainable preservation of cultural assets.

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Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

IOCR | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

Why in the News?

The 19th Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Mid-Term Ministerial Meeting was recently held in Kampala, Uganda.

About the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

  • Overview: A grouping of states not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc, established to uphold sovereignty, independence, and neutrality during the Cold War.
  • Formation: Founded in 1961 at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, emerging from the 1955 Bandung Conference (Indonesia) which laid down the Ten Principles of Bandung as its ideological foundation.
  • Founding Leaders:
    1. Jawaharlal Nehru (India)
    2. Gamal Abdel Nasser (Egypt)
    3. Josip Broz Tito (Yugoslavia)
    4. Ahmed Sukarno (Indonesia)
    5. Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana)
  • Membership:
    • 120 countries: 53 from Africa, 39 from Asia, 26 from Latin America & the Caribbean, and 2 from Europe.
    • Includes Palestine as a member and 17 observer nations with 10 observer organisations.
    • Represents nearly 60% of UN membership, making it the second-largest intergovernmental bloc after the UN.
  • Structure: NAM functions without a permanent secretariat, charter, or budget, relying on rotational leadership and consensus-driven decision-making.

Non-Aligned Movement (NAM)

India’s Contemporary Role in NAM:

  • India advocates for reinvigorating NAM as a platform for South-South cooperation in technology, trade, and climate resilience.
  • It seeks to make NAM relevant in a multipolar world, focusing on digital equity, global governance reforms, and sustainable development.
  • India views NAM not as an anti-West bloc but as a forum of balanced autonomy, promoting strategic non-alignment and global partnership in the 21st century.
[UPSC 2009] Among the following Presidents of India, who was also the Secretary General of Non-Aligned Movement for some period ?

Options: (a) Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (b) Varahairi Venkatagiri (c) Giani Zail Singh * (d) Dr. Shanker Dayal Sharma

 

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Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

CG HC upholds cancellation of Forest Rights of Villagers

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Chhattisgarh High Court has dismissed a petition challenging the cancellation of Community Forest Rights (CFRs) granted to villagers of Ghatbarra in the Hasdeo Arand forest, an area where Adani Enterprises–linked coal mines operate.

Background of the Case:

  • Dispute Origin: The District-Level Committee (DLC) revoked CFR titles in 2016, citing that the area had already been diverted for mining in 2012 with MoEF clearance.
  • Petitioners’ Claim: The Hasdeo Arand Bachao Sangharsh Samiti argued that the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 provides no revocation clause and that villagers were not given a fair hearing before cancellation.
  • Court’s View: The High Court upheld the State’s decision, calling the 2013 CFR grant a “mistake” void ab initio, and legally cancellable.

Key Judicial Findings:

  • Legality of Revocation: FRA lacks explicit revocation provision, but erroneous grants may be rectified; hence cancellation was valid.
  • Prior Approvals Prevail: 2012 MoEFCC mining clearance overrode subsequent CFR grants.
  • State Mineral Ownership: FRA does not affect the State’s control over minerals beneath forest land.
  • Locus Standi: Petitioners lacked standing after the Forest Rights Committee withdrew; no authorised village representation remained.
  • Suppression of Facts: Petitioners had earlier challenged land acquisition (case dismissed in 2022) but failed to disclose it.

Significance:

This ruling marks the first judicial interpretation of whether forest rights granted under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA) can be revoked or cancelled, despite the Act containing no explicit provision for cancellation.

About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006:

  • Overview: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, commonly called the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
  • Purpose: Enacted to correct historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities deprived of traditional land and resource rights during colonial rule.
  • Core Objective: Ensures tenurial security, livelihood protection, and ecological stewardship of forest-dependent populations.
  • Beneficiaries: Covers Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) who have lived in and depended on forests for generations.
  • Scope: Recognises both individual and collective rights over forest land and produce, extending to cultivation, habitation, and minor forest produce use.
  • Governance Principle: Empowers Gram Sabhas as the central authority for recognising and managing forest rights, reinforcing local autonomy.
  • Integration Goal: Aligns forest governance with tribal self-rule, complementing the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).

Key Features of the FRA:

  • Individual & Community Rights: Legal recognition for occupation, cultivation, residence, and use/sale of minor forest produce.
  • Community Forest Resource (CFR) Rights: Grants Gram Sabhas control to protect, regenerate, and manage community forests.
  • Habitat Rights: Protects Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and pre-agricultural forest communities.
  • Governance Structure: Multi-level verification, Gram Sabha → Sub-Divisional Committee → District-Level Committee, for rights adjudication.
  • Development Provisions: Allows limited diversion of forest land for public utilities with Gram Sabha consent.
  • Eviction Safeguard: No eviction until claims are fully processed and rights recognised.
  • Decentralised Oversight: Empowers Gram Sabha as the final decision-making authority on forest rights and management.
  • Legal Integration: Reinforces PESA’s participatory governance and community-led conservation in Scheduled Areas.
[UPSC 2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?

Options: (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
(b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj
(c) Ministry of Rural Development
(d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs*

 

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Wetland Conservation

Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The SAIME Initiative, developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) in the Sundarbans of West Bengal, has been conferred Global Technical Recognition by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.

What is SAIME Initiative?

  • Concept: A multi-stakeholder partnership model integrating shrimp aquaculture with mangrove restoration in the Sundarbans.
  • Implementing Agencies: Developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) with support from the Global Nature Fund (Germany), Naturland, and Bangladesh Environment & Development Society (BEDS).
  • Purpose: Promotes climate-adaptive, conservation-linked livelihoods balancing ecological health with local economic growth.
  • Implementation: Covers 29.84 hectares with 42 fish farmers, achieving 100% rise in net profits through low-input, eco-friendly methods.
  • Target Group: Focuses on climate-vulnerable coastal communities, encouraging chemical-free shrimp farming to build coastal resilience.

Core Features and Approach:

  • Ecosystem Integration: Maintains 5–30% mangrove cover within aquaculture ponds, directly linking productivity with ecosystem restoration.
  • Community Participation: Adopts a bottom-up co-management model, involving local farmers in planning, monitoring, and benefit-sharing.
  • Sustainable Practices: Utilises mangrove litter as shrimp feed, cutting chemical dependence and improving natural nutrient cycles.
  • Climate Resilience: Mitigates cyclones, salinity intrusion, and erosion, functioning as a nature-based adaptation system.
  • Economic Efficiency: Promotes low-input, high-yield aquaculture, enhancing smallholder profitability and resource efficiency.
  • Environmental Benefits: Supports carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and blue carbon economy objectives.
  • Global Alignment: Advances SDG-13 (Climate Action), SDG-14 (Life Below Water), and SDG-15 (Life on Land) through integrated coastal sustainability.

About the Sundarbans:

Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

  • Location: Situated in the South and North 24-Parganas districts of West Bengal, at the southern tip of the Gangetic Delta, where the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers meet the Bay of Bengal.
  • Area: Currently spans 2,585.89 sq km, with an expansion proposal to 3,629.57 sq km, making it the largest mangrove forest in the world.
  • Status: Designated as a Tiger Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1987).
  • Topography: Characterised by a dense network of tidal creeks, estuaries, and 105 mangrove-covered islands, influenced by daily tidal inundation.
  • Flora and Fauna:
    • Flora: Dominated by Avicennia, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and Heritiera species.
    • Fauna: Includes Royal Bengal Tiger, Fishing Cat, Estuarine Crocodile, Irrawaddy Dolphin, King Cobra, and several endangered bird species.
  • Boundaries:
    • East: Bangladesh border (Raimangal & Harinbhanga rivers)
    • South: Bay of Bengal
    • North/West: Matla, Bidya, and Gomdi rivers
  • Ecological Importance: Acts as a natural shield against cyclones and tsunamis, a carbon-rich ecosystem, and a vital nursery ground for fisheries — forming the ecological heart of India’s blue economy and coastal resilience framework.

 

[UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?

Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves

(b) Marakkanam Salt Pans

(c) Naupada Swamp

(d) Rann of Kutch*

 

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Indian Missile Program Updates

Akash Missile System 

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

India has pitched for the supply of the Akash missile system to Brazil.

akash

About Akash Missile System:

  • Overview: Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL).
  • Type: A short-range Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) designed to defend against aircraft, UAVs, and helicopters.
  • Operational Users: Inducted by both the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force, forming part of India’s layered air defence grid.
  • Purpose: Protects vital assets from aerial threats within the short to medium range segment.
  • Deployment Mode: Mounted on mobile launchers for rapid positioning, flexibility, and operational agility.
  • Comparison: Functionally comparable to Israel’s Iron Dome, though Akash focuses on intercepting larger aerial targets rather than small projectiles.

Key Features:

  • Range & Altitude: Effective range 4.5–25 km; altitude coverage 100 m–20 km.
  • Engagement Capacity: A single firing unit can engage four targets simultaneously in both autonomous and group modes.
  • Speed & Accuracy: Capable of high-speed interceptions with radar-guided precision.
  • Propulsion & Dimensions: Length 5.87 m, diameter 350 mm, weight 710 kg; powered by solid-fuel propulsion.
  • Automation: Fully automated system ensuring rapid reaction time from detection to neutralization.
  • ECCM Capability: Built-in Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM) to resist enemy jamming
[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

 

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