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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    Issues with the ordinances on agriculture

    op-ed snap | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Transport & Marketing Of Agricultural Produce

    Following the announcement of reforms in the agri-sector, the government issued ordinances to make good on its promise. These ordinances deal with- ECA-1955, APMC Act and Contract farming. The author in this article examines whether these ordinances deliver on the promises made or not.

    1) Ordinance for amendment of APMC Act

    • ‘Farming Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion & Facilitation) Ordinance 2020.’ seek to address the problems farmers face in selling their produce.
    • Due to the unionisation of middlemen (arhatias) and their financial clout, politicians in the states have been reluctant to amend agriculture marketing laws which are exploitative and don’t allow farmers to receive a fair price.
    • Rather than coax the states financially to correct the markets, an unregulated marketplace has been created where 15 crore farmers will be exposed to the skulduggery of traders.
    • Imagine the mayhem in stock markets if ROC and SEBI were similarly made redundant.

    Issues and benefits

    • Rather than replicate Punjab’s successful agriculture mandi model, now states will lose vital revenue to even upgrade and repair rural infrastructure.
    • The ordinance may be challenged by the states for its constitutional overreach.
    •  But, on the flip side, over time, the largest informal sector in the country will begin to get formalised and new business models will develop.
    • A different breed of aggregators will create the much-needed competition to the existing monopoly of local traders.
    • Additionally, henceforth, when farmers sell agricultural produce outside of APMC market yards, they cannot legally be charged commission on the sale of farm produce.
    • To survive, the APMCs across the nation will have to radically standardise and rationalise their mandi fee structure and limit the commission charged by traders on sale of farmers’ produce.

    2) ECA 1955: Not enough has been done

    • Here, the amendment was supposed to allay the genuine fears of traders emitting from the bureaucracy’s draconian powers to arbitrarily evoke stockholding limits etc.
    • Rather than forego its own powers for the larger good, the amendment’s fine print makes it ambiguous and leaves space for whimsical interpretations as before.
    • The trader’s uncertainty is compounded by the arbitrary import-export policy decisions which dilute the purpose of the amendment itself.

    3) Ordinance on Contract farming

    •  “The Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement on Price Assurance and Farm Services Ordinance 2020” tries to placate the fears of both the farmer and the contractor when they sign an agreement.
    • For the farmer, the legal recourse is never a practical choice as the persuasive powers of the aggregators’ deep pockets cast a dark shadow over the redressal process.
    • Likewise, the tediously stretched legal proceedings are dissuasion enough to either not seek redressal or settle for unfavourable terms.
    • That produce derived from contract farming operations will not be subject to any obstructionist laws is a very good step.
    • Farmer-producer organisations and new aggregators will get a boost with these laws, and become harbingers of prosperity in some small corners of the countryside.
    • There are green shoots in the ordinances, but the downside dwarfs the upside.

    So, what are the implications of these 3 reforms?

    • The union of the three ordinances appears to be a precursor to implementing the Shanta Kumar Committee recommendations to dilute and dismantle FCI, MSP & PDS which will push farmers from the frying into the fire.
    • It may also be interpreted to mean that now the sugar industry needn’t pay farmers the central government FRP or the state government SAP price for sugarcane.

    Consider the question ” There was a mention of reforms related to agri-sector in the recently announced stimulus package. Examine the issues with segments of agri-sector which necessitated these reforms.”

    Conclusion

    The reforms in these 3 areas if carried out earnestly could go a long way in helping the farmers get out of the misery and help achieve the goal of doubling of farmers income in the set time frame.

    Back2Basics: Agriculture Produce Marketing Committee Regulation (APMC) Act.

    • All wholesale markets for agricultural produce in states that have adopted the Agricultural Produce Market Regulation Act (APMRA) are termed as “regulated markets”.
    • With the exception of Kerala, J & K, and Manipur, all other states have enacted the APMC Act.
    • It mandates that the sale/purchase of agricultural commodities notified under it are to be carried out in specified market areas, yards or sub-yards. These markets are required to have the proper infrastructure for the sale of farmers’ produce.
    • Prices in them are to be determined by open auction, conducted in a transparent manner in the presence of an official of the market committee.
    • Market charges for various agencies, such as commissions for commission agents (arhtiyas); statutory charges, such as market fees and taxes; and produce-handling charges, such as for cleaning of produce, and loading and unloading, are clearly defined, and no other deduction can be made from the sale proceeds of farmers.
    • Market charges, costs, and taxes vary across states and commodities.

    Essential Commodities Act 1955

    • The ECA is an act which was established to ensure the delivery of certain commodities or products, the supply of which if obstructed owing to hoarding or black-marketing would affect the normal life of the people.
    • The ECA was enacted in 1955. This includes foodstuff, drugs, fuel (petroleum products) etc.
    • It has since been used by the Government to regulate the production, supply and distribution of a whole host of commodities it declares ‘essential’ in order to make them available to consumers at fair prices.
    • Additionally, the government can also fix the maximum retail price (MRP) of any packaged product that it declares an “essential commodity”.
    • The list of items under the Act includes drugs, fertilizers, pulses and edible oils, and petroleum and petroleum products.
    • The Centre can include new commodities as and when the need arises, and takes them off the list once the situation improves.

    How ECA works?

    • If the Centre finds that a certain commodity is in short supply and its price is spiking, it can notify stock-holding limits on it for a specified period.
    • The States act on this notification to specify limits and take steps to ensure that these are adhered to.
    • Anybody trading or dealing in the commodity, be it wholesalers, retailers or even importers are prevented from stockpiling it beyond a certain quantity.
    • A State can, however, choose not to impose any restrictions. But once it does, traders have to immediately sell into the market any stocks held beyond the mandated quantity.
    • This improves supplies and brings down prices. As not all shopkeepers and traders comply, State agencies conduct raids to get everyone to toe the line and the errant are punished.
    • The excess stocks are auctioned or sold through fair price shops.

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    What makes Himalayan tourism spots vulnerable to landslides?

    | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    This newscard talks about the city of Dharamshala where landslides occur frequently.

    Practice question for mains:

    Q.“Himalayan region is more susceptible to floods and flood induced landslides than the Western Ghats”. Discuss.

    Why is Dharamshala more vulnerable to landslides?

    • Dharamshala has a slope varying from gentle to steep, depending on different parts of the city.
    • It is located in Zone V in the earthquake hazard zoning map of India.
    • The large differences in slope between different parts of the city make it more susceptible to critical hazards like landslides.
    • The vulnerability of the geologically young steep slopes of Dhauladhar has increased because of anthropogenic activities and illegal construction due to the lack of availability of land.

    Why do landslides occur?

    • Increasing urbanisation, deforestation and encroachment of areas at high hill slopes, unscientific road cutting and water-intensive agricultural practices contributed to the increase in intensity and frequency of landslides.
    • The situation is worse during the monsoon when landslide-prone areas are washed away due to exposure.
    • This is due to the demand for living within the city. It is not just the difference between slopes, but also anthropogenic causes that lead to the emergence of hazards like landslides.

    Why tourist spots are more vulnerable?

    1) Road traffic is high

    • During the peak tourist season, the road is marred with traffic jams due to continuous sinking.
    • Several factors have continuously contributed to an increase in the road’s vulnerability. The first is Illegal construction and uncontrolled levelling of hillocks along the roads.
    • Hillocks are flattened to accommodate housing projects, commercial establishments, etc. The informal sector often starts residing in these areas which are more vulnerable to risks.
    • These areas have comparatively lower land values and fewer people come to settle here.

    2) Loss in green cover

    • The second is a loss in green cover, something that occurs as more people reside within the city, increasing soil erosion, risking the further vulnerability to landslides.
    • Due to the loss of green cover and steep gradient of the slope, water is not absorbed in the soil and washed away very quickly.

    3) Damaged topography

    • The third is the unscientific manner of cutting hills for widening roads and construction.
    • This causes the sinking of roads, which affects road width and causes traffic interruptions.

    4) Sewage failures

    • The fourth is the absence of a sewerage system in the area. Due to unavailability of sewerage systems, people construct septic tanks that are unsafe for soil strata.
    • Water from septic tanks drains to the upper layer of soil that has loose soil, making areas more vulnerable to damage from landslides.

    Also read

    The Northern and Northeastern Mountains | Part 1

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  • Coronavirus – Health and Governance Issues

    How ‘Vaccine Nationalism’ could block vulnerable populations’ access to COVID-19 vaccines

    | Ethics | Mains Paper 4: Ethics

    Hundreds of COVID-19 vaccine candidates are currently being developed. Many countries are securing priority access to doses of COVID-19 vaccine.

    Practice question for Mains:

    Q. What is Vaccine Nationalism? Discuss various ethical issues involved and its impact on vulnerable populations across the globe.

    Vaccine nationalism during COVID-19

    • Vaccine nationalism occurs when a country manages to secure doses of vaccine for its own citizens or residents before they are made available in other countries.
    • This is done through pre-purchase agreements between a government and a vaccine manufacturer.
    • Vaccine nationalism is harmful to equitable access to vaccines.

    US begins to secure

    • In India, the privately held Serum Institute is developing one of the leading COVID-19 vaccine candidates.
    • The Serum Institute signalled that, if the development of the vaccine succeeds, most of the initial batches of the vaccine will be distributed within India.
    • At the same time, India, alongside the US and Russia, chose not to join the Access to COVID-19 Tools Accelerator.
    • This was a WHO moves to promote collaboration among countries in the development and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines and treatments.

    Vaccine nationalism is not new

    • During the early stages of the 2009 H1N1 flu pandemic, some of the wealthiest countries entered into pre-purchase agreements with several pharmaceutical companies working on H1N1 vaccines.
    • At that time, it was estimated that, in the best-case scenario, the maximum number of vaccine doses that could be produced globally was two billion.
    • The US alone negotiated and obtained the right to buy 600,000 doses. All the countries that negotiated pre-purchase orders were developed economies.
    • Only when the 2009 pandemic began to unwind and demand for a vaccine dropped did developed countries offer to donate vaccine doses to poorer economies.

    Issues with such nationalism

    • The most immediate effect of vaccine nationalism is that it further disadvantages countries with fewer resources and bargaining power.
    • It deprives populations in the Global South from timely access to vital public health goods.
    • Taken to its extreme, it allocates vaccines to moderately at-risk populations in wealthy countries over populations at higher risk in developing economies.
    • Vaccine nationalism also runs against the fundamental principles of vaccine development and global public health.

    Why it is unethical?

    • Most vaccine development projects involve several parties from multiple countries.
    • With modern vaccines, there are very few instances in which a single country can claim to be the sole developer of a vaccine.
    • And even if that were possible, global public health is borderless. As COVID-19 is illustrating, viruses can travel the globe.

    Its impacts

    • If COVID-19 vaccines are not made available affordably to those who need them, the consequences will likely be disproportionately severe for poorer or otherwise vulnerable and marginalised populations.
    • Without broad access to a vaccine, these populations will likely continue to suffer more than others, leading to unnecessary disease burden, continued economic problems and potential loss of life.

    Conclusion

    • Nationalism is at odds with global public health principles. Yet, there are no provisions in international laws that prevent pre-purchase agreements like the ones described above.
    • There is nothing inherently wrong with pre-purchase agreements of pharmaceutical products.
    • Vaccines typically do not generate as much in sales as other medical products.
    • If used correctly, pre-purchase agreements can even be an incentive for companies to manufacture vaccines that otherwise would not be commercialized.

    Way forward

    • Equity entails both, affordability of vaccines and access opportunities for populations across the world, irrespective of geography and geopolitics.
    • Contracts should not trump equitable access to global public health goods.
    • Developed countries should pledge to refrain from reserving vaccines for their populations during public health crises.
    • The WHO’s Access to COVID-19 Tools Accelerator is a starting point for countries to test collaborative approaches during the current pandemic.
    • International institutions — including the WHO — should coordinate negotiations ahead of the next pandemic to produce a framework for equitable access to vaccines during public health crises.

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    What is Axone?

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    A movie named Axone — also spelt akhuni —soya bean dish of Nagaland has been recently released.

    The traditional ‘Axone’ dish is very unique in itself. However, one must note that it does NOT carry any GI tag. Still, there is a possibility of it being asked in match the pair type questions.

    What is Axone?

    • Axone — also spelt akhuni — is a fermented soya bean of Nagaland, known for its distinctive flavour and smell.
    • As much an ingredient as it is a condiment, Axone used to make pickles and chutneys, or curries of pork, fish, chicken, beef etc.
    • While it is called ‘axone’ in parts of Nagaland, fermented soya bean is cooked with, eaten and known by different names in different parts of Northeast India, including Meghalaya and Mizoram, Sikkim, Manipur as well in other South, Southeast and East Asian countries.
    • Axone is prepared and eaten across Nagaland but is particularly popular among the Sumi (also Sema) tribe. They use it in every meal.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

    India-China Border Dispute: A Conflict that has been in the making for years

    | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    This article chronicles the border dispute between the two countries. It began in 1914 and ever after more than a hundred years it still continues. But the latest clash was the deadliest after 1967. Let’s go through past incidents over the border issue.

    1914: A border China never agreed to

    • The conflict stretches back to at least 1914.
    • In 2014 representatives from Britain, the Republic of China and Tibet gathered in Simla to negotiate a treaty that would determine the status of Tibet and effectively settle the borders between China and British India.
    • The Chinese, unhappy at proposed terms that would have allowed Tibet to be autonomous and remain under Chinese control, refused to sign the deal.
    • But Britain and Tibet signed a treaty establishing what would be called the McMahon Line, named after a British colonial official, Henry McMahon, who proposed the border.
    • India maintains that the McMahon Line, a 550-mile frontier that extends through the Himalayas, is the official legal border between China and India.
    • But China has never accepted it.

    1962: India-China War and origin of LAC

    •  Tensions rose throughout the 1950s.
    • The Chinese insisted that Tibet was never independent and could not have signed a treaty creating an international border.
    • There were several failed attempts at peaceful negotiation.
    • China sought to control critical roadways near its western frontier in Xinjiang.
    • India and its Western allies saw any attempts at Chinese incursion as part of a wider plot to export Maoist-style Communism across the region.
    • By 1962, war had broken out.
    • Chinese troops crossed the McMahon Line and took up positions deep in Indian territory, capturing mountain passes and towns.
    • By November China declared a cease-fire, unofficially redrawing the border near where Chinese troops had conquered territory.
    • It was the so-called Line of Actual Control.

    1967: In Sikkim, India pushes China back

    • Tensions came to a head again in 1967 along two mountain passes, Nathu La and Cho La, that connected Sikkim — then a kingdom and a protectorate of India — and China’s Tibet Autonomous Region.
    • A scuffle broke out when Indian troops began laying barbed wire along what they recognized as the border.
    • The scuffles soon escalated when a Chinese military unit began firing artillery shells at the Indians.
    • In the ensuing conflict, more than 150 Indians and 340 Chinese were killed.
    • The clashes in September and October 1967 in those passes would later be considered the second all-out war between China and India.
    • But India prevailed, destroying Chinese fortifications in Nathu La and pushing them farther back into their territory near Cho La.
    • The change in positions, however, meant that China and India each had different and conflicting ideas about the location of the Line of Actual Control.
    • The fighting was the last time that troops on either side would be killed. — until the skirmishes in the Galwan Valley on Tuesday.

    1987: A crisis averted

    • In 1987, the Indian military was conducting a training operation to see how fast it could move troops to the border.
    • The large number of troops and material arriving next to Chinese outposts surprised Chinese commanders — who responded by advancing toward what they considered the Line of Actual Control.
    • Realizing the potential to inadvertently start a war, both India and China de-escalated, and a crisis was averted.

    2013: Stand-off at Daulat Beg Oldi

    • After decades of patrolling the border, a Chinese platoon pitched a camp near Daulat Beg Oldi in April 2013.
    • The Indians soon followed, setting up their own base fewer than 1,000 feet away.
    • The camps were later fortified by troops and heavy equipment.
    • By May, the sides had agreed to dismantle both encampments, but disputes about the location of the Line of Actual Control persisted.

    2017: Doklam Stand-off

    • In June 2017, the Chinese set to work building a road in the Doklam Plateau, an area of the Himalayas controlled not by India, but by its ally Bhutan.
    • Indian troops carrying weapons and operating bulldozers confronted the Chinese with the intention of destroying the road.
    • A standoff ensued, soldiers threw rocks at each other, and troops from both sides suffered injuries.
    • In August, the countries agreed to withdraw from the area, and China stopped construction on the road.

    2020: Ladakh stand-off

    • In May, melees broke out several times.
    • In one clash at the glacial lake Pangong Tso, Indian troops were badly injured and had to be evacuated by helicopter.
    • China bolstered its forces with dump trucks, excavators, troop carriers, artillery and armored vehicles, Indian experts said.
    • What was clear was that it was the most serious series of clashes between the two sides since 2017 — and a harbinger of the deadly confrontation to come.

    Consider the question “Examine the elements that make the border dispute between India and China difficult to resolve.”

    Conclusion

    Border dispute in two giants could easily escalate into a full-blown war. India has to recalibrate the policy approach after the recent clash and take steps that would prepare it for such an eventuality.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Nepal

    Changing Nepal and changing ties with India

    op-ed snap | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Of late, India’s bilateral relations with Nepal has been going south. The latest trigger has been the changes made by Nepal in the map. This article explores the transformation of Nepal and its impact on India-Nepal relations. Despite the efforts by Nepal to explore the options beyond India, ties are still robust between the two countries and this is reflected in more than one ways.

    Let’s map the changes in  Nepal with one constant factor: nationalism

    1. Democracy

    • The obvious change in Nepal is that it is now a democratic republic after nearly 250 years of being a monarchy.
    • The Nepali Congress and Maoist leader, Prachanda, claim democracy (1990) and the abolition of monarchy (2008) as their legacies.

    2. Societal change due to exposure to globalisation

    • More pervasive is the societal change from Nepal’s exposure to globalisation.
    • Geography, too, stands to change, with the Chinese now having the potential to bore through the Himalayas and exhibiting their presence in Kathmandu in economics and politics.

    3. Nationalism

    • The constant in Nepal is nationalism which is really a mask for anti-India sentiment.
    • Politicians use it for personal gain, and it is deeply ingrained in the bureaucracy, academia and the media.
    • Today, Prime Minister K.P. Sharma Oli is cementing his legacy as a nationalist by extending Nepal’s map into Indian territory.
    • The cartographic aggression and the embedding of the new map in the country’s national emblem and Constitution are untenable and should have been avoided under all circumstances.
    • In 2015, the Nepali Congress government adopted the new Constitution, ignoring India’s concerns.

    4. Identity politics

    • Identity politics with India is also visible within the country.
    • Nepali citizens from the Terai (Madhesis) feel discriminated as being “Indian”.

    To Nepal, their attitudes reflect the angst of a small state. To India, Nepal appears incorrigible.

    Let’s understand how globalisation changed Nepal

    • After democracy was restored in 1990, passports were more liberally issued, and Nepalis began looking for work opportunities globally, beyond just India.
    • West Asia and South-East Asia specifically became major destinations for labour migration.
    • Security uncertainties with the Maoist insurgency at home also propelled the trend of migration.
    • Students and skilled personnel began moving to Europe, the United States, Australia, Thailand and even to Japan and South Korea.
    • As of 2019, nearly a fifth of Nepal’s population, from all parts of the country, were reportedly overseas.
    • At an estimated $8 billion, global remittances account for nearly 30% of Nepal’s nominal GDP.
    • This makes Nepal one of the most remittance-dependent countries in the world.
    • Leftist ideology and the prominent presence of international non-governmental organisations — ostensibly there to resolve conflict and alleviate poverty — have added to Nepal’s exposure to the world.
    • Nepal’s 2011 Census shows that over 80% of its 28 million-strong population were Hindus, and since 1962, it had formally been a Hindu kingdom.
    • The new Constitution in 2015 makes Nepal a secular country.
    • The proliferation of communication technology has also spread a certain cosmopolitanism but without the accompanying metropolitanism.

    Nepal exploring options beyond India

    • Kathmandu has continued its long-standing efforts to spread Nepal’s options beyond India.
    • Multilateral development banks are by far the biggest lenders and players in the country’s development efforts.
    • And in fact, one of Nepal’s largest aid donors is the European Union.
    • India and China are not the only players for big projects either.
    • A long-delayed project to pipe water into Kathmandu was with an Italian company.
    • Major investments in the telecom sector are coming from Malaysia, and the largest international carrier in Nepal is Qatar Airways.

    Weakening of natural bond and responsible factors

    • The outward movement of students, along with with the growth of institutions of higher learning at home, has meant that most young people in Nepal, including emerging contemporary leaders in politics, business or academics, have not studied in India.
    • This lack of common collegiate roots removes a natural bond of previous generations that had provided for better understanding and even empathy.
    • While most Nepalis understand Hindi, because of the popularity of Bollywood, articulation is quite another matter.

    Robust ties with India, despite diversification

    • Despite Nepal’s efforts to diversify its options globally, its linkages with India remain robust.
    • Nepal’s trade with India has grown in absolute terms and continues to account for more than two-thirds of Nepal’s external trade of around $12 billion annually.
    • This clearly reflects the advantages of geography, both physical and societal.
    • India continues to be the largest aggregate investor in Nepal.
    • The massive under-construction Arun-III 900 MW hydro-electric project is slated to singly produce as much power, when completed in five years, as Nepal produces today.
    • Moreover, the peg with the Indian Rupee provides unique stability to the Nepali Rupee.

    Unique advantage to Nepal

    • Nepal’s per-capita income is just above $1,000.
    • While the huge remittance economy has brought a semblance of well-being, the country has a long way to go in reaching prosperity.
    • The relationship with India, with open borders and Nepalis being allowed to live and work freely, provides Nepal a unique advantage and an economic cushion.
    • The latter is particularly important today with COVID-19-caused global contraction positioned to pop the remittance bubble.
    • Neither the Chinese nor any others are likely to write blank cheques.
    • India for its part should also focus on developing its border areas with Nepal, with better roads and amenities of interest (such as shopping malls) to the burgeoning Nepali middle class.
    • This would have economic plusses for both sides and keep ties strong at the people’s level. It would also be an image makeover.

    Consider the question “Despite intermittent disagreements over certain issues, India-Nepal ties remain robust. In light of this, elaborate on the ties between the two countries and suggest ways to find the solution to the latest border dispute between the two countries.”

    Conclusion

    It is important that we update the prism through which we view our relationship with our Himalayan neighbour. We must not forget the past nor turn away from it but, instead, must be mindful of the realities of a changing India and a changing Nepal.

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    “Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region” Report

    | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    The Union Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES) has released the “Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region” Report.

    This newscard discusses a very important concept: the Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP). Note its definition.  It can be directly asked as a statement based on prelims MCQ.

    Highlights of the report

    • Average surface air temperatures over India could rise by up to 4.4 degrees Celsius by the end of the century as compared to the period between 1976 and 2005, according to the MoES report.
    • The rise in temperatures will be even more pronounced in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region where the average could reach 5.2°C.
    • The region is already highly vulnerable to climate-related variability in temperatures, rainfall and snowfall.
    • By 2100, the frequency of warm days and warm nights might also increase by 55 per cent and 70 per cent respectively, as compared to the period 1976-2005 under the RCP 8.5 scenario.
    • The incidences of heat waves over the country could also increase by three to four times. Their duration of occurrence might also increase which was already witnessed by the country in 2019.

    A 100-year record

    • Between 1900 and 2018, the average temperatures of India rose by 0.7°C.
    • This rise in temperatures has been largely attributed to global warming due to GHG emissions and land use and land cover changes.
    • But it has also been slightly reduced by the rising aerosol emissions in the atmosphere that have an overall cooling characteristic.
    • The report predicts that monsoon rainfall could change by an average of 14 per cent by 2100 that could go as high as 22.5 per cent.
    • The report does not mention if this change will be an increase or a decrease but still represents variability.
    • It further says that the overall rainfall during the monsoon season has decreased by six per cent between 1950 and 2015.

    Data on dry spells

    • The assessment also says that in the past few decades, there has been an increased frequency of dry spells during the monsoon season that has increased by 27 per cent between 1981-2011, as compared to 1951-1980.
    • The intensity of wet spells has also increased over the country, with central India receiving 75 per cent more extreme rainfall events between 1950 and 2015. This means that it either rains too little or too much.
    • One of the primary examples of this was the monsoon seasons of 2018 and 2019 where dry spells were broken by extremely heavy rainfall spells, creating a flood and drought cycle in many regions in India.

    What is Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP)?

    • A Representative Concentration Pathway (RCP) is a greenhouse gas concentration (not emissions) trajectory adopted by the IPCC.
    • It is defined as a radiative force in watt per square metre due to the rising greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in the atmosphere.
    • Four pathways were used for climate modelling and research for the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) in 2014.
    • The pathways describe different climate futures, all of which are considered possible depending on the volume of greenhouse gases (GHG) emitted in the years to come.
    • The RCPs – originally RCP2.6, RCP4.5, RCP6, and RCP8.5 – are labelled after a possible range of radiative forcing values in the year 2100 (2.6, 4.5, 6, and 8.5 W/m2, respectively).
    • Since AR5 the original pathways are being considered together with Shared Socioeconomic Pathways: as are new RCPs such as RCP1.9, RCP3.4 and RCP7.

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  • Coronavirus – Health and Governance Issues

    COVID Isolation Coaches and their deployment

    | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    The Union govt. has declared that 500 COVID isolation coaches would be deployed in Delhi. So far, over 5,000 coaches have been converted into COVID isolation coaches across India.

    Practice question for mains:

    Q. Health infrastructure in India is hardly capable of handling any  pandemic. Critically comment.

    What are these COVID Isolation Coaches?

    • In March, Railways was sounded out by the PMO and the government’s multi-ministerial outbreak-containment apparatus that train coaches could also be used as a last resort to keep isolated patients.
    • So far, 5,321 non-AC sleeper class coaches of ICF variety (older design) have been converted by the 16 zonal railways through their workshops spread across India.
    • These are developed as COVID Care Level 1 centres—as per the Health Ministry classification of COVID facilities—where suspected cases or those with mild symptoms are to be kept.
    • Suspected and confirmed cases will be kept in separate coaches.

    How were these coaches selected?

    • Early into the pandemic, health experts were of the view that air-conditioned environments might aid the spread of the virus.
    • Well-ventilated, airy environments were thought to be safer. India’s decision to use non-AC coaches for isolation has to be viewed in that context.
    • As per targets given to the 16 zonal railways, 5,000 older coaches, surplus to Railways’ operational needs, were marked for conversion.

    What were the challenges faced?

    • The summer heat in the coach was always a matter of discussion.
    • Several ideas were discussed, including erecting shamianas over the coaches or painting the roof with “solar reflective” paints.
    • Another question was how to dispose of toilet waste if the coaches were in remote areas and whether such waste was potentially infectious.
    • It was agreed that since chlorine tablets are placed in the chambers of the bio toilets, the risk was neutralised.
    • In any case, bio-enzymes in the toilet tanks take care of human waste.
    • Another question was the placement. The batteries of the coaches need to be charged and the water needs to be replenished. Not all areas in India might have such facilities.
    • The idea was that being mobile units, they could be dispatched to any part of the country to pick up patients and come back to their bases.

    Deployment of such train

    • Each isolation train will be tied to the nearest hospital.
    • The Centre will not deploy these coaches at will; states will have to request for them.
    • At least 10 coaches, or one train, will have to be deployed in one place. States can request for more.
    • Besides the 500 being deployed in Delhi, Telangana has requested for 60 coaches in three locations, and UP has requested in 24 locations.
    • Many states are said to be informally enquiring about the coaches in zones.

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    When did CO2 become our planet’s arch enemy?

    | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Carbon dioxide was always essential for our planet. This newscard discusses when did it become too much.

    Try this question from CSP 2017:

    Q. In the context of mitigating the impending global warming due to anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide, which of the following can be the potential sites for carbon sequestration?

    1. Abandoned and uneconomic coal seams
    2. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs
    3. Subterranean deep saline formations

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

    GHGs in atmosphere

    • The Earth’s atmosphere is made up of different gases. The temperature of the atmosphere depends on a balance between the incoming energy from the sun and the energy that bounces back into space.
    • Greenhouse gases (GHG) such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane and nitrous oxide play an important role in the atmosphere.
    • They absorb some of the sun’s heat and release it back in all directions, including back to the atmosphere.
    • Through this process, CO2 and other GHGs keep the atmosphere warmer than it would be without them.
    • However, fossil fuel-run industries and other human activities add GHGs to the atmosphere. This, in turn, increases atmospheric temperature, causing global warming.

    Assessing the carbon level

    • In 1958, American scientist Charles David Keeling calculated the amount of CO2 in our atmosphere.
    • When he started his measurements in 1958, the CO2 levels were around 315 parts per million (PPM).
    • When he died in 2005, the project was taken over by his son Ralph Keeling. By 2014, CO2 levels had increased to about 400 PPM.
    • With his systematic study of atmospheric CO2, Keeling became the first person to alert the world about the increasing levels of CO2 in the atmosphere.

    Reasons for rising CO2 levels

    • Scientists first argued that the increasing release of methane and CO2 was due to agriculture and livestock.
    • But, with the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 18th century, the use of fossil fuels and CO2 levels rose simultaneously.
    • Nations that underwent the Industrial Revolution used huge amounts of fossil fuels and became centres of high CO2 emissions, while nations with an agrarian economy emitted less GHGs.
    • Over the years, as CO2 levels increased, it sparked off debates and arguments between the GHG-emitting rich industrial nations and the victims of global warming — the poorer nations.

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  • Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

    Species in news: Hilsa Fish

    Prelims OnlySpecies | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Fishermen in West Bengal are in for a pleasant surprise amid the COVID-19 gloom as they have exuded hope of a bumper yield of Hilsa, known as “maacher rani” (queen of fish).

    Try this question from CSP 2019:

    Q. Consider the following pairs:

    Wildlife Naturally found in
    1. Blue-finned Mahseer Cauvery River
    2. Irrawaddy Dolphin Chambal River
    3. Rusty-spotted Cat Eastern Ghats

    Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?

    a) 1 and 2 only

    b) 2 and 3 only

    c) 1 and 3 only

    d) 1, 2 and 3

    Hilsa Fish

    IUCN status: Least Concerned

    • The Hilsa is a species of fish related to the herring, in the family Clupeidae.
    • It is a very popular and sought-after food fish in the Indian Subcontinent.
    • It is the national fish of Bangladesh and state symbol in the Indian states of West Bengal and Tripura.
    • The fish contributes about 12% of the total fish production and about 1.15% of GDP in Bangladesh.

    What’s so special about Hilsa?

    • Hilsa has a history of migrating to Allahabad in the Ganga river system from Bangladesh.
    • Though it’s a saltwater fish, it migrates to sweet waters of the Ganges from the Bay of Bengal.
    • It travels upstream of the river during the mating seasons and returns to its natural abode after spawning.

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