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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    How extracting and producing nickel can be made more sustainable 

    Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    A new study by the Max Planck Institute for Sustainable Materials has introduced a new method to extract nickel using hydrogen plasma instead of carbon. This cleaner, carbon-free process is being seen as a major breakthrough.

    What is the new hydrogen plasma method? 

    • Hydrogen gas is converted into plasma using an electric arc furnace. This plasma reacts with nickel oxide to produce pure nickel and water, instead of carbon dioxide.
    • The method is particularly effective for laterite ores, which are abundant in tropical regions like Odisha’s Sukinda belt, making it economically viable for India’s low-grade nickel resources.

    How is it different from traditional methods?

    Aspect Traditional Method Hydrogen Plasma Method
    Process Type Multi-step: calcination, smelting, reduction, refining Single-step metallurgical process using hydrogen plasma
    Reducing Agent Carbon (produces CO₂ as a byproduct) Hydrogen plasma (produces water as a byproduct)
    Environmental Impact High energy use and CO₂ emissions Up to 84% lower CO₂ emissions and ~18% more energy-efficient

    What is the importance of nickel? 

    • Crucial for Clean Energy Technologies: Nickel is essential in manufacturing lithium-ion batteries, used in electric vehicles (EVs) and renewable energy storage systems. Eg: High-nickel batteries like NMC (Nickel Manganese Cobalt) offer higher energy density and longer life for EVs like Tesla or Tata Nexon EV.
    • Used in Stainless Steel Production: Over 60% of global nickel is used in making stainless steel, providing strength, corrosion resistance, and durability. Eg: Used in construction materials, kitchenware, medical instruments, and infrastructure.
    • Strategic Industrial Metal: Plays a key role in the aerospace, defence, and electronics industries due to its ability to withstand extreme temperatures. Eg: Used in jet engines, turbines, and superalloys.
    • Supports Green Infrastructure Goals: Nickel-based technologies support the transition to net-zero and green economy targets. Eg: Solar panels, wind turbines, and grid-scale battery storage use nickel-based components.
    • Economic and Strategic Resource for Countries: Nations with nickel reserves gain economic and geopolitical advantage, especially in the energy transition era. Eg: India’s reserves in Odisha (Sukinda region) can reduce import dependency and boost Atmanirbhar Bharatgoals.

    Where are India’s nickel reserves found?

    • Odisha – Sukinda Region: Major nickel laterite reserves are located in Sukinda valley, Jajpur district, Odisha. Eg: Found as nickeliferous limonite in chromite mine overburden with 0.4–0.9% nickel content.
    • Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh: Smaller deposits are also reported in parts of Jharkhand (e.g., Singhbhum) and Chhattisgarh, although less exploited.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government?

    • National Critical Mineral Mission: Launched in January 2025 with ₹16,300–34,300 crore outlay to enhance domestic exploration, mining, processing, and recycling of minerals like nickel, lithium, and cobalt.
    • Policy Reforms & Incentives: Amendments to the Mines and Minerals Act and the PLI scheme for Advanced Chemistry Cell batteries promote private sector participation and domestic EV battery manufacturing.
    • Global Partnerships & Block Acquisition: India is securing overseas mineral assets via the Mineral Security Partnership and Khanij Bidesh India Ltd (KABIL), while also auctioning critical mineral blocks domestically.

    Way forward: 

    • Promote R&D and Industrial Scaling of Hydrogen Plasma Technology: India should invest in pilot projects and public-private partnerships to test and scale the hydrogen plasma method domestically, especially in regions like Odisha with abundant low-grade laterite nickel ores.
    • Strengthen Renewable Energy Integration in Mining Processes: To ensure true carbon neutrality, the electricity used in nickel extraction (especially in electric arc furnaces) must be sourced from renewables like solar, wind, or green hydrogen-based grids.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2023] How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?

    Linkage: Nickel is an important metal used in Electric Vehicles (EVs), which are seen as a cleaner alternative to fossil fuel-powered vehicles. However, the article highlight that while EVs reduce operational emissions, the manufacturing of their lithium-ion batteries, particularly the carbon-intensive extraction of nickel, creates hidden environmental costs.

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  • Zoonotic Diseases: Medical Sciences Involved & Preventive Measures

    HKU5 Bat Viruses pose potential Pandemic Risk

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    A new study warns that HKU5 bat coronaviruses, closely related to Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV), are just one mutation away from infecting humans.

    Back2Basics: Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS)

    • Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) is a viral respiratory disease caused by Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS‐CoV) that was first identified in Saudi Arabia in 2012.
    • It is a species of coronavirus which infects humans, bats, and camels.

    About HKU5 Virus and Its Characteristics:

    • Classification: HKU5 is a bat coronavirus that belongs to the merbecovirus subgenus, which also includes the MERS-CoV (Middle East Respiratory Syndrome coronavirus).
    • Origin: It was first identified in the Japanese pipistrelle bat in Hong Kong. “HKU” in the name refers to the University of Hong Kong, where the virus was identified.
    • Virology: HKU5 is an enveloped, positive-sense, single-stranded RNA virus, structurally similar to other high-risk coronaviruses.
    • Spread: The virus has been detected in bats across Asia, Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, indicating widespread natural reservoirs.
    • Cell Entry Mechanism: Like SARS-CoV-2, HKU5 uses the ACE2 receptor to infect cells, but current strains bind effectively only to bat ACE2, not human ACE2.
    • Recent Developments: In 2025, a new variant called HKU5-CoV-2 was isolated in China, and lab studies show it can infect human airway and gut cells, though less efficiently than SARS-CoV-2.
    • Genetic Similarity: HKU5 is genetically close to both MERS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2, though it has not yet been detected in humans.

    Threats and Risks Associated with HKU5 Virus:

    • Near-Human Infectivity: HKU5 is considered just one mutation away from gaining the ability to infect humans via the ACE2 receptor.
    • Cross-Species Transmission: Certain HKU5 strains have already jumped into minks, demonstrating its capacity to cross species barriers.
    • Pandemic Potential: If HKU5 acquires mutations allowing efficient use of human ACE2, it could pose a significant zoonotic pandemic threat.
    • Relation to Deadly Viruses: Its structural similarity to MERS-CoV, which has a 34% fatality rate, places HKU5 in a high-risk category if human infection occurs.
    [UPSC 2015] H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news concerning which one of the following diseases?

    Options: (a) AIDS (b) Bird flu (c) Dengue (d) Swine flu*

     

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  • New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

    Species in news: Himalayan long-tailed myotis

    Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    Researchers have identified a new-to-science bat species, the Himalayan long-tailed myotis (Myotis himalaicus), from the Western Himalayas.

    Species in news: Himalayan long-tailed myotis

    About Himalayan Long-Tailed Myotis:

    • New Species: It is a newly described bat species from the Western Himalayas.
    • Discovery: It was first recorded in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand, in 2021 and matched with an earlier specimen collected in Pakistan in 1998.
    • Class: It belongs to the Myotis frater complex, which includes bats found across East and Central Asia.

    Key Features:

    • Habitat: Found in high-altitude forests such as deodar, pine, and cedar.
    • Distribution: Likely found across India, Pakistan, and Nepal.
    • Tail: Notably features a long tail, setting it apart within the Myotis genus.
    • Rarity: Considered uncommon, with limited sightings.
    • Identification: Confirmed through morphological traits and genetic analysis.
    • Scientific Significance: Enhances understanding of bat diversity in the Himalayas and supports transboundary biodiversity research.
    [UPSC 2009] In the context of Indian wildlife, the flying fox is a:

    Options: (a) Bat* (b) Kite (c) Stork (d) Vulture

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Kashmir Merino: India’s First Gene-Edited Sheep

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Researchers at Sher-e-Kashmir University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (SKUAST) have successfully created India’s first gene-edited sheep—a Kashmir Merino breed.

    Kashmir Merino: India's First Gene-Edited Sheep

    About Kashmir Merino Sheep:

    • Overview: Kashmir Merino is a high-quality domestic sheep breed known for its fine wool and ability to thrive in cold climates.
    • Genetics: It was developed by crossbreeding exotic Merino rams with local sheep breeds in Jammu and Kashmir.
    • Characteristics: The breed produces soft, dense wool with high fibre quality, making it valuable for the textile industry.
    • Resilience: It is well-adapted to high-altitude Himalayan conditions, including extreme cold and low oxygen levels.
    • Significance: It plays a key role in regional livestock economies, contributing significantly to wool and mutton production in Jammu and Kashmir.

    Gene-Editing Breakthrough in Kashmir Merino:

    • Gene Targeted: Researchers used CRISPR-Cas9 technology to edit the myostatin gene, which normally inhibits muscle growth.
    • Impact: Disabling this gene led to a 30% increase in muscle mass, resulting in higher meat yield and improved economic returns for farmers.
    • Lab-to-Field Success: The edited embryo was developed in a laboratory and then successfully implanted into a surrogate mother, marking a full-cycle gene-editing achievement.
    • Biotech Significance: This success represents a major advancement in India’s livestock biotechnology, opening new paths for research in disease resistance, wool quality enhancement, and production of transgenic proteins.
    [UPSC 2017] What is the application of somatic cell nuclear transfer technology?

    Options: (a) Production of biolarvicides (b) Manufacture of biodegradable plastics (c) Reproductive cloning of animals* (d) Production of organisms free of diseases

     

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    NASA captures image of Mars’ Arsia Mons Volcano 

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    NASA’s Mars Odyssey orbiter has captured a spectacular image of Arsia Mons, one of Mars’ largest volcanoes.

    mons

    About Arsia Mons Volcano:

    • Location: Arsia Mons is a massive shield volcano on Mars, located in the Tharsis region near the planet’s equator.
    • Volcanic Chain: It is part of the Tharsis Montes trio, which includes Pavonis Mons and Ascraeus Mons.
    • Size and Structure: The volcano rises about 20 km (12 miles) in height and spans 450 kilometres in diameter, making it one of the largest in the Solar System.
    • Summit Caldera: Arsia Mons has an enormous caldera, or summit crater, measuring 120 kilometres across, which is much wider than most Earth volcanoes.
    • Volcano Type: It is a shield volcano, characterised by gentle slopes formed through successive lava flows.
    • Surface Features: Signs of lava channels, landslides, and possible ancient glaciers have been observed on its flanks.
    • Cloud Activity: Known as the cloudiest volcano on Mars, Arsia Mons regularly develops water-ice clouds near its summit, especially at sunrise and during aphelion, when Mars is farthest from the Sun.

    Its Significance:

    • Recent Imaging: A new image released by NASA shows Arsia Mons piercing through morning haze, offering scientists a horizon-level view of Martian terrain.
    • Scientific Importance: Observations help researchers analyse Martian weather, seasonal climate patterns, and atmospheric behaviour.
    • Mission Relevance: Arsia Mons plays a key role in understanding Mars’ volcanic history, dust storm formation, and identifying future landing zones.
    • Exploration Support: Data from this region improve planetary weather models and assist in safe mission planning for upcoming robotic and human missions.

    Back2Basics: NASA’s Mars Odyssey Orbiter  

    • Launch: Mars Odyssey was launched in 2001, making it NASA’s longest-operating spacecraft at Mars.
    • Technology: The orbiter captured the Arsia Mons image using the THEMIS (Thermal Emission Imaging System) camera.
    • Capabilities: This instrument detects both visible and infrared light, allowing scientists to study surface temperatures, mineral compositions, and atmospheric properties.
    • Unique Technique: To photograph Arsia Mons against the Martian horizon, the orbiter rotated its camera 90 degrees, deviating from its usual ground-facing orientation.
    • Contributions: It continues to monitor climate changes, study volcanoes and dust storms, and assist with landing site selection.
    • Support Role: It also serves as a communication relay for other active Mars missions, enabling data transfer and navigation for landers and rovers.

     

    [UPSC 2016] Consider the following statements:

    The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO 1. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission 2. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA 3. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    [9th June 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: New study makes controversial weather-tweaking idea more realistic

    op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    PYQ Relevance:

    [UPSC 2022] Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997.

    Linkage: The article highlight that the world needs to “lower its dependence on fossil fuels” because “greenhouse gas emissions are increasing worldwide,” leading to “rising surface temperatures”. The discussion around Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI) in the sources is presented as a controversial technology proposed to “directly cool the planet rather than bank on reducing emissions alone” as a means of “reducing the impacts of climate change

     

    Mentor’s Comment:  The world needs to rely less on fossil fuels, but progress has been slow because of problems like war, poverty, and rising prices. As a result, greenhouse gas emissions are still going up. To deal with this, some scientists suggest using new technologies to cool the Earth directly, instead of only focusing on cutting emissions. One such method is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI), where tiny particles are sprayed into the upper atmosphere to block sunlight and reduce warming.

    Today’s editorial discusses the Stratospheric Aerosol Injection technique, a key topic for GS Paper III (Science, Technology & Environment), highlighting its potential, challenges, and relevance to climate change mitigation efforts.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    A recent study in the journal Earth’s Future shared a new idea that could make SAI cheaper and easier to use, even though many people are still against it.

    What was the new idea? 

    • Use of Existing Aircraft: Instead of waiting a decade and spending billions to build special high-altitude planes, the study proposes modifying existing aircraft (like the Boeing 777F) to spray aerosols at lower altitudes.
    • Low-Altitude Injection in Polar Regions: The study suggests carrying out aerosol injections at lower altitudes (around 13 km) in polar and extratropical regions, where the stratosphere is more easily reachable. This approach is more cost-effective, technically simpler, and can be implemented sooner.

    What is Stratospheric Aerosol Injection (SAI)?

    SAI is a proposed method of cooling the planet by injecting tiny reflective particles (aerosols) into the stratosphere. It is inspired by volcanic eruptions, which naturally cool the Earth by spewing particles that reflect sunlight. These aerosols reduce the amount of sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface, creating a cooling effect.

    Why is the spraying of aerosol needed?

    • To Reflect Sunlight and Cool the Planet: Aerosols (like sulphur dioxide) reflect some of the sun’s rays back into space, reducing the heat reaching Earth’s surface. Eg: The 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption released sulphur dioxide, cooling Earth by about 0.5°C for over a year.
    • To Temporarily Reduce Global Warming Effects: SAI can lower atmospheric temperatures temporarily, helping to reduce severe climate effects like heatwaves, ice melt, and sea-level rise. Eg: A study showed spraying 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide at 13 km altitude could cool the planet by 0.6°C.
    • To Buy Time for Emissions Reductions and Climate Adaptation: While long-term solutions like clean energy are built, SAI could provide a temporary buffer against extreme climate impacts. Eg: It could delay serious effects like crop failure or habitat loss, allowing time for sustainable reforms.

    Why is low-altitude SAI seen as cost-effective?

    • No Need for Specialized Aircraft: Low-altitude SAI can be conducted using existing aircraft, avoiding the high costs of developing planes that fly above 20 km. Eg: Standard jets like the Boeing 777F can reach stratospheric levels in polar regions, making deployment more affordable.
    • Technically Less Challenging: Operating at lower altitudes reduces technical complexity, such as extreme temperature and pressure challenges faced at higher elevations. Eg: Modifying existing jets with pressurized tanks is easier than designing new high-altitude aircraft.
    • Faster Implementation Timeline: It enables quicker deployment, avoiding the 10-year delay and multi-billion dollar investment needed for high-altitude SAI systems. Eg: Using current infrastructure, SAI programs could begin much earlier to address urgent climate risks.

    Where is low-altitude injection feasible and why?

    • Feasible in Polar and Extratropical Regions: In these regions, the stratosphere starts at lower altitudes, making it accessible to standard aircraft. Eg: Over the Arctic or Antarctic, the tropopause (boundary between troposphere and stratosphere) is around 8–13 km, suitable for existing jets.
    • Infeasible Near the Equator: At equatorial regions, the stratosphere begins at 18 km or higher, which is beyond the reach of most commercial or military jets. Eg: Areas like Indonesia or the Amazon basin would require specially built aircraft for SAI.
    • Altitude Determines Aerosol Effectiveness: While higher altitude injections last longer in the atmosphere, lower altitude in polar zones allows SAI to be conducted with less cost and effort. Eg: Studies show that even at 13 km altitude in polar spring and summer, SAI can cool the planet by ~0.6°C with 12 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide.

    How does the use of existing aircraft like the Boeing 777F influence the implementation of SAI technology?

    • Reduces Deployment Costs: Using existing aircraft avoids the high capital expenditure needed to design and build specialized high-altitude jets. Eg: The Boeing 777F, a widely available cargo aircraft, can be adapted for SAI at lower stratospheric levels, cutting costs significantly.
    • Speeds Up Implementation: Existing jets can be modified and deployed faster, enabling earlier testing and potential use of SAI to address urgent climate risks. Eg: Building high-altitude aircraft may take nearly a decade, but using modified commercial planes could allow operations to start much sooner.
    • Requires Feasible Technical Modifications: Though not originally built for aerosol spraying, planes like the Boeing 777F can be retrofitted with specialized equipment. Eg: An August 2024 study proposed adding insulated double-walled pressurized tanks to safely carry and release sulphur dioxide.

    What are the Risks and Controversies of SAI?

    • Environmental and Health Side Effects: SAI could lead to acid rain, delayed ozone recovery, and unknown ecological disruptions due to aerosol particles in the atmosphere. Eg: Sulphur dioxide, commonly proposed for SAI, can form sulphuric acid in the atmosphere, harming ecosystems and human health.
    • Uneven Global Effects: SAI’s cooling impact may not be uniform worldwide, potentially benefiting some regions while worsening droughts, rainfall patterns, or crop yields in others. Eg: Cooling could be stronger in polar regions, while tropical areas, which face the worst climate impacts, may not benefit equally.
    • Governance and Ethical Concerns: SAI affects the entire planet, raising questions about who decides when, where, and how it’s used. It may lead to geopolitical tensions and misuse. Eg: A single country unilaterally injecting aerosols could trigger international disputes, especially if neighbouring regions suffer unintended consequences.

    Way forward: 

    • Establish a Global Governance Framework: International collaboration is essential to regulate research, testing, and potential deployment of SAI, ensuring transparency, accountability, and consent from all affected nations.
    • Focus on Complementary Climate Strategies: SAI should be treated as a temporary, supplementary tool, not a replacement for emission reduction. Massive investments must continue in renewables, carbon capture, and adaptation strategies. 

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  • Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

    Consultative regulation-making that should go further

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Why in the News?

    India’s main financial regulators — the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) and the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) — have, for the first time, created clear step-by-step procedures for how they will create and update their rules.

    What procedural reforms have the RBI and SEBI recently introduced in regulation-making?

    • Mandatory Public Consultation: Both RBI and SEBI now require a 21-day window for public feedback before finalizing regulations. Eg: When SEBI proposes changes to investment guidelines, stakeholders can submit suggestions during this consultation period.
    • Introduction of Impact Analysis and Regulatory Objectives: RBI must conduct an impact analysis to assess the effect of new regulations. SEBI must state the regulatory intent and objectives behind any proposed rule. Eg: Before introducing digital lending norms, RBI must assess how it affects NBFCs and consumers.
    • Periodic Review of Existing Regulations: Both regulators are now required to periodically review existing laws to ensure relevance and effectiveness. E.g.: SEBI may revisit earlier mutual fund rules to assess if they align with current market dynamics.

    Why is identifying economic rationale important for regulatory interventions?

    • Targets Actual Market Failures: Ensures that regulations are introduced to solve real economic issues, not just perceived ones. Eg: RBI introducing regulations on digital lending platforms to tackle predatory lending practices.
    • Improves Resource Allocation: Helps in the efficient use of regulatory capacity and government resources by focusing only where intervention is necessary. Eg: SEBI focusing surveillance on high-risk investment products rather than low-risk ones.
    • Enables Evidence-Based Policy Making: Economic rationale demands data-backed decision-making, leading to more robust and defensible policies. Eg: Mandating minimum capital buffers after analysing risk exposure in banks post-2008 crisis.
    • Strengthens Cost-Benefit Analysis: Clarifies whether the expected benefits outweigh the compliance and administrative costs. Eg: Before enforcing stricter disclosure norms, SEBI can evaluate if the benefits to investors justify the burden on companies.
    • Increases Public and Stakeholder Trust: When the rationale is transparent, it builds confidence in the regulator’s objectivity and fairness. Eg: Clearly stating economic reasoning behind banning front-running in trading enhances credibility.

    How do international practices like those in the US and EU guide regulatory impact assessment?

    • Mandatory Cost-Benefit Analysis: US regulators must evaluate the economic impact of any regulation before adoption to ensure benefits outweigh costs. Eg: The Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs (OIRA) reviews federal regulations to minimize economic burdens.
    • Problem Identification and Alternatives Assessment: The EU’s Better Regulation Framework requires identifying the core problem, evaluating alternative policy options, and selecting the most effective one. Eg: EU energy efficiency regulations involved assessing multiple alternatives before finalizing appliance labeling norms.
    • Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks: Both the US and EU emphasize post-implementation reviews to check if regulations achieve intended goals. Eg: The EU conducts ex-post evaluations as part of its regulatory cycle to ensure continuous improvement.

    When should regulations be reviewed and why?

    • At Pre-defined and Regular Intervals: Regulations should be reviewed periodically (e.g., every 3 years) to assess continued relevance. Eg: The IFSCA mandates review of its regulations every 3 years to align with changing market needs.
    • After Significant Economic or Sectoral Changes: Major changes like market failures, technological advancements, or crises should trigger a regulatory review. Eg: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a re-evaluation of financial sector norms to support liquidity and credit flow.
    • To Evaluate Effectiveness and Stakeholder Impact: Reviews help assess whether regulations have achieved their intended goals and consider public feedback. Eg: SEBI may review listing regulations based on feedback from companies and investors to enhance market transparency.

    Who can ensure uniform regulatory standards in India?

    • Parliament through Enactment of a Common Law: Parliament can introduce a standardised law (similar to the U.S. Administrative Procedure Act) to ensure consistent regulatory practices like impact assessments, public consultations, and periodic reviews across all regulators. Eg: A central Regulation-Making Procedure Act could mandate that all financial regulators follow uniform protocols.
    • Government Agencies Issuing Common Guidelines: The Central Government or NITI Aayog can issue model guidelines or frameworks to harmonise regulation-making procedures among regulators. Eg: Like the UK and Canada, India can adopt unified regulatory guidelines to promote transparency and accountability across SEBI, RBI, IFSCA, etc.

    Way forward: 

    • Enact a Unified Regulatory Procedure Law: Parliament should legislate a comprehensive framework for regulation-making that mandates impact analysis, public consultation, and periodic review across all regulators to ensure transparency and consistency.
    • Strengthen Institutional Capacity and Oversight: Build the capacity of regulatory bodies through training, digital tools, and staffing, and set up an independent oversight mechanism to monitor compliance with procedural norms and ensure accountability.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2018] “Citizens’ Charter is an ideal instrument of organizational transparency and accountability, but it has its own limitations. Identify the limitations and suggest measures for greater effectiveness or the Citizens Charter.”

    Linkage: The theme of “consultative regulation-making that should go further” as discussed in “Crafting India’s Regulatory Future”. In the article primarily discusses financial regulators and the PYQ addresses the Citizens’ Charter, both embody the fundamental principle of existing governance mechanisms needing to evolve and be strengthened to achieve their stated objectives of transparency, accountability, and more effective public engagement, moving beyond a “nascent stage” or “welcome start” to truly “go further.”

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  • Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

    Defence production in India receives a fillip

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

    Why in the News?

    After Operation Sindoor, India’s military strike against Pakistan in May, there has been a lot of talk about strategy — but it has also given a strong boost to India’s defence sector, especially to private companies and small businesses (MSMEs) involved in defence manufacturing.

    What impact did Operation Sindoor have on the performance of defence company stocks?

    • Sharp Rise in Defence Stocks: Defence company stocks surged by nearly 21% in the week when India conducted Operation Sindoor, significantly outperforming the broader market’s 3.1% rise in the Nifty50 index during the same period.
    • Sustained Positive Momentum: In the week following Operation Sindoor, defence stocks continued to rise by 5.4%, whereas the Nifty50 index actually declined by 0.5%, showing sustained investor confidence in the defence sector.
    • Reversal of Previous Underperformance: Before Operation Sindoor, defence stocks were lagging behind the top 50 companies on the National Stock Exchange, but the operation acted as a catalyst that boosted their performance substantially.

    Why is the growth in India’s defence production and exports significant?

    • Enhances Self-Reliance: The growth signals India’s increasing capability to produce defence equipment domestically, reducing dependence on imports. Eg, defence production reached a record ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24, showing strong progress in indigenous manufacturing.
    • Boosts Economic and Strategic Strength: Rising defence exports, which have doubled since FY20 and crossed ₹20,000 crore in recent years, help strengthen India’s global defence market presence and contribute to economic growth. The government’s export target of ₹30,000 crore for the current fiscal reflects this ambition.
    • Encourages Innovation and Industry Growth: Sustained double-digit growth since FY22 encourages innovation and investment in defence technology, benefiting both public and private sectors.

    How have private companies and MSMEs contributed to India’s defence sector in recent years?

    • Growing Share in Defence Production: Private defence companies increased their share of total defence production from about 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, showing their expanding role in the sector. Eg, companies like Paras Defence and Space Technologies have become prominent players.
    • Leading Role in Defence Exports: Private firms now account for the majority share of defence exports due to export authorisations, helping India expand its footprint in the global defence market. Eg, several private companies contribute to exports of small arms and protective gear.
    • MSMEs as Key Component Suppliers: MSMEs supply crucial components to the defence industry, with government procurement from MSMEs doubling the target to ₹13,000 crore in FY25. Eg, MSMEs provided goods worth around ₹3,000 crore between FY18 and FY20, with larger orders thereafter.

    When did defence production begin steady growth?

    • Defence production contracted by 2.5% in FY20 (pre-pandemic).
    • Since FY22, defence production has been seeing consistent double-digit growth.
    • The growth momentum continues with production touching nearly ₹90,000 crore by December 2024 against a target of ₹1.6 lakh crore for FY25.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian government? 

    • Promoting Domestic Manufacturing: The government has set ambitious targets to boost indigenous defence production, encouraging self-reliance. Eg, defence production crossed ₹1.3 lakh crore in FY24 and is targeted at ₹1.6 lakh crore in FY25.
    • Supporting MSMEs through Procurement: Mandatory public procurement targets have been set to ensure MSMEs receive steady orders and support. Eg, goods worth ₹13,000 crore were procured from MSMEs in FY25, more than double the target.
    • Encouraging Private Sector Participation: Policies have facilitated the growing involvement of private companies in defence production and exports. Eg, private companies increased their production share from 20% in FY17 to nearly 24% in FY25, and dominate defence exports.

    Way forward: 

    • Enhance Technology Upgradation and Innovation: Invest more in R&D and foster collaboration between public and private sectors to develop cutting-edge defence technologies, ensuring global competitiveness and self-reliance.
    • Strengthen MSME Integration and Export Support: Expand financial and policy support to MSMEs for scaling up production capacity and quality, and create dedicated export facilitation mechanisms to boost India’s defence exports further.

    Mains PYQ:

    [UPSC 2014] Defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. What influence this is expected to have on Indian defence and economy in the short and long run?

    Linkage: Recent data from the article clearly demonstrates a significant “fillip” in India’s defence production, directly linked with the “nascent stage” described in the 2014 PYQ. This 2014 question is highly relevant as it highlights a past perception that “defence manufacturing in India is still in a nascent stage. In this articel, the discussions on the efficacy and confidence in India’s home-grown defence capabilities have increased. Following “Operation Sindoor,” defence stocks of 18 companies on the Nifty Defence Index rose by almost 21% in a week in May, significantly outperforming the Nifty50 index.

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  • Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

    Mizoram and Goa declared Fully Literate under ULLAS Scheme

    Schemes | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

    Why in the News?

    In a major achievement for adult education in India, Mizoram and Goa have declared themselves “fully literate” under the ULLAS Scheme (Understanding Lifelong Learning for All in Society).

    What does “Fully Literate” mean under ULLAS?

    • As per the Ministry of Education (August 2024):
      • A person is literate if they can read, write, and compute with comprehension, including essential life skills.
      • A state is considered fully literate if it achieves 95% literacy or more.
    • This aligns with the National Education Policy, 2020 and the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) target of achieving universal youth and adult literacy by 2030.

    About the ULLAS Scheme:

    • Launch: It is a centrally sponsored scheme launched in 2022.
    • Vision: It is based on the spirit of ‘Kartvya Bodh’ (DUTY) and is being implemented through volunteerism.
    • Official Name: It is formally known as the New India Literacy Programme and is being implemented over a five-year period (2022–2027).
    • Core Objective: The scheme aims to provide foundational literacy and numeracy to 5 crore non-literate individuals aged 15 years and above.
    • Key Learning Components:
      • Beyond Basics: In addition to reading, writing, and arithmetic, learners are taught critical life skills, such as financial literacy and digital literacy.
      • Beneficiary Identification: Individuals are identified through door-to-door surveys conducted by schools and local officials across states and UTs.
      • Volunteer Teaching Model: Teaching is provided by volunteers, including school and college students, teacher trainees, and community members.
    • Learning Support and Certification:
      • Learning Materials: The NCERT develops the core content, which is translated and adapted into 22 languages of India by state authorities.
      • Digital and Offline Modes: A mobile app supports the learning process, though offline teaching is also included for inclusive access.
      • Assessment Process: Learners appear for the Functional Literacy and Numeracy Assessment Test (FLNAT) — a 150-mark exam in multiple languages.
      • Certification: Those who pass the FLNAT are certified by the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) for achieving basic literacy and numeracy.

    Key Achievements on Full Literacy under ULLAS:

    • State Declarations:
      • Ladakh: First region to be declared fully literate (June 2024)
      • Goa: Declared fully literate with 99.72% literacy
      • Mizoram: Declared fully literate with 98.2% literacy
    • Performance Insights:
      • 100% pass rate in Goa and Tamil Nadu
      • Over 95% in Punjab, Assam, UP
      • Women-majority participation in several states (over 70% in Mizoram, Jharkhand, Tamil Nadu, etc.)
    • Historical Context: ULLAS Scheme builds on earlier adult literacy programs such as:
      • Saakshar Bharat (2009–2018)
      • National Literacy Mission (1988–2009)
      • National Adult Education Programme (1970s–1980s)
    [UPSC 2004] Consider the following statements: As per 2001 Census:

    1. the two States with the lowest sex ratio are Haryana and Punjab. 2. the two States with the lowest population per sq. km of area are Meghalaya and Mizoram. 3. Kerala has both the highest literacy rate and sex ratio.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 3 only* (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 1 and 3

     

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    Evidence of Pre-Harappan Human Presence discovered in Rann of Kutch

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    IIT Gandhinagar researchers have found evidence that humans lived in the Great Rann of Kutch 5,000 years before the Harappans, likely as coastal hunter-gatherers.

    About the Khadir Island Sites:

    • Location: Khadir Island (Khadir Beyt) is in the Great Rann of Kutch, Gujarat, near the well-known Harappan site of Dholavira.
    • Geographic Context: The island is one of 6 that were surrounded by water 5,000–6,000 years ago, due to higher sea levels.
    • Discovery Site: In 2016, researchers discovered archaeological remains near Bambhanka, about 1 km from Dholavira.
    • Site Features: Findings include house complexes, broken potsherds, marine shells, carnelian and agate flakes, and wall remnants made from random rubble masonry.
    • Shell Deposits: A 30–40 cm thick shell deposit was found on a hillock’s western edge, exposed by a pipeline trench. Similar shells were first reported in 1872 by geologist Arthur Beavor Wynne.
    • Shell Species: The Terebralia palustris shell species indicates a mangrove ecosystem once existed here.
    • Other Sites: Additional shell midden sites were discovered at Laungwali, Kunduwari, Ganeshpar, and Janan, mostly located 2–2.5 km from the coast.

    Key Findings:

    • Archaeological Significance:
      • Evidence suggests prehistoric hunter-gatherers lived here 7,000–7,500 years ago, before the Harappans.
      • Carbon dating of 15 shell samples shows they are 5,000–5,500 years older than Harappan remains.
      • A 400–500 year time lag may exist due to shellfish diets, meaning actual dates could be older.
    • Diet and Food Practices:
      • Broken shell middens and discoloured shells suggest people cooked and ate shellfish.
      • The diet likely included plants, fruits, tubers, and nuts, though no plant remains have yet been found.
    • Lifestyle and Settlement:
      • These were mobile hunter-gatherers, not permanent agriculturalists.
      • They likely moved seasonally, occupying each site for part of the year.
    • Tool Use:
      • Stone tools (flakes and cores) made of chert, jasper, chalcedony, basalt, limestone, and quartzite were found.
      • Smaller fragments may have served as arrow tips.
      • Agate, found locally, and other materials suggest trade or resource mobility.
    • Trade and Cultural Links:
      • Non-local tool stones indicate exchange networks.
      • Similarities with tools from Las Bela (Pakistan) and coastal Oman point to long-distance prehistoric connections across the northern Arabian Sea.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following pairs:

    Historical place : Well known for

    1. Burzahom : Rock cut shrines

    2. Chandraketugarh :Terracotta art

    3. Ganeshwar : Copper artefacts

    Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 2 (c) 3 only (d) 2 and 3*

     

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