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  • Economic Indicators and Various Reports On It- GDP, FD, EODB, WIR etc

    Growth in most Southern States is concentrated in a few districts

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    Economic growth in southern states lagged behind India’s overall growth in 2023-24. Despite a large working population, unemployment rates in these states remain a major concern, as seen in their Budget and Economic Surveys.

    Growth in most southern States is concentrated in a few districts

    What are the key reasons behind the economic growth of southern states lagging behind India’s overall growth in 2023-24?

    • Lower Growth Rates Compared to National Average – While India’s economy grew at 9.2%, southern states like Tamil Nadu (8.2%) and Telangana (7.4%) recorded slower growth, with Karnataka, Kerala, and Andhra Pradesh growing at over 6%.
    • Regional Income Disparities – Economic advantages are concentrated in select districts, limiting broad-based growth. For example, only 8 of 38 districts in Tamil Nadu and 3 of 33 in Telangana had higher per capita income than their state averages.
    • Unemployment and Labour Force Challenges – Despite a significant working population, labour force participation rates (LFPR) in Tamil Nadu (58.8%), Karnataka (56.8%), and Kerala (56.2%) were below the national average of 60.1%, affecting economic output.
    • Shift Towards Self-Employment – There is a decline in casual labour and an increase in self-employment, often in household enterprises, leading to a lack of stable wage employment. Example: In Telangana, self-employment rose by 8% to 55.9%, while casual labour fell by 5.7% to 18.7%.
    • Slower Industrial and Manufacturing Growth – Despite industrial pushes, manufacturing contributes less than 20% of southern states’ economies, limiting their overall economic expansion.

    Which southern state has the most equitable distribution of per capita income across its districts? 

    • More Even Income Spread: Kerala has 7 out of 14 districts with a per capita income above the state average, making it the most balanced among southern states. In contrast, Tamil Nadu (8 out of 38), Telangana (3 out of 33), and Karnataka (4 out of 31) show higher income concentration in a few districts.
    • Unlike Telangana, where Rangareddy district’s per capita income is more than three times the state average, Kerala’s income distribution is less skewed, ensuring better regional development and social welfare across the state.

    Why is this significant?

    • Reduced Regional Disparities: A more balanced income distribution ensures that economic benefits are spread across districts, preventing excessive wealth concentration in urban centers. Example: Unlike Telangana, where Rangareddy dominates income levels, Kerala’s development is more uniform, reducing economic inequalities.
    • Better Social and Human Development Indicators:  Equitable income distribution translates into better education, healthcare, and infrastructure across all districts, improving overall quality of life. Example: Kerala consistently ranks high in Human Development Index (HDI) due to its statewide access to education and healthcare.
    • Sustainable and Inclusive Growth: A well-distributed economy supports long-term stability by ensuring that no district lags significantly behind, leading to lower migration pressures and balanced urbanization. Example: Unlike Tamil Nadu, where Chengalpattu’s income is double the state average, Kerala’s economy avoids overburdening specific urban hubs, leading to sustainable development.

    Why is unemployment still a pressing concern in southern states?

    • Higher Labour Force Participation but Fewer Job Opportunities – While more people are seeking work, the availability of stable, well-paying jobs remains limited. Example: In 2023-24, Tamil Nadu (58.8%), Karnataka (56.8%), and Kerala (56.2%) had labour force participation rates lower than the national average (60.1%), indicating fewer employment opportunities relative to job seekers.
    • Shift from Casual Labour to Self-Employment Without Formal Jobs Growth – More people are moving away from casual labour towards self-employment, but the growth of regular salaried jobs remains stagnant. Example: In Telangana, the self-employed workforce increased by 8% (to 55.9%), while casual labour declined by 5.7%, reflecting a lack of structured employment.
    • Dominance of the Services Sector with Limited Manufacturing Growth – The services sector contributes over 50% of economic output, but it often lacks the capacity to absorb large numbers of workers, especially in lower-income groups. Example: In Tamil Nadu, despite an industrial push, manufacturing has not significantly increased its share in the state economy, limiting job creation in this sector.

    What role does the services sector play in the economies of southern states?

    • Primary Driver of Economic Growth – The services sector contributes over 50% of economic output in most southern states, making it the main engine of economic expansion. Example: In Karnataka and Telangana, the IT and software services industry significantly boosts state GDP, with Bengaluru and Hyderabad being major global tech hubs.
    • Uneven Job Creation Across Skill Levels – While the services sector creates high-value jobs in IT, finance, and healthcare, it does not generate enough employment for lower-skilled workers, contributing to persisting unemployment. Example: Kerala, despite its strong service-driven economy (tourism, healthcare, remittances), struggles with high unemployment rates due to a lack of blue-collar service jobs.

    Way forward: 

    • Diversify Economic Growth Beyond Services – Strengthen manufacturing and industrial sectors to create stable, large-scale employment opportunities, especially for lower-skilled workers. Example: Expanding MSMEs and industrial corridors in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka can boost job creation.
    • Enhance Skill Development and Labour Market Reforms – Improve vocational training and upskilling programs to align with industry demands, ensuring better job-market absorption. Example: Kerala can integrate its educated workforce into high-value sectors like healthcare and renewable energy.

    Mains PYQ:

    Question: What is regional disparity? How does it differ from diversity? How serious is the issue of regional disparity in India? (UPSC 2024)

    Reason: This question’s demand is directly linked with the regional inequality, which explains why economic growth is concentrated in certain parts of a state. Understanding this helps us see why some districts develop faster than others.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Afghanistan

    The ‘Great Abandonment’ of Afghanistan

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Why in the News?

    The U.S. and Europe have stepped back from Afghanistan’s issues, and India should be concerned about losing influence among Afghans.

    What are the key reasons behind India’s shift in its engagement policy with the Taliban government in Afghanistan?

    • Geopolitical Realism and Regional Stability: India recognises that the Taliban regime is a reality and is engaging pragmatically to safeguard its interests.Example: India reopened its “technical mission” in Kabul (2022) to oversee humanitarian aid and maintain limited diplomatic channels.
    • Countering Pakistan and China’s Influence: Pakistan and China have deepened their engagement with the Taliban, influencing Afghanistan’s policies. Example: China signed agreements with the Taliban on infrastructure and rare earth mining, pushing India to maintain a strategic foothold.
    • Security Concerns and Terrorism Threats: Engagement allows India to monitor Taliban factions and ensure they do not support anti-India terror groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM). Example: India’s quiet diplomacy with Taliban leaders like Sher Abbas Stanekzai helps in intelligence-sharing on terrorist threats.
    • Economic and Infrastructure Interests: India has invested over $3 billion in Afghan infrastructure, including the Salma Dam and Zaranj-Delaram Highway. Example: Talks on reviving Chabahar port connectivity and resuming development projects indicate India’s strategic economic interests.
    • Humanitarian Assistance and People-to-People Ties: India’s aid and engagement help maintain goodwill among Afghan citizens, which could be useful in the long run. Example: India has sent 50,000 metric tonnes of wheat and medical supplies to Afghanistan despite diplomatic tensions.

    Why is India hesitant to provide visas to Afghan refugees?  

    • Security Concerns and Risk of Infiltration: India fears that some refugees could have ties to terrorist groups like the Haqqani Network, LeT, or JeM, posing a national security risk. Example: Indian intelligence agencies raised concerns that Taliban-linked elements could exploit the visa process for entry.
    • Political and Ideological Considerations: The government is cautious about allowing large-scale migration of Afghan refugees, aligning with its broader immigration policy.Example: India has prioritized granting visas to Hindus and Sikhs from Afghanistan while restricting others.
    • Lack of a Comprehensive Refugee Policy: India is not a signatory to the 1951 UN Refugee Convention, and its refugee policies are ad hoc and politically driven. Example: Unlike Germany or Canada, India lacks a legal framework for recognizing and resettling Afghan refugees.
    • Diplomatic Calculations and Taliban Relations: India does not want to openly oppose the Taliban by granting asylum to its critics, as it seeks to maintain diplomatic engagement with the regime. Example: Unlike during the Northern Alliance era, India has not offered safe passage to anti-Taliban leaders.
    • Economic and Logistical Constraints: Providing visas and long-term support for a large refugee influx would require financial and administrative resources that India is reluctant to allocate. Example: During the 2021 Taliban takeover, thousands of Afghans, including students and former Indian allies, applied for emergency visas, but only a small fraction were granted entry.

    How can India balance its strategic interests in Afghanistan while ensuring support for Afghan civil society and opposition groups?

    • Dual Engagement Strategy: India should maintain diplomatic ties with the Taliban government for security and economic interests while also engaging with Afghan opposition groups and civil society. Example: India’s past engagement with the Northern Alliance in the 1990s, alongside its outreach to the Afghan Republic (2001-2021), showcases a balanced approach.
    • Humanitarian and Development Aid: Continuing humanitarian assistance such as food, medical supplies, and education programs can support Afghan civilians without directly endorsing the Taliban. Example: India has provided wheat, vaccines, and essential medicines to Afghanistan through international organizations like the UN.
    • Support for Afghan Refugees and Students: Granting visas and scholarships to Afghan students, women, and activists can help sustain Afghanistan’s civil society and ensure long-term goodwill. Example: India’s ICCR scholarship program for Afghan students helped many pursue higher education in India before 2021.
    • Leveraging Regional and International Partnerships: Engaging with like-minded countries (e.g., Iran, Russia, Central Asian nations) and multilateral forums (e.g., UN, SCO) to ensure a collective approach toward Afghan stability. Example: India’s participation in the Moscow Format Talks and its collaboration with Iran on the Chabahar port for trade connectivity.
    • Cultural and People-to-People Ties: Hosting Afghan cultural events, supporting Afghan media in exile, and fostering connections between Afghan intellectuals and Indian institutions can preserve historical ties. Example: India has previously hosted Afghan leaders and artists, maintaining its soft power influence despite regime changes.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Strategic and Humanitarian Engagement: India should expand its humanitarian assistance through trusted international organizations while exploring avenues for economic cooperation that align with its security interests.
    • Institutionalizing a Long-Term Afghanistan Policy: India should formulate a structured Afghanistan policy that balances security, economic, and humanitarian interests while ensuring protection for Afghan civil society.

    Mains PYQ:

    Question: Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition. (UPSC 2024)

    Reason: The demand of the question directly linked with the “why India’s relations with its neighbors are crucial for regional stability and its own security” for example the situation in Afghanistan after the “Great Abandonment” affects stability in the region, and India’s approach to its neighbors should be understood in this larger context.

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    Revival of Vikramshila University

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    A decade after the resurgence of Nalanda University, the Government of Bihar is now focusing on the revival of Vikramshila University.

    About Vikramshila University

    • Vikramshila University was founded by King Dharmapala of the Pala Dynasty in the 8th-9th century AD in Bhagalpur district, Bihar, near the Ganges River.
    • It was established to address the decline in academic standards at Nalanda University.
    • The university specialized in Tantric Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Subjects taught included philosophy, grammar, metaphysics, logic, and tantras.
    • Notable scholars like Atisa Dipankara and Naropa were associated with Vikramshila.
    • It housed over 1,000 students and employed more than 100 teachers.
      • The university had 208 monastic cells, where monks studied and meditated.
    • Administration was managed by a Kulpati, or Mahasthavir, overseeing both academics and operations.
    • Key Features:
      • The university’s iconic cruciform brick stupa stood at 15 meters.
      • It also had a library with a unique cooling system to preserve manuscripts.
      • The architecture included a square layout with gates at four cardinal directions and surrounding votive stupas.
    • Decline and Destruction:
      • It thrived for about 400 years before being destroyed by Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji in 1193 AD.
      • The decline was due to the rise of Hinduism, the fall of Buddhism, and foreign invasions.

    Cultural Significance of Vikramshila University

    • Vikramshila was a major centre for Tantric and Vajrayana Buddhism, focusing on esoteric practices and rituals.
    • The Cakrasamvara Tantra was developed here, with scholars like Buddhajnanapada contributing to its spread.
    • The teachings from Vikramshila spread Buddhism across the Himalayas, Central Asia, and the Far East.
    • Vikramshila represented the zenith of Buddhist scholarship in India and contributed significantly to Buddhist texts, some of which survived through Tibetan manuscripts.
    [UPSC 1998] Which of the following pairs are correctly matched?

    I. Lothal: Ancient dockyard

    II. Sarnath: First Sermon of Buddha

    III. Rajgir: Lion capital of Asoka

    IV. Nalanda: Great seat of Buddhist learning

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) I, II, III and IV (b) III and IV (c) I, II and IV (d) I and II

     

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  • Banking Sector Reforms

    RBI revises Priority Sector Lending (PSL) guidelines

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Mobilization Of Resources

    Why in the News?

    The RBI has issued revised guidelines for Priority Sector Lending (PSL), effective from April 1, 2025, to improve the targeting of bank credit to key sectors of the economy.

    About Priority Sector Lending (PSL)

    What is it?
    • PSL refers to the portion of bank lending that must be directed to specific sectors identified as priorities for national development.
    • The RBI mandates that banks must allocate a specified portion of their credit to these sectors to ensure inclusive growth.

    Origin of PSL:

    • PSL was introduced in India in the late 1960s.
    • The term “priority sector” was first used in 1967 by Morarji Desai, then Deputy Prime Minister, and it led to legislative measures for social control over banks.
    • In 1972, the RBI formally defined priority sectors, focusing initially on agriculture and small-scale industries.
    Which Banks are Covered Under PSL? 1. Domestic Scheduled Commercial Banks, Cooperative Banks, and Foreign Banks: 40% of Adjusted Net Bank Credit (ANBC) or Credit Equivalent Amount of Off-Balance Sheet Exposure (CEOBSE), whichever is higher.

    2. Small Finance Banks and Regional Rural Banks (RRBs): 75% of ANBC or CEOBSE, whichever is higher.

    3. Payment Banks: NOT subject to PSL targets.
    Priority Sector Categories • Agriculture • Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) • Export Credit • Education • Housing • Social Infrastructure • Renewable Energy

    • Others, including Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Persons with Disabilities.

    • Micro Finance Institutions (MFIs) offering loans to individuals and Self-Help Groups (SHGs) are also eligible for PSL classification.
    Consequences of Failing to Meet PSL Norms 1. Investment in Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF): Banks falling short of PSL targets may be required to invest in the Rural Infrastructure Development Fund (RIDF), managed by NABARD, or other designated funds like those managed by SIDBI and NHB.

    2. Purchase of PSL Certificates: Banks can purchase Priority Sector Lending Certificates (PSLCs) to meet their PSL targets.
    Priority Sector Lending Certificates (PSLCs)
    • Tradable certificates issued against priority sector loans by banks.
    • Banks can purchase PSLCs to meet PSL targets if they fall short, while incentivizing surplus banks to lend more to these sectors.

    Revised PSL Guidelines for 2025:

    • Revised PSL guidelines for 2025 will enhance the targeting of bank credit to priority sectors.
    • Loan limits for housing have been increased, with differentiated limits based on population size: ₹50 lakh (population ≥ 50 lakh), ₹45 lakh (population 10-50 lakh), and ₹35 lakh (population < 10 lakh).
    • Renewable energy loans: Up to ₹35 crore for power generators and public utilities, and ₹10 lakh for individual households.
    • Urban Cooperative Banks (UCBs) have a revised PSL target of 60% of Adjusted Net Bank Credit (ANBC).
    • Weaker Section borrowers expanded and the cap on loans to individual women beneficiaries has been removed.
    [UPSC 2012] The basic aim of Lead Bank Scheme is that the –

    (a) big banks should try to open offices in each district

    (b) there should be stiff competition among the various nationalized banks

    (c) individual banks should adopt particular districts for intensive development

    (d) all the banks should make intensive efforts to mobilize deposits

     

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  • Differentiated Banks – Payment Banks, Small Finance Banks, etc.

    NPCI Launches BHIM 3.0 with Enhanced Features

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    NPCI BHIM Services Ltd. (NBSL), a subsidiary of the National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), launched BHIM 3.0 with new features aimed at enhancing the user experience and providing new offerings for businesses and banks.

    About BHIM (Bharat Interface for Money):

    • BHIM is a mobile payment app developed by NPCI, based on the Unified Payments Interface (UPI), aimed at promoting cashless transactions and digital payments directly through banks.
    • Launched on December 30, 2016, BHIM facilitates instant money transfers between over 170 member banks using IMPS infrastructure.
    • Unlike mobile wallets, BHIM transfers money directly between bank accounts, ensuring quick transactions at any time, including holidays.
    • BHIM now supports Aadhaar-based authentication for easier digital payments.
    • BHIM is available in more than 20 Indian languages and is designed to work effectively in areas with low or unstable internet connectivity.
    • BHIM employs a robust three-factor authentication (3FA) process to ensure the security of transactions:
      1. Device ID and Mobile Number: The app binds with the user’s device ID and mobile number to verify the device.
      2. Bank Account Link: Users must sync their bank account (UPI-enabled or non-UPI-enabled) to the app for transactions.
      3. UPI PIN: A unique UPI PIN is required for completing transactions, which adds an extra layer of security.
    • NPCI does not charge any fee for transactions between ₹1 and ₹100,000.
      • Banks may charge fees for UPI or IMPS transfers, but there is no official information on BHIM-specific charges.

    Key Features of BHIM 3.0

    • Split Expenses: Users can now divide bills for shared expenses (e.g., rent, dining, group purchases) and settle payments instantly.
    • Family Mode: Users can onboard family members, track shared expenses, and assign specific payments for better financial management.
    • Spends Analytics: A new dashboard provides a detailed breakdown of monthly expenses, automatically categorizing them for easier budgeting.
    • Action Needed Alerts: BHIM 3.0 includes reminders for pending bills, activation of UPI Lite, and low Lite balance alerts to help users stay updated.
    • BHIM Vega: This feature allows merchants to accept in-app payments directly within the BHIM app, streamlining transactions without needing third-party apps.
    [UPSC 2018] With reference to digital payments, consider the following statements:

    1.BHIM app allows the user to transfer money to anyone with a UPI-enabled bank account.

    2. While a chip-pin debit card has four factors of authentication, BHIM app has only two factors of authentication.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only  (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

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  • Tax Reforms

    Govt proposes to abolish Equalization Levy

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Why in the News?

    The Centre is considering the withdrawal of the 6% Equalization Levy on online advertisement services provided by offshore digital economy firms to Indian businesses.

    What is Equalization Levy?

    • The Equalization Levy was introduced in 2016 under Section 165A of the Finance Act, primarily to tax digital transactions conducted by foreign e-commerce companies with Indian businesses.
    • It was designed to ensure that foreign companies, particularly in the digital economy, pay taxes for benefiting from Indian markets without a physical presence in the country.
    • It was primarily aimed at business-to-business (B2B) transactions, which is why it is often referred to as the “Google Tax”.
    • The levy mechanism involves withholding the tax at the time of payment made by the Indian service recipient to a non-resident service provider.
    • The annual payment threshold for the levy is ₹1,00,000 for a single service provider in a financial year.
    • Services covered under the levy:
      • Online advertisement services (effective from June 1, 2016).
      • Provision of digital advertising space or sale of goods to Indian residents (effective from April 1, 2020).
    • Tax Rates:
      • 6% of the gross consideration is levied on online advertisement services.
      • 2% of the gross consideration is levied on e-commerce transactions like the sale of goods or services.
    • Exclusions:
      • The levy does not apply if the non-resident has a permanent office in India related to the service.
      • The payment for the service is below ₹1 lakh.
    • Tax Withholding: The tax is withheld by the Indian service recipient at the time of payment.

    Why it is being Abolished?

    • This move is part of India’s attempt to reduce tensions with the US, which raised concerns over such taxes.
      • Similarly, the UK is considering the abolition of its digital services tax by April 2025.
    • In August 2024, the Indian government removed the 2% levy applied to offshore tech firms (e.g., cloud services, e-commerce).
      • The 6% levy on online advertisements remained, impacting companies like Google and Meta.
    • The Finance Bill 2025 proposes a sunset clause to phase out the 6% levy on online advertisements by April 1, 2025.
    [UPSC 2012] What is/are the recent policy initiative(s)of Government of India to promote the growth of manufacturing sector?  Setting up of:

    1. National Investment and Manufacturing Zones

    2. Providing the benefit of ‘single window clearance’

    3. Establishing the Technology Acquisition and Development Fund

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only   (b) 2 and 3 only  (c) 1 and 3 only   (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    [25th March 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: As ice frozen for millennia thaws, Kashmir wakes up to new risks 

    op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    PYQ Relevance:

    Question: How does the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers of the Antarctic differently affect the weather patterns and human activities on the Earth? Explain. (UPSC 2021)

    Reason:  It addresses the broader impact of melting ice on weather patterns and human activities, a theme relevant to the permafrost thaw in the Himalayas.

     

    Mentor’s Comment: UPSC mains usually focus on the melting of the Arctic ice and glaciers (2021) and the melting of Himalayan glaciers in 2020.

    Permafrost, frozen for millennia, is now thawing due to global warming, releasing stored carbon, including methane, a potent greenhouse gas, leading to severe climatic and ecological consequences. It’s  melting poses a growing environmental threat in the Kashmir Himalayas, endangering 193 km of roads, 2,415 households, 903 alpine lakes, and eight hydropower projects. 

    Today’s editorial discusses melting permafrost and its impacts, which is relevant for GS Paper 3 in the UPSC Mains exam.

    _

    Let’s learn!

    Why in the News?

    A study by researchers from the University of Kashmir and IIT-Bombay, published in Remote Sensing Applications: Society and Environment, found that permafrost covers 64.8% of J&K and Ladakh in different forms.

    What is Permafrost?

    Permafrost is ground—comprising soil, rock, or sediment—that remains continuously frozen for at least two years. It is found in high-altitude and polar regions, stores carbon, and supports unique ecosystems. However, rising global temperatures are causing it to thaw, leading to infrastructure damage, greenhouse gas emissions, and environmental disruptions.

    What are the major environmental and infrastructural challenges associated with permafrost melting in the Kashmir Himalayas?

    • Increased Risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (GLOFs): Thawing permafrost destabilizes moraines, increasing the likelihood of sudden lake outbursts. Example: The South Lhonak Lake outburst in Sikkim (October 2023) and the Chamoli disaster in Uttarakhand (February 2021).
    • Damage to Roads and Infrastructure: Melting permafrost weakens the ground, causing landslides and road subsidence, disrupting connectivity. Example: Strategic roads in Ladakh, crucial for military operations, are at risk due to thaw-induced ground instability.
    • Threat to Hydropower Projects: Permafrost degradation affects water availability and increases sediment flow, damaging dams and power plants. Example: 8 hydropower projects in J&K and Ladakh are vulnerable to thaw-induced landslides and reduced water flow.
    • Loss of Permafrost-Dependent Ecosystems: Thawing disrupts alpine ecosystems, affecting vegetation, wildlife, and water cycles. Example: Decline of cold-adapted species and changing river flow patterns impacting local biodiversity.
    • Release of Greenhouse Gases: Thawing permafrost releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas, accelerating climate change. Example: Increased methane emissions in permafrost-rich Ladakh contribute to global warming.

    Where is permafrost most extensively found in Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh?

    • Ladakh Plateau & Karakoram Range: Cold-arid climate with high-altitude plateaus and glaciated mountains supports extensive permafrost. Example: Nubra Valley and Changthang Plateau have widespread permafrost due to sub-zero temperatures year-round.
    • Drass & Zanskar Region: Known as the “Gateway to Ladakh,” Drass is one of the coldest inhabited places in India. Example: Drass (often recording temperatures below -30°C) and Zanskar Valley exhibit permafrost in high-altitude zones.
    • Upper Indus River Basin: The cold, high-altitude valleys along the Indus River, particularly in the Leh region, have significant permafrost. Example: Permafrost is found in areas along the Indus near Leh, impacting groundwater storage and hydrology.
    • Siachen Glacier & Surrounding Areas: One of the highest and coldest battlefields in the world, sustaining year-round permafrost. Example: Permafrost is critical in maintaining the stability of the Siachen Glacier and surrounding military outposts.
    • Higher Reaches of Kargil: Some parts of Kargil, particularly in remote high-altitude areas, experience permafrost conditions. Example: Permafrost is found in higher elevations of Kargil, but lower valleys may lack continuous permafrost.

    Which regions lack permafrost coverage?

    • Kashmir Valley (Srinagar, Anantnag, Baramulla): Relatively lower altitude with temperate climate prevents permafrost formation. Example: Srinagar, despite cold winters, does not have permafrost due to warmer summer temperatures.
    • Jammu Region (Jammu, Udhampur, Kathua): Lower altitude and subtropical climate make permafrost formation impossible. Example: Jammu city has hot summers and mild winters, ruling out any permafrost presence.
    • Pir Panjal Range: Lower altitude than the Greater Himalayas, experiencing seasonal snow rather than permanent permafrost. Example: Gulmarg and Poonch receive heavy snowfall but do not sustain permafrost.
    • Chenab and Jhelum River Valleys: Warmer valley temperatures prevent permafrost formation, though higher peaks may have seasonal ice. Example: Areas like Pahalgam and Kupwara experience snow cover but lack permafrost due to fluctuating temperatures.
    • Lower Altitudes of Kargil and Leh: While upper reaches have permafrost, lower valleys experience enough summer warmth to prevent it. Example: Kargil town itself does not have permafrost, but surrounding mountains do.

    What are the causes of the thawing of permafrost?

    • Rising Global Temperatures (Climate Change): Increased greenhouse gas emissions lead to higher atmospheric temperatures, accelerating permafrost thaw. Example: In Ladakh, rising temperatures have led to permafrost degradation in the Changthang Plateau, impacting traditional grazing lands.
    • Infrastructure Development & Human Activities: Roads, buildings, and military installations generate heat, disrupting the thermal balance of permafrost. Example: The construction of roads like the Zojila Tunnel and military bases in Siachen has contributed to localized permafrost thaw.
    • Reduced Snow Cover & Glacial Retreat: Snow acts as an insulating layer, preventing permafrost from direct exposure to warming air. Reduced snowfall accelerates melting. Example: The retreat of glaciers in Zanskar Valley has exposed underlying permafrost to warmer temperatures, leading to faster thawing.
    • Increased Rainfall & Changing Precipitation Patterns: More rainfall instead of snowfall leads to surface warming, infiltrating the soil and speeding up permafrost thaw. Example: Parts of Drass have seen changing precipitation patterns, where more rain in summer accelerates permafrost degradation.
    • Forest Fires & Loss of Vegetation Cover: Vegetation helps insulate the ground; its loss due to deforestation or fires exposes permafrost to direct heat. Example: In Ladakh, overgrazing by livestock in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary has led to soil erosion, increasing permafrost vulnerability.

    What are the steps taken by the government? 

    • Monitoring and Research Initiatives: The Indian government, in collaboration with research institutions like the Defence Geoinformatics Research Establishment (DGRE) and Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG), is conducting studies on permafrost dynamics in Ladakh and Jammu & Kashmir. Example: DGRE has set up monitoring stations in Drass, Kargil, and Siachen to study permafrost stability and assess risks to infrastructure.
    • Climate Resilient Infrastructure Development: The Border Roads Organisation (BRO) is adopting new engineering techniques, such as thermosyphons and insulated road layers, to prevent permafrost degradation in road and tunnel construction. Example: In the construction of the Zojila Tunnel, special insulation techniques are being used to minimize heat impact on permafrost.
    • Afforestation and Sustainable Land Management: Programs under CAMPA (Compensatory Afforestation Management and Planning Authority) and National Mission on Himalayan Studies (NMHS) aim to restore vegetation cover, which helps maintain permafrost stability. Example: Reforestation efforts in Changthang Wildlife Sanctuary and Ladakh’s high-altitude areas help in reducing soil erosion and insulating the permafrost layer.

    Way forward: 

    • Integrating Climate-Resilient Infrastructure Planning: Adopt permafrost-friendly construction techniques, such as thermosyphons and passive cooling methods, in strategic roads, hydropower projects, and military installations to minimize thawing-related damage.
    • Strengthening Monitoring and Adaptive Strategies: Expand permafrost monitoring networks, enhance research on thaw impacts, and implement community-based adaptation measures, such as sustainable grazing and afforestation, to mitigate long-term environmental risks.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-China

    China ties — beware conciliation without deterrence 

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    India is adopting a conciliatory approach towards China, with improving ties since the 2020 border clashes.

    Why has India adopted a more conciliatory stance towards China in recent months?

    • De-escalation of Border Tensions: India and China have gradually disengaged from multiple friction points along the Line of Actual Control (LAC) since the 2020 Galwan clashes. Example: In October 2023, both sides agreed to withdraw troops from the last two major standoff points in eastern Ladakh.
    • Economic Considerations: China remains India’s largest trading partner, with bilateral trade reaching record levels despite political tensions. Example: In 2023, India’s imports from China exceeded $100 billion, highlighting the economic interdependence.
    • Strategic Uncertainty in U.S. Policy: With the U.S. showing unpredictability under the Trump administration, India may seek to hedge its bets by stabilizing ties with China. Example: Trump’s reluctance to support Ukraine and potential shifts in U.S. Asia policy raise concerns about long-term American commitments.
    • Focus on Domestic Growth and Development: India aims to maintain economic stability and avoid prolonged military confrontations that could divert resources from development. Example: Infrastructure projects like “Make in India” and semiconductor manufacturing require a stable geopolitical environment.
    • Maintaining Diplomatic Leverage: A balanced approach allows India to engage with multiple global powers while keeping strategic options open. Example: While signaling reconciliation with China, India continues military exercises with the Quad (U.S., Japan, Australia) to maintain leverage.

    How does the shifting U.S. foreign policy under the Trump administration impact India’s strategic choices regarding China?

    • Uncertainty Over U.S. Security Commitments: Trump’s ambiguous stance on global security, including reduced support for Ukraine, raises doubts about America’s reliability in countering China’s aggression. Example: The U.S. halted intelligence sharing on Russian missile threats to Ukraine, signaling potential unpredictability in military alliances.
    • Possibility of a U.S.-China Grand Bargain: Trump’s transactional diplomacy suggests he may prioritize economic deals with China over strategic containment, potentially sidelining India’s concerns. Example: His approach to Russia—offering compromises for economic gains—hints at a similar possibility with China, affecting Indo-U.S. strategic alignment.
    • Pressure on India to Strengthen Self-Reliance: With the U.S. potentially scaling back its role in Asia, India must enhance its military capabilities and deepen partnerships with other allies. Example: India has intensified defense cooperation with Japan, Australia, and France while increasing indigenous military production (e.g., Tejas fighter jets, submarine projects).

    What military limitations has India faced in recent years despite rising security challenges?

    • Delayed Modernization and Declining Defense Budget: India’s defense spending as a share of GDP has steadily declined over the past decade, limiting critical investments in military modernization. Example: The Indian Air Force still operates outdated MiG-21 fighters, with delays in acquiring Rafale jets and indigenous Tejas aircraft.
    • Slow Progress in Indigenous Defense Manufacturing: Despite initiatives like Atmanirbhar Bharat (Self-Reliant India), India remains dependent on foreign arms suppliers, leading to procurement delays. Example: The Project 75I submarine program has seen repeated delays, affecting the Navy’s ability to counter China’s growing maritime presence.
    • Limited Military Buildup Despite Border Tensions: After the 2020 Ladakh standoff, India disengaged from key incursion sites but did not significantly increase troop deployments or infrastructure in vulnerable areas. Example: While China rapidly built roads, bridges, and airstrips near the Line of Actual Control (LAC), India’s infrastructure development in border areas has lagged.

    Who are India’s key partners in military cooperation? 

    • United States (U.S.): India and the U.S. have strengthened defense ties through agreements like COMCASA, BECA, and LEMOA, facilitating intelligence sharing and logistics support. Example: India participates in the Malabar naval exercise with the U.S., enhancing interoperability in the Indo-Pacific region.
    • Russia: Russia remains a key defense supplier, providing advanced weaponry, including fighter jets, submarines, and missile systems. Example: India procured the S-400 air defense system from Russia despite U.S. pressure and CAATSA sanctions concerns.
    • France: France is a crucial partner in aerospace and naval defense cooperation, supplying high-end military equipment. Example: India acquired Rafale fighter jets from France and is collaborating on Scorpene-class submarines under Project 75.
    • Israel: India-Israel defense ties focus on advanced technology, particularly in missile defense, drones, and cyber warfare. Example: India procured Barak-8 missile defense systems and Heron UAVs from Israel for border security.
    • Quad Partners (Japan & Australia): India’s partnerships with Japan and Australia focus on maritime security, intelligence sharing, and defense exercises. Example: The India-Japan 2+2 ministerial dialogue and AUSINDEX naval exercise with Australia boost strategic ties in the Indo-Pacific.

    How can operational coordination help strengthen India’s strategic position? (Way forward)

    • Enhanced Interoperability with Allies: Regular joint exercises improve coordination between India and its military partners, ensuring seamless cooperation in real-world conflicts. Example: The Malabar Naval Exercise with the U.S., Japan, and Australia enhances India’s naval capabilities in the Indo-Pacific.
    • Force Multiplication through Intelligence Sharing: Coordinated intelligence sharing provides India with real-time situational awareness, helping in threat assessment and strategic planning. Example: BECA agreement with the U.S. enables India to access geospatial intelligence, improving precision targeting and surveillance.
    • Deterrence Against Aggression: Strengthened operational coordination signals military preparedness, discouraging adversaries from engaging in aggressive actions. Example: Joint patrols with France in the Indian Ocean demonstrate India’s extended reach and deterrence capabilities.

    Mains PYQ:

    Question: ‘The West is fostering India as an alternative to reduce dependence on China’s supply chain and as a strategic ally to counter China’s political and economic dominance.’ Explain this statement with examples. (UPSC 2024)

    Reason: This question directly addresses the strategic implications of China’s rise and India’s potential role in countering it, which is relevant to the theme of deterrence.

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  • Food Procurement and Distribution – PDS & NFSA, Shanta Kumar Committee, FCI restructuring, Buffer stock, etc.

    Colossal wastage that is food for thought

    Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The UNEP’s Food Waste Index Report 2024 shows that 1.05 billion tonnes of food were wasted in 2022, about 20% of the world’s food. India is a major contributor, making this a serious environmental and ethical issue.

    What are the key differences between food waste and food loss as per the Food Waste Index Report (FWIR) 2024?

    • Food Waste: It includes both edible and inedible parts discarded at the consumer and retail levels (households, restaurants, supermarkets, etc.). It happens due to over-purchasing, poor storage, and cultural habits of excess food preparation.
    • Food Loss: It occurs earlier in the supply chain (from production to retail) due to inadequate storage, transportation, handling, and infrastructure failures.

    Why does the food waste in India pose a significant environmental and social challenge? 

    • Worsens Hunger and Food Insecurity: Despite being a major food producer, over 20 crore Indians go to bed hungry while 78 million tonnes of food are wasted annually. Example: Tons of edible surplus food from weddings and restaurants are discarded instead of being redistributed to the needy.
    • Increases Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Food waste in landfills decomposes and releases methane, a greenhouse gas 25 times more potent than CO₂. Example: India’s food waste contributes 10%-12% of total municipal waste, significantly impacting climate change.
    • Wastage of Natural Resources: Food production requires land, water, and energy. Wasting food means wasting these scarce resources. Example: It takes 1,800 liters of water to produce just 1 kg of rice—if wasted, all that water is also wasted.
    • Economic Loss and Financial Burden: Wasting food leads to huge financial losses for households, businesses, and the economy. Example: Retailers discard unsold perishable foods like dairy and fruits due to short shelf life, leading to billions of rupees in losses annually.
    • Aggravates Climate Change and Natural Disasters: Increased food demand due to waste leads to deforestation, soil degradation, and excessive water usage, worsening environmental crises. Example: Rising extreme weather events (droughts, floods) impact crop production, making food security more vulnerable.

    Where in the food supply chain do inefficiencies lead to high levels of food wastage in India? 

    • Post-Harvest Losses (Farm Level): Poor harvesting techniques and lack of proper drying/storage cause significant losses. Example: Grains left in open fields get damaged by rain, pests, or rodents due to inadequate storage facilities.
    • Storage and Transportation Issues: Inadequate cold storage and poor transportation infrastructure lead to spoilage, especially for perishable goods. Example: Fruits and vegetables rot in transit due to a lack of refrigerated trucks, particularly in rural areas.
    • Retail and Market-Level Losses: Supermarkets and local markets discard unsold food due to short shelf life, improper handling, and strict quality standards. Example: Bruised or oddly shaped vegetables and fruits are rejected and thrown away by vendors, even if they are edible.
    • Household-Level Waste: Over-purchasing, improper meal planning, and poor storage lead to significant food waste in homes. Example: Families discard leftovers or expired groceries because they were not consumed in time.
    • Food Service Industry (Hotels, Restaurants, and Caterers): Large-scale food preparation for events, hotels, and restaurants results in excess food being thrown away. Example: Buffet-style dining in weddings and hotels often leads to tons of uneaten food being discarded instead of redistributed.

    What are the steps taken by the Indian Government? 

    • “Save Food, Share Food” Initiative: A program launched to redistribute surplus food from individuals, businesses, and organizations to the needy. Example: Collaboration with NGOs and food banks ensures excess food from weddings, hotels, and events is shared rather than wasted.
    • Strengthening Cold Storage and Supply Chain Infrastructure: Investment in cold storage facilities and refrigerated transport to reduce post-harvest losses. Example: The Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana supports food processing industries to improve storage and preservation.
    • Amendments in Food Safety and Standards Regulations: The Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) encourages supermarkets and restaurants to donate surplus food instead of discarding it.Example: The Food Sharing Guidelines (2019) enable food redistribution through certified food banks and NGOs.
    • Awareness Campaigns and Behavioral Change Initiatives: Government-led campaigns promote responsible food consumption, meal planning, and waste reduction. Example: The Indian Food Sharing Alliance (IFSA), launched by FSSAI, connects food businesses and NGOs to reduce waste.
    • Support for Food Processing and Preservation: Encouraging food processing industries to convert surplus produce into value-added products like dried, frozen, or packaged foods. Example: The government provides subsidies and incentives for food processing units under schemes like the Mega Food Parks Scheme to reduce waste.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Food Redistribution Networks: Expand and streamline food donation mechanisms through digital platforms connecting surplus food sources (hotels, supermarkets, households) with NGOs and food banks. Example: A nationwide food-sharing app can help track surplus food and ensure efficient redistribution to the needy.
    • Improving Supply Chain Efficiency with Technology: Leverage AI, IoT, and blockchain for real-time monitoring of food storage, transport conditions, and expiry tracking to reduce wastage. Example: Smart sensors in cold storage and logistics can alert businesses to temperature fluctuations, preventing spoilage of perishable items.

    Mains PYQ:

    Question: Discuss the consequences of climate change on the food security in tropical countries. (UPSC 2017)

    Reason: This question connects climate change to food security, a situation that could be exacerbated by food wastage.

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  • Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)

    IOCRPrelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The 20th meeting of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA-20) is currently underway in Rome.

    About Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA)

    • The CGRFA is the only permanent intergovernmental body addressing all components of biodiversity-related to food and agriculture.
    • It was established in 1983 as the Commission on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.
    • It operates under the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.
    • It aims to create international consensus on managing biodiversity in food systems and ensuring the fair and equitable sharing of benefits from these genetic resources.
    • Membership: 179 countries (including India) and the European Union
    • Focus: Coordinates global efforts on biodiversity affecting agriculture, forestry, livestock, and aquatic species, including pollinators, soil organisms, and other vital species for food production.

    Structure and Mandate

    • Structure:
      • Governed by a biennial session where member countries discuss and make decisions.
      • A bureau, elected by member states, guides the Commission’s work.
      • The CGRFA Secretariat, hosted by FAO, offers technical and logistical support.
    • Mandate:
      • Policy Formulation: Develops global action plans, codes of conduct, and policy instruments for sustainable use and conservation of genetic resources for food and agriculture.
      • Global Assessments: Guides preparation of periodic assessments to monitor the status and trends of genetic resources and biodiversity.
      • Sustainable Use of Biodiversity: Promotes biodiversity use for food security, sustainable agriculture, and climate adaptation.
      • Fair and Equitable Benefit Sharing: Ensures fair distribution of benefits from genetic resources, especially plant materials under international treaties.
    • Achievements:
      • International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA): Adopted in 2001, it recognizes farmers’ contributions to crop diversity and provides a global system for accessing plant genetic materials for breeders, farmers, and scientists.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification

    3. The World Heritage Convention

    Which of the above has / have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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