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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Catatumbo Lightning: A Torrent of Current

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the news?

    Catatumbo lightning is a natural event seen over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, where lightning strikes almost nonstop.

    What is Catatumbo Lightning?

    • Catatumbo Lightning is an atmospheric phenomenon that occurs over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela.
    • It specifically occurs at the Catatumbo Delta, where the river meets Lake Maracaibo.
    • It is known as one of the world’s largest lightning displays.
    • This natural spectacle involves frequent and nearly continuous lightning strikes that illuminate the night sky, creating a mesmerizing light show.
    • Catatumbo Lightning is most prevalent during the wet season, typically from April to November.
    • The consistent and abundant lightning activity has earned the region the moniker “the lightning capital of the world.”

    Factors behind Catatumbo Lightning

    • Weather Dynamics
    • Warm, moisture-laden air from the Caribbean Sea clashes with cooler air descending from the Andes mountains, creating a dynamic interplay of atmospheric forces.
    • This collision, accentuated by the local landscape, triggers rapid upward movement of warm air, leading to the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds.
    • Electrical Charge Generation
    • Strong winds and temperature differentials within these clouds generate electrical charges.
    • Cumulonimbus clouds, towering over 5 km high, accumulate vast amounts of static electricity.
    • Lightning Discharge: When the electrical potential within the clouds reaches a critical level, it discharges in the form of lightning strikes.

    Characteristics of Catatumbo Lightning

    • Catatumbo lightning occurs on approximately 160 nights annually, exhibiting a remarkable longevity.
    • At its peak, the phenomenon generates an astonishing average of 28 lightning strikes per minute.

    PYQ:

    [2013] During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the

    1. Meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky

    2. Lightning that separates the nimbus clouds

    3. Violent upward movement of air and water particles

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3

    (c) 1 and 3

    (d) None of the above produces the thunder

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  • New Species of Plants and Animals Discovered

    Scintillating Sea Creatures and their Uniqueness

    Prelims OnlySpecies | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

     

    Why in the News?

    “Scintillating” means sparkling or shining brightly, often used metaphorically to describe something lively, exciting, or brilliantly clever.

    Species Description Notable Features IUCN Status
    Seahorses

    		 Small, dragon-like creatures inhabiting tropical seas.
    • Vibrant colors and intricate camouflage
    • Unique parenting style with male nurturing eggs
    		 Status: Near Threatened
    Mantis Shrimp

     

    		 Colorful crustaceans found in tropical waters, known for hunting prowess.
    • Impressive stabbing or punching abilities
    • Display familial bonds
    		 Status: Least Concerned
    Octopus

    		 Highly intelligent marine creatures with a wise demeanor.
    • They have three functioning hearts.
    • Venomous beaks and powerful suckers.
    • Solitary nature, adept at camouflage
    		 Status: Least Concerned

    Recently, marine scientists have discovered a new Octopus nursery off the coast of Costa Rica.
    Starfish

    		 Also known as sea stars, possess remarkable regenerative abilities.

    Starfish have two stomachs – the pyloric and the cardiac stomach.
    • Each arm contains vital organs.
    • Starfish belongs to the phylum Echinodermata group. Echinodermata are so named owing to their spiny skin
    • They have a unique feeding method involving stomach extrusion.
    		 Status: The Sunflower sea star (Pycnopodia helianthoides) is Critically Endangered.
    Hermit Crabs

    		 Resourceful creatures use discarded shells for shelter.
    • They use empty snail shells or other hollow objects as a shelter for partial containment and protection of the body.
    • Hermit crabs occur in sandy- or muddy-bottomed marine waters and occasionally on land and in trees.
    • Status: Least Concerned
    • The majority of terrestrial hermit crab species worldwide have used trash as shells, according to a recent study by experts.

     

    PYQ:

    [2013] Consider the following animals

    1. Sea cow
    2. Sea horse
    3. Sea lion

    Which of the above is/are mammal/mammals?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 1 and 3 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Water Management – Institutional Reforms, Conservation Efforts, etc.

    Shellfish Aquaculture for Water Remediation

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the news?

    Shellfish aquaculture using Geukensia demissa is emerging as a viable solution for mitigating excess nutrients and contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters.

    About Geukensia demissa

    • Geukensia demissa is a species of mussel commonly known as the ribbed mussel or Atlantic ribbed mussel. 
    • It is native to the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from Nova Scotia in Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.
    • They inhabit intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, typically found in estuaries, salt marshes, and tidal flats.
    • They prefer areas with muddy or sandy substrates where they can burrow and anchor themselves.

    Ecological Importance

    Ribbed mussels play a vital role in estuarine ecosystems.

    • Water Filtration: They filter large volumes of water, helping to improve water quality by removing suspended particles and excess nutrients.
    • Key species of Food Chain: Additionally, their presence provides habitat and food for various other organisms, including small invertebrates and fish.
    • Organisms Filter: These mussels thrive in diverse habitats and possess the ability to filter bacteria, microalgae, and detritus laden with nutrients and contaminants.

    Geukensia demissa: Experimental Deployment and Results

    • To assess the efficacy of G. demissa in purifying urban waters, a raft stocked with local ribbed mussels was deployed in an estuary near New York City.
    • Subsequent analysis revealed that the mussels exhibited robust health and accumulated significant amounts of local nitrogen isotopes, indicative of nitrogen removal from the water.
    • Based on the findings, it is estimated that a fully stocked raft could purify an average of 11,356 m3 of water daily and remove approximately 159 kg of particulate matter on a daily basis.
    • Moreover, upon harvesting, the mussels sequestered 62.6 kg of nitrogen in their tissues and shells, further enhancing the water quality.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] Recently, “oil-zapper” was in the news. What is it?

    (a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation of oily sludge and oil spills

    (b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration

    (c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel-yielding maize variety

    (d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused flames from oil wells

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    [pib] May 5: World Pulmonary Hypertension Day 

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the news?

    Every year on May 5, pulmonary hypertension organizations and groups around the world participate in World Pulmonary Hypertension Day.

    What is Pulmonary Hypertension?

    • Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a condition characterized by high blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which are the blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the lungs.
    • This elevated pressure in the pulmonary arteries can lead to various symptoms and complications, affecting the heart’s ability to pump blood effectively to the lungs and the rest of the body.

    Here are some key aspects of pulmonary hypertension:

    Causes:

    1. Idiopathic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (IPAH): In many cases, the exact cause of pulmonary hypertension is unknown, and it is referred to as idiopathic. IPAH is a subtype of PH without an identifiable cause.
    2. Secondary Pulmonary Hypertension: PH can also develop secondary to other underlying conditions, including:
      • Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
      • Interstitial lung disease
      • Sleep apnea
      • Connective tissue diseases such as scleroderma and lupus
      • Congenital heart diseases
      • HIV infection
      • Liver disease (cirrhosis)
    3. Genetic Factors: Some forms of PH may have a genetic component, with mutations in certain genes predisposing individuals to the condition.

    Features:

    • Symptoms: Symptoms of pulmonary hypertension may include:
        • Shortness of breath, especially during physical activity
        • Fatigue
        • Chest pain or pressure
        • Dizziness or fainting spells
        • Swelling in the ankles and legs (edema)
        • Bluish lips or skin (cyanosis)
    • Diagnostic Tests: Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension typically involves a combination of medical history review, physical examination, and diagnostic tests, including:
        • Echocardiogram (ECG)
        • Right heart catheterization
        • Pulmonary function tests
        • Chest X-ray
        • CT scan or MRI of the chest
        • Blood tests
    • Treatment: Treatment for pulmonary hypertension aims to relieve symptoms, improve quality of life, and slow disease progression. Treatment options may include:
      • Medications such as vasodilators, endothelin receptor antagonists, and prostacyclin analogs
      • Oxygen therapy
      • Pulmonary rehabilitation
      • Surgery or a lung transplant in severe cases

    Hypertension Control Initiatives in India:

    • India Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI) (2017): It was launched to strengthen the hypertension component of National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) in primary care public sector facilities in India
    • 75/25 initiative (2023): Union Health Ministry announced the initiative- 75 million people with hypertension and diabetes to be put on Standard Care by 2025, through the Primary Health Centres (PHCs).

     

    PYQ:

    [2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements :​

    1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of egg.​

    2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.​

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Poverty Eradication – Definition, Debates, etc.

    Make the poor richer without making the rich poorer

    Explained | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Poverty & Hunger

    Why in the News? 

    Since the Congress Party released its Election Manifesto ’Nyay Patra’, the word ‘redistribution’ has dominated the election discourse.

    Arguments against the redistribution of wealth:

    • Against the fair mean: Wealth redistribution stems from a ‘zero-sum’ thought to reduce economic disparity. However, this approach conflates the process of acquiring wealth with the outcome, potentially penalizing even those who acquired their wealth through fair means.
    • Hindrance to Economic Growth: Implementing confrontational policies to make the rich poorer can hinder investments and trigger capital flight, which is essential for economic growth. Economic growth is necessary for increasing the overall economic pie and improving prosperity for all.

    Measures needed to reduce Inequality:

    • On Wealth and Inheritance Taxes: Wealth and inheritance taxes are seen as potentially punitive measures that may not effectively address economic inequality. The government needs to focus on fixing systemic issues rather than penalizing the wealthy.
    • On Policies: Economic growth is emphasized as crucial for addressing inequality. Policies should prioritize investment and avoid hindrances that might deter capital flow.
    • Job Creation and Labour Market Policies: Jobless growth and imbalance in capital-labour relations contribute to inequality. Labor market-focused policy incentives, such as employment-linked schemes and promoting labor-intensive activities, are proposed to rebalance this skew.
    • Overhaul of the taxation structure: The taxation system is criticized for burdening the poor and middle class disproportionately compared to corporations. There’s a call for an overhaul of the taxation structure to ensure fairness and simplicity, with a focus on lowering the tax burden for the common person.
    • Social Welfare Programs: Social welfare programs are deemed essential to provide a safety net for the poor until they can benefit from economic growth. Funding for such programs can come from a combination of faster growth, efficient tax collection, and welfare delivery mechanisms.

    Steps taken by the Government:

    • For addressing Social Inequality
        • Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDU-GKY) and Deendayal Antyodaya Yojana- National Urban Livelihoods Mission (DAY-NULM): These schemes aim to create additional employment opportunities in both rural and urban areas.
        • Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): This scheme provides a legal guarantee for 100 days of employment per year to rural households
        • Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana: This scheme provides affordable housing to the urban and rural poor
    • For improving Financial Inclusion
        • Atal Pension Yojana: This pension scheme targets the unorganized sector and private sector employees without pension benefits
        • Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana: This scheme aims to provide universal access to banking facilities for all households
    • For enhancing Access to Basic Necessities
      • Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana: This scheme provides LPG connections to women from Below Poverty Line (BPL) households
      • Swachh Bharat Mission: This program focuses on providing toilets for every household and cleaning India’s cities and villages

    Conclusion: The Indian government implements schemes to reduce inequality. For example targeting financial inclusion, health protection, and economic development to reduce inequality. Beneficiaries include rural and urban poor, low-income families, and women from Below Poverty Line households.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty, and malnutrition be broken through the microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples. (UPSC IAS/2021)

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  • Defence Sector – DPP, Missions, Schemes, Security Forces, etc.

    It is time to operationalize the Indian Defence University (IDU)

    Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the news? 

    • While the nature of war remains constant, its changing character imposes a premium on Military Education and the Academic preparation required to cope with security challenges.
    • It is reported that Pakistan has created two universities for its armed forces, while China has three but India has no Defence University even though such a university in India was first proposed in 1967.

    Need for Professional Military Education:

    • Inadequacy of RRU: Comparing the Rashtriya Raksha University (RRU) to the IDU is seen as flawed because the RRU’s objectives and curriculum do not specifically address military requirements for managing warfare and executing plans.
    • Long Overdue Realization: The establishment of the IDU has been delayed, despite its critical importance for defense preparedness, fostering a strategic culture, and promoting inter-service integration.
    • Rapidly changing the dynamic of Warfare: The dynamic and chaotic nature of warfare, particularly in regions like Europe and West Asia, requires military officers to be able to produce results despite dealing with unclear initial information and rapidly changing circumstances.
    • Empowerment through PME: To tackle these complex challenges, military officers are empowered through a well-constructed PME continuum. This continuum enhances their abilities to adapt to changing assignments and increasing responsibilities over their long careers.
    • Parallels with U.S. Evolution: The evolution of PME in the United States, as exemplified by the Goldwater-Nichols Defense Reorganization Act of 1986 and ‘Ike’ Skelton’s report to the U.S. Congress, serves as an example of the importance of structured military education in enhancing professionalism and preparedness.

    Slow Progress in the Establishment of IDU:

    • Historical Context: The idea of establishing a Defence Services University was proposed as early as 1967 by the Chiefs of Staff Committee (COSC). This indicates a long-standing recognition of the need for a broad-based education system in the Indian armed forces.
    • Delays in Implementation: Despite proposals and recommendations dating back to the 1960s and 1980s, significant progress towards establishing the IDU was only made after the Kargil conflict in the late 1990s. Even then, progress remained slow, with ‘in principle’ approval granted in May 2010, several years after the conflict.
    • Committee Formation: Following the Kargil conflict, a committee chaired by Dr K. Subrahmanyam was established to examine the issue of establishing the IDU. Based on its recommendations, in May 2010, ‘in principle’ approval was accorded for the setting up of the IDU in Gurgaon. Despite some optimistic reportage in 2017-18, the progress on setting up of the IDU has been rather slow.

    Way Forward:

    • Government Commitment and Funding: The government should prioritize the establishment of the IDU and allocate sufficient funding for its development and infrastructure.
    • Streamlined Administrative Processes: Efforts should be made to streamline bureaucratic processes involved in setting up the IDU, ensuring that administrative hurdles do not impede progress.
    • Stakeholder Collaboration: Collaboration between various stakeholders, including the armed forces, government agencies, academic institutions, and industry partners, should be facilitated to expedite the establishment of the IDU.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q) Taxila University was one of the oldest universities in the world with which were associated several renowned learned personalities of different disciplines. Its strategic location caused its fame to flourish, but unlike Nalanda, it is not considered a university in the modern sense. Discuss.

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  • Foreign Policy Watch: India-Africa

    An overview of Sudan’s civil war 

    ExplainedWorld Mapping | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: India & Its Neighborhood – Relations

    Why in the News? 

    The inability of successive governments to articulate a shared vision has resulted in the unfair distribution of wealth and resources in Sudan.

    ANKARA, TURKIYE – NOVEMBER 3: An infographic titled ”Sudanese civil war intensifies in the western cities” is created in Ankara, Turkiye on November 3, 2023. Since mid-April, the intensity of the conflicts between the army and the Rapid Support Forces (RSF) in Sudan, which have resulted in nearly 10,000 casualties, shifted from the capital Khartoum and its surroundings to the western cities. (Photo by Yasin Demirci/Anadolu via Getty Images)

    Historical background  of Conflict: 

    • In 1956: The government that came to power in 1956 emphasized an Arab and Islamic identity based on Mahdist principles. It was not representative of diverse communities and demanded compliance, leading to widespread resistance.
    • In 1989: In 1989, a new government seized control under the National Islamic Front, an alliance between army officers and the Muslim Brotherhood. Omar al-Bashir came to power, supported by Islamist leader Hassan al-Turabi, aiming to establish an Islamic state.
    • In 1991: The government set up an internal security apparatus, arresting and torturing dissenters. It introduced a new penal code in 1991 to impose an Islamization agenda.
    • In 2003: The al-Bashir (in 2003) regime enlisted Janjaweed militias to quell an insurgency in Darfur. These militias were later designated as the Rapid Support Forces in 2013.
    • In 2018-19: After protests in 2018 and al-Bashir’s removal in 2019, a transitional military government was established. Despite challenges and a failed coup attempt, a power-sharing agreement was reached, but another coup led by Abdel Fattah al-Burhan derailed the democratic transition.

    Causes of the present conflict in Sudan:

    • Deep-rooted Crisis in Governance: The conflict reflects a longstanding crisis within Sudan’s governing structure since gaining independence in 1956, characterized by power struggles and frequent coups.
    • Identity Crisis and Rebellion: Sudan has experienced numerous rebellions fueled by an identity crisis, with marginalized populations seeking autonomy and fair representation within the state.
    • Ethnic and Regional Disparities: Sudan comprises of 19 major ethnic groups and about 597 ethnic sub-groups. Since independence, the Sudanese have experienced 35 coups and attempted coups, more than any other African country.
    • Religious and Political Ideologies: Shifts in government ideologies, such as the establishment of an Islamic state in 1989, have exacerbated tensions and led to further marginalization of certain groups.
    • Role of Militias: The emergence of paramilitary forces, such as the Rapid Support Forces, has complicated the conflict dynamics, with militias vying for power and control over resources.
    • Other country’s involvement: External influences, including support from foreign entities like Russia, have played a role in shaping the conflict landscape, particularly in resource-rich regions like Darfur.
    • Economic Interests: Economic factors, such as control over lucrative industries like gold mining, have contributed to the entrenchment of certain groups in power and fueled conflict dynamics.

    Way Forward:

    • Establish a Civilian-Led Government: Sudan needs to prioritize the establishment of a transparent, civilian-led government that represents the diverse Sudanese populace. This government should ensure inclusivity and participation in decision-making processes.
    • Disarm and Demobilize Militias: Urgent action is needed to disarm and demobilize militias like the Rapid Support Forces. This will prevent militia dominance over the state and reduce the risk of armed confrontations and conflicts.
    • International Support for Reconstruction: Sudan requires collaborative efforts from the international community to aid in post-conflict reconstruction. This support can include financial assistance, capacity-building programs, and technical expertise to rebuild infrastructure, institutions, and communities affected by conflict.

    Mains PYQ 

    Q Africa was chopped into states artificially created by accident of European competition. Analyse. (UPSC IAS/2013)

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Endosymbiotic Theory and Symbiogenesis

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the news?

    • The endosymbiotic theory suggests that tiny structures in cells called mitochondria and chloroplasts were once independent bacteria.
    • A biologist named Lynn Margulis came up with the idea that cells merged with bacteria, challenging the usual belief that evolution happens mainly through genetic changes.

     What is the Endosymbiotic Theory?

    • The endosymbiotic theory proposes that organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts were once free-living bacteria engulfed by recipient cells.
    • American biologist Lynn Margulis introduced Symbiogenesis, challenging the Neo-Darwinist consensus on genetic mutations driving evolution.
    • Margulis’s Struggle:
    1. Margulis’s manuscript on symbiogenesis faced rejection by academic journals before finally being published in The Journal of Theoretical Biology in 1967.
    2. It took years for mitochondria and chloroplasts to be acknowledged as former free-living bacteria turned endosymbionts.

    Recent Discoveries and Endosymbiotic Theory

    • Recent papers published in Science and Cell have reignited interest in the endosymbiotic theory.
    • The focus is on nitrogen fixation, crucial for proteins and DNA in living organisms.
    • Despite abundant atmospheric nitrogen, plants lack the means to utilize it efficiently.
    • Legumes host nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules, aiding in ammonia production for plant use.

    Evolution of Nitroplast

    • Cyanobacterium UCYN-A was found in marine algae, establishing a symbiotic relationship.
    • Nitroplast, a new organelle, co-evolved with its host cell, satisfying criteria for organelle classification.
    • Nitroplast integrates into host cell function and architecture, imports host cell proteins, synchronizes growth, and is inherited during cell division.
    • Nearly half of nitroplast proteins are derived from the host cell.

    Nitrogen Cycle:


    The nitrogen cycle is a crucial biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformation and circulation of nitrogen in various forms within ecosystems. It involves several key steps:

    1. Nitrogen Fixation: This is the process by which atmospheric nitrogen (N2) is converted into ammonia (NH3) or nitrate (NO3-) ions, which are forms of nitrogen that plants can utilize. Nitrogen fixation can occur through biological, atmospheric, and industrial processes. In biological nitrogen fixation, certain bacteria like Rhizobium spp. in the root nodules of leguminous plants or cyanobacteria convert N2 into ammonia.
    2. Ammonification: Ammonification is the process by which organic nitrogen compounds from dead organisms, feces, and other waste materials are converted into ammonia by decomposer organisms like bacteria and fungi during the decay process.
    3. Nitrification: Nitrification is the biological oxidation of ammonia (NH3) or ammonium (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2-) and then to nitrate (NO3-) by nitrifying bacteria such as Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter. This process occurs in aerobic conditions and plays a crucial role in making nitrogen available to plants.
    4. Assimilation: Plants and other organisms take up ammonia, nitrate, or organic nitrogen compounds from the soil to use them in synthesizing proteins, nucleic acids, and other vital nitrogen-containing compounds.
    5. Denitrification: Denitrification is the process by which nitrate (NO3-) is converted back into nitrogen gas (N2) or nitrous oxide (N2O) by denitrifying bacteria under anaerobic conditions. This step completes the cycle by returning nitrogen to the atmosphere, closing the loop.
    6. Ammonium Ionization: In soils and aquatic environments, ammonium ions (NH4+) may undergo ionization, converting to ammonia gas (NH3), which can volatilize and return to the atmosphere.

    Significance of the Nitroplasts

    • Agriculture: Nitroplasts offer potential solutions for reducing the harmful effects of industrial ammonia production.
    • Biotechnology: Biotechnological applications may include engineering host cells and nitroplasts for efficient nitrogen fixation in plants.

    PYQ:

    [2021] In case of which one of the following biogeochemical cycles, the weathering of rocks is the main source of release of nutrient to enter the cycle?​

    (a) Carbon cycle

    (b) Nitrogen cycle

    (c) Phosphorus cycle

    (d) Sulphur cycle

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Eta Aquariid Meteor Shower and how it can be spotted

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the news?

    • The Eta Aquariid meteor shower, an annual event, will reach its peak on May 5 and 6.
    • This meteor shower is a result of Earth intersecting with the debris trail left by Halley’s Comet during its orbit.

    Halley’s Comet

    • Halley’s Comet is a short-period comet visible from Earth every 75–79 years.
    • It was last seen in Earth’s skies in 1986 and was met in space by an international fleet of spacecraft. It will return in 2061 on its regular journey around the Sun.

    What are Meteoric Showers?

    • Meteors, fragments of dust, rock and ice, are expelled from comets during their celestial orbits around the sun.
    • The Earth’s atmosphere heats these space rocks as they descend, leaving luminous streaks of gas in their way.
    • NASA’s records confirms existence of over 30 meteor showers annually.

    Origin of Meteor Showers:

    • Meteor showers originate from comets, remnants of the solar system’s formation composed of dust, rock, and ice.
    • Comets orbit the Sun in highly elliptical paths, and as they approach, they heat up, releasing gases and dust to form a glowing head and a tail stretching millions of miles.
    • When Earth traverses through the debris left behind by comets along their orbital plane, we witness meteor showers.

    About Eta Aquariids

    • Known for their rapid speed, Eta Aquariid meteors produce long, glowing tails lasting several minutes.
    • Observers in the Southern Hemisphere can witness approximately 30 to 40 meteors per hour during the peak, while those in the Northern Hemisphere may see around 10 meteors per hour.
    • They seem to originate from the Aquarius constellation, hence the name ‘Eta Aquariid.’

    PYQ:

    [2014] What is a coma, in the content of astronomy?

    (a) Bright half of material on the comet

    (b) Long tail of dust

    (c) Two asteroids orbiting each other

    (d) Two planets orbiting each other

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  • Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

    ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’: India’s First Newspaper

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Modern Indian History

    Why in the news?

    • World Press Freedom Day, observed annually on May 3, underscores the significance of journalism in society, tracing its roots back to pivotal moments in history.
    • Hicky’s Bengal Gazette, founded by James Augustus Hicky in 1780, marked the inception of Indian journalism, serving as a platform for social discourse and political critique.

    Who was James Augustus Hicky?

    • Born in Ireland in the 1730s, James Augustus Hicky ventured to India, then known as the “Jewel in the Crown of the British Empire“, in search of better opportunities.
    • Faced with initial setbacks, including debts that led to his imprisonment, Hicky demonstrated resilience by setting up a printing press within the jail premises.

    Establishment of ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’:

    • ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’ was the first newspaper ever published in India (indeed in Asia), with its inaugural edition released on January 29, 1780.
    • Hicky served as its founder-editor, aiming to cater primarily to the European community in Calcutta.
    • He initially focusing on local issues such as road repairs and maintenance.
    • The newspaper later delved into broader societal concerns, including government corruption and civic issues.
    • Despite its reputation for gossip and salacious content, the Gazette also published articles critical of the British East India Company and advocated for infrastructure development and sanitation improvements.
    • Hicky’s newspaper was printed once a week on Saturday, and retailed for Rs 1.
    • Its circulation was estimated to be around 400 copies per week, although possibly more.

    Challenges and Legal Battles:

    • The Gazette faced legal challenges, including multiple libel lawsuits filed by prominent figures such as Governor General Warren Hastings in 1780s and missionary Johann Zacharias Kiernander.
    • He described Hastings in an article as being Robert Clive’s “miserable successor”.
    • Hicky’s bold stance against powerful figures, including scathing critiques of Hastings’ expansion policies, led to his imprisonment and financial ruin due to legal fees and penalties.
    • The publication was ceased on 30 March 1782.

    Legacy and Impact:

    • Despite its eventual closure due to legal pressure and financial constraints, ‘Hicky’s Bengal Gazette’ left an indelible mark on Indian journalism.
    • Hicky’s pioneering efforts laid the groundwork for the development of a vibrant media landscape in India, inspiring subsequent generations of journalists and press pioneers.
    • The Gazette’s brief but impactful existence demonstrated the power of the press in advocating for societal change and holding the powerful to account.

    PYQ:

    [2020] The Vital-Vidhwansak, the first monthly journal to have the untouchable people as its target audience was published by:

    (a) Gopal Baba Walangkar

    (b) Jyotiba Phule

    (c) Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

    (d) Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar

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