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  • Electoral Reforms In India

    Supreme Court verdict on ECI appointments

    SC Judgements | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Central idea: The Supreme Court has directed the central government to form a permanent selection committee consisting of consist of the Prime Minister, Leader of the Opposition, and the Chief Justice of India or his nominee to recommend the appointment of Election Commissioners.

    Supreme Court Ruling

    • The Supreme Court ruled that the appointment of the CEC should be made through a transparent and participatory process.
    • It directed the government to set up a permanent selection committee to recommend names for the appointment of the CEC.
    • The committee will consist of the Prime Minister, Leader of Opposition, and Chief Justice of India or his nominee.
    • The court emphasized that the appointment process should ensure the independence of the Election Commission and be free from executive interference.

    Why such move?

    • The ruling will bring more transparency and accountability to the appointment process of the CEC.
    • It will prevent any undue influence by the ruling government in the appointment of the CEC.
    • The ruling also reinforces the importance of an independent Election Commission in ensuring the fairness of the democratic process in India.

    Why did the SC debate the issue?

    • In 2015, a PIL was filed challenging the constitutional validity of the practice of the Centre appointing members of the Election Commission.
    • In October 2018, a two-judge bench of the SC referred the case to a larger bench since it would require a close examination of Article 324 of the Constitution.

    What is the challenge?

    Article 324(2) states that the President appoints the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners, subject to any law made by Parliament.

    • Absence of law: The crux of the challenge is that since there is no law made by Parliament on this issue.
    • Urge for judicial intervention: The Court must step in to fill the constitutional vacuum, urges the PIL.
    • Question of executive non-interference: This examination also leads to the larger question of separation of powers and if the judiciary is overstepping its role in filling this gap in the law.

    About Election Commission of India

    • The ECI is a constitutional authority whose responsibilities and powers are prescribed in the Constitution of India under Article 324.
    • In the performance of its functions, the Election Commission is insulated from executive interference.
    • It is the Commission that decides the election schedules for the conduct of elections, whether general elections or by-elections.
    • ECI decides on the location of polling stations, assignment of voters to the polling stations, location of counting centres, arrangements to be made in and around polling stations and counting centres and all allied matters.

    Litigations against EC

    • The decisions of the Commission can be challenged in the High Court and the Supreme Court of India by appropriate petitions.
    • By long-standing convention and several judicial pronouncements, once the actual process of elections has started, the judiciary does not intervene in the actual conduct of the polls.

    Why is EC under lens these days?

    • Executive interference: ECs are expected to maintain distance from the executive — a constitutional safeguard to insulate the commission from external pressure and allow it to continue as an independent authority.
    • Violating official channels: The EC’s communication with the Government on election matters is through the bureaucracy — either with its administrative ministry — the Law Ministry or the Home Ministry.
    • Breach of protocol: The Law Ministry spells the fine print on law for the country and is expected not to breach the constitutional safeguard provided to the commission to ensure its autonomy.

    Recent incidence of criticisms

    Ans. Partiality in Elections

    • Over the last couple of years, several actions and omissions of the commission have come in for criticism.
    • Nearly 66 former bureaucrats in a letter addressed to the President, expressed their concern over the working of the Election Commission.
    • They felt was suffering from a credibility crisis, citing various violations of the model code of conduct during the 2019 Lok Sabha Elections.

    Importance of ECI for India

    • Conduction of Election: The ECI has been successfully conducting national as well as state elections since 1952.
    • Electoral participation: In recent years, however, the Commission has started to play a more active role to ensure greater participation of people.
    • Discipline of political parties: It had gone to the extent of disciplining the political parties with a threat of derecognizing if the parties failed in maintaining inner-party democracy.
    • Upholds federalism: It upholds the values enshrined in the Constitution viz, equality,
      equity, impartiality, independence; and rule of law in superintendence, direction, and control over electoral governance.
    • Free and fair elections: It conducts elections with the highest standard of credibility, freeness, fairness, transparency, integrity, accountability, autonomy and professionalism.

    Issues with ECI

    • Flaws in the composition: The Constitution doesn’t prescribe qualifications for members of the EC. They are not debarred from future appointments after retiring or resigning.
    • No security of tenure: Election commissioners aren’t constitutionally protected with the security of tenure.
    • Partisan role: The EC has come under the scanner like never before, with increasing incidents of breach of the Model Code of Conduct in the 2019 general elections.
    • Political favor: The opposition alleged that the ECI was favoring the ruling party by giving a clean chit to the model code of conduct violations made by the PM.
    • Non-competence: Increased violence and electoral malpractices under influence of money have resulted in political criminalization, which ECI is unable to arrest.

     

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  • NGOs vs. GoI: The Conflicts and Scrutinies

    FCRA licence of Centre for Policy Research suspended

    | Governance | Mains Paper 2: NGO, SHG & Civil Society

    Union Home Ministry suspended the Foreign Contribution Regulation Act (FCRA) licence of the Centre for Policy Research (CPR).

    About CPR

    • The CPR was established in 1973 as a think tank with the mission to contribute to a more robust public discourse about the issues that impact life in India.
    • Its headquarters is located in Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
    • It is a non-profit, non-partisan, independent institution dedicated to conducting research that contributes to high quality scholarship, better policies.
    • Over the years it has cultivated a reputation as one of the country’s premier public policy think tanks.

    Why was its licence suspended?

    • The CPR allegedly received foreign funds in violation of the FCRA.

    What is FCRA?

    • The FCRA regulates foreign donations and ensures that such contributions do not adversely affect internal security.
    • First enacted in 1976, it was amended in 2010 when a slew of new measures was adopted to regulate foreign donations.
    • The FCRA is applicable to all associations, groups and NGOs which intend to receive foreign donations.
    • It is mandatory for all such NGOs to register themselves under the FCRA.
    • The registration is initially valid for five years and it can be renewed subsequently if they comply with all norms.

    Why was FCRA enacted?

    • The FCRA sought to consolidate the acceptance and utilisation of foreign contribution or foreign hospitality by individuals, associations or companies.
    • It sought to prohibit such contributions from being used for activities detrimental to national interest.

    What was the recent Amendment?

    • The FCRA was amended in September 2020 to introduce some new restrictions.
    • The Government says it did so because it found that many recipients were wanting in compliance with provisions relating to filing of annual returns and maintenance of accounts.
    • Many did not utilise the funds received for the intended objectives.
    • It claimed that the annual inflow as foreign contributions almost doubled between 2010 and 2019.
    • The FCRA registration of 19,000 organisations was cancelled and, in some cases, prosecution was also initiated.

    How has the law changed?

    There are at least three major changes that NGOs find too restrictive.

    • Prohibition of fund transfer: An amendment to Section 7 of the Act completely prohibits the transfer of foreign funds received by an organisation to any other individual or association.
    • Directed and single bank account: Another amendment mandates that every person (or association) granted a certificate or prior permission to receive overseas funds must open an FCRA bank account in a designated branch of the SBI in New Delhi.
    • Utilization of funds: All foreign funds should be received only in this account and none other. However, the recipients are allowed to open another FCRA bank account in any scheduled bank for utilisation.
    • Shared information: The designated bank will inform authorities about any foreign remittance with details about its source and the manner in which it was received.
    • Aadhaar mandate: In addition, the Government is also authorised to take the Aadhaar numbers of all the key functionaries of any organisation that applies for FCRA registration or for prior approval for receiving foreign funds.
    • Cap on administrative expenditure: Another change is that the portion of the receipts allowed as administrative expenditure has been reduced from 50% to 20%.

    What is the criticism against these changes?

    • Arbitrary restrictions: NGOs questioning the law consider the prohibition on transfer arbitrary and too heavy a restriction.
    • Non-sharing of funds: One of its consequences is that recipients cannot fund other organisations. When foreign help is received as material, it becomes impossible to share the aid.
    • Irrationality of designated bank accounts: There is no rational link between designating a particular branch of a bank with the objective of preserving national interest.
    • Un-ease of operation: Due to Delhi based bank account, it is also inconvenient as the NGOS might be operating elsewhere.
    • Illogical narrative: ‘National security’ cannot be cited as a reason without adequate justification as observed by the Supreme Court in Pegasus Case.

    What does the Government say?

    • Zero tolerance against intervention: The amendments were necessary to prevent foreign state and non-state actors from interfering with the country’s polity and internal matters.
    • Diversion of foreign funds: The changes are also needed to prevent malpractices by NGOs and diversion of foreign funds.
    • Fund flow monitoring: The provision of having one designated bank for receiving foreign funds is aimed at making it easier to monitor the flow of funds.
    • Ease of operation: The Government clarified that there was no need for anyone to come to Delhi to open the account as it can be done remotely.

    Supreme Court’s observation

    • The apex court reasoned that an unbridled inflow of foreign funds may destabilise the sovereignty of the nation.
    • The petitioners have argued that the amendments suffered from the “vice of ambiguity, over-breadth or over-governance” and violated their fundamental rights.
    • But the court countered that the amendments only provide a strict regulatory framework to moderate the inflow of foreign funds into the country.
    • The free and uncontrolled inflow of foreign funds has the potential to impact the socio-economic structure and polity of the country.
    • No one can be heard to claim a vested right to accept foreign donations, much less an absolute right, said the verdict.

    Supreme Court’s assessment of Foreign Funds

    • Philosophically, foreign contribution (donation) is akin to gratifying intoxicant replete with medicinal properties and may work like nectar.
    • However, it serves as medicine so long as it is consumed (utilised) moderately and discreetly, for serving the larger cause of humanity.
    • Otherwise, this artifice has the capability of inflicting pain, suffering and turmoil as being caused by the toxic substance (potent tool) — across the nation.

    Way forward

    • The court said charity could be found at home. NGOs could look within the country for donors.
    • Fundamental rights have to give way in the larger public interest to the need to insulate the democratic polity from the “adverse influence of foreign contributions”.
    • The third-world countries may welcome foreign donations, but it is open to a nation, which is committed and enduring to be self-reliant.
    • An unregulated inflow of foreign donations would only indicate that the government was incapable of looking after its own affairs and needs of its citizens.

     

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  • Higher Education – RUSA, NIRF, HEFA, etc.

    Academic Freedom in India declined strongly since 2013: Report

    | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

    freedom

    India’s academic freedom index is in the bottom 30 percent among 179 countries, according to a new report.

    Academic Freedom Index Update, 2023

    • The report was a collaborative effort of 2,917 country experts worldwide.
    • It was co-ordinated by Swedish think tank V-Dem Institute and the Institute of Political Science at the Friedrich Alexander University in Germany.
    • It identified 22 countries – including India, China, the United States and Mexico – where it said universities and scholars experience significantly less academic freedom today than they did ten years ago.
    • The index score measures five indicators-
    1. Freedom to research and teach
    2. Freedom of academic exchange and dissemination,
    3. Institutional autonomy of universities
    4. Freedom of academic and cultural expression and campus integrity
    5. Absence of security infringements and surveillance on campus.

    What one means by academic freedom?

    • Academic freedom refers to the independence and autonomy that scholars and researchers have in pursuing their academic work, without fear of censorship, retaliation, or repression from the government or other entities.
    • It includes the freedom to conduct research, publish findings, and express opinions and ideas, without interference or pressure from external forces.
    • It is considered a cornerstone of higher education and is essential for the advancement of knowledge and the free exchange of ideas.

    India’s performance

    • India is ranked among the bottom 30% with an index score of less than 0.4 among the 179 countries assessed by the researchers.
    • On a scale of 0 (low) to 1 (high), India scored 0.38, lower than Pakistan’s 0.43 and the United States’ 0.79, says the report. LOL!
    • The report has ranked the United States among the top 50% of countries with an index score just below 0.8. China has been ranked among the bottom 10% with a score of less than 0.1.
    • The report said that academic freedom in India began to decline in 2009 with a drop in university autonomy, followed by “a sharp downturn in all indicators” from 2013.

    Reasons for such poor ratings

    • A lack of a legal framework to protect academic freedom has enabled attacks on academic freedom.
    • The report sees there is notable pressure on the institutional dimensions of academic freedom — institutional autonomy and campus integrity.

    Again anti-India narrative

    • The report sees regime change in India since as a declining trend in the country’s academic freedom.
    • All such reports are being increasingly publicized ahead of India’s general elections in 2024.

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    World Wildlife Day- 2023: 50 years of the CITES

    | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    March 3 marks the 50th anniversary of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in 1973.

    Why is World Wildlife Day marked?

    • March 3 marks the anniversary of CITES’ establishment.
    • CITES is considered a landmark agreement on conservation that focuses on ensuring the sustainability of endangered species.
    • In 2013, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) proclaimed March 3 as the UN World Wildlife Day to celebrate and raise awareness of protecting the world’s wild animals and plants.
    • This was as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) was signed in 1973 on this day.

    What is the CITES?

    • CITES stands for the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora.
    • It is as an international agreement aimed at ensuring “that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival”.
    • It was drafted after a resolution was adopted at a meeting of the members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in 1963.
    • It entered into force on July 1, 1975, and now has 183 parties.
    • The Convention is legally binding on the Parties in the sense that they are committed to implementing it; however, it does not take the place of national laws.
    • India is a signatory to and has also ratified CITES convention in 1976.

    CITES Appendices

    • CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.
    • All import, export, re-exports and introduction from the sea of species covered by the convention has to be authorized through a licensing system.
    • It has three appendices:
    1. Appendix I includes species threatened with extinction. Trade-in specimens of these species are permitted only in exceptional circumstances.
    2. Appendix II provides a lower level of protection.
    3. Appendix III contains species that are protected in at least one country, which has asked other CITES Parties for assistance in controlling trade.

    A critical assessment

    • Having wildlife allowed to be traded further legitimises their movement and increases the possibility of their illegal trade.
    • Nearly two-thirds of cases, CITES protections lag after a species is determined to be threatened by international trade a/c to NatGeo.
    • For example, while pangolins were finally added to Appendix I in 2017, an estimated million were trafficked between 2000 and 2013.
    • Its laxity has been questioned, on matters such as the ivory trade being allowed at times despite the convention banning it in 1989.

    Conclusion

    • CITES needs to evolve to address new challenges and work more closely with other international agreements and initiatives.
    • There is a need of continued efforts to protect wildlife and biodiversity and the need for international cooperation and collaboration to achieve this goal.

     

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  • NPA Crisis

    What is the Expected Credit Loss (ECL) regime?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    The Reserve Bank of India is moving closer towards ring-fencing the banking system from credit losses as it proposes to move to provision on the principles of ‘expected losses’ from ‘incurred losses. ‘

    What is a Loan-Loss Provision?

    • The RBI defines a loan loss provision as an expense that banks set aside for defaulted loans.
    • Banks set aside a portion of the expected loan repayments from all loans in their portfolio to cover the losses either completely or partially.
    • In the event of a loss, instead of taking a loss in its cash flows, the bank can use its loan loss reserves to cover the loss.
    • The level of loan loss provision is determined based on the level expected to protect the safety and soundness of the bank.

    What is Expected Credit Loss (ECL) regime?

    • The Expected Credit Loss (ECL) regime is a new accounting standard that was introduced by the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) in response to the global financial crisis of 2008.
    • The ECL regime requires banks and other financial institutions to estimate and report the expected losses from their loan portfolios over the lifetime of the loans.
    • Under the ECL regime, financial institutions must assess the credit risk associated with each loan and estimate the expected losses that will result from default or other credit events.
    • These expected losses must be recognized in the financial institution’s accounts and reported to investors and other stakeholders.
    • Under this practice, a bank is required to estimate expected credit losses based on forward-looking estimations rather than wait for credit losses to be actually incurred before making corresponding loss provisions.

    Benefits of the ECL regime

    • ECL will result in excess provisions as compared to a shortfall in provisions, as seen in the incurred loss approach.
    • It will further enhance the resilience of the banking system in line with globally accepted norms.

    Issues with this regime

    • It requires banks to provide for losses that have already occurred or been incurred.
    • The delay in recognizing loan losses resulted in banks having to make higher levels of provisions which affected the bank’s capital.
    • This affected banks’ resilience and posed systemic risks.
    • The delays in recognizing loan losses overstated the income generated by the banks, which, coupled with dividend payouts, impacted their capital base.

     

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  • Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

    VAIBHAV fellowship for Indian Diaspora

    Schemes | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

    The centre has launched VAIBHAV Fellowship scheme for the Indian Diaspora abroad on National Science Day.

    VAIBHAV fellowship

    • The Vaibhav Fellowship is a program that invites overseas Indian scientists and researchers to work with Indian institutions and universities for a period of 2-3 weeks.
    • The program is open to individuals of Indian origin who are working in fields such as science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).
    • The fellowship will provide opportunities for the diaspora to collaborate with Indian scientists and researchers, participate in conferences, and contribute to the development of the country’s science and technology sector.

    Objectives of the Fellowship

    • To create a platform for Indian diaspora scientists and researchers to connect with their counterparts in India and contribute to the country’s growth in the field of science and technology.
    • To foster collaboration between Indian and overseas scientists and researchers, promote knowledge exchange, and build a network of professionals who can contribute to the development of the country.

    Key facts

    • Duration: The fellowship offers researchers an opportunity to work for a minimum of one month to a maximum of two months a year with a research institution or an academic institution in India.
    • Corpus: Three years with the government offering the researchers an amount of up to Rs 37 lakh for the entire period.
    • Eligibility: Researchers from institutions featuring in the top 500 QS World University Rankings will be eligible for the fellowship.
    • Who can apply: The applicant should be a Non-Resident Indian (NRI), Person of Indian Origin (PIO) or Overseas Citizen of India (OCI) and she or he must have obtained Ph.D/M.D/M.S degree from a recognized University.

    Significance of the fellowship

    • The fellowship provides a platform for Indian scientists and researchers to collaborate with their counterparts abroad, which can help in the exchange of ideas and knowledge.
    • It also provides an opportunity for the Indian diaspora to contribute to the development of their home country.
    • By engaging with the Indian institutions and universities, the diaspora can bring in new ideas, technologies, and expertise that can help in the country’s development.

     

     

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  • Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

    Heatwaves in India: A Serious Concern

    op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Heatwave

    Central Idea

    • Heat waves have become a major concern for India this year. The scorching summer heat has started prematurely, as per the recent IMD reports. If the record temperatures of the recent past are any indication, the heat wave is likely to become more intense. Rising temperatures lead to several health problems, from dehydration and heat exhaustion to more severe conditions like heatstroke. They also affect the economy and the environment.

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    What is Heat wave?

    • A heatwave is a prolonged period of abnormally hot weather.
    • Heatwaves usually last for several days or weeks and can occur in both dry and humid climates. They are characterized by temperatures that are significantly higher than the average for a particular region during that time of year.
    • This is because climate change is causing a rise in global temperatures. As the planet heats up, it leads to more extreme weather events, such as heat waves. Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.

    Heatwaves in India

    • In India Heat waves typically occur from March to June, and in some rare cases, even extend till July.
    • On an average, five-six heat wave events occur every year over the northern parts of the country.
    • Single events can last weeks, occur consecutively, and can impact large population.
    • Its geography makes India particularly vulnerable to these events.

    Some of the hottest summers on record in recent years that India has experienced

    • In May 2016, Phalodi in Rajasthan registered 51 degrees Celsius, the highest temperature ever recorded in the country.
    • In 2021, India saw its hottest day on May 22, with the temperature touching 48 degrees Celsius in Barmer, also in Rajasthan.
    • In 2022, Jaipur experienced a severe heatwave. Rajasthan’s capital recorded 45 degrees Celsius in April a record for the city for the month.
    • Delhi, Agra, Pilani and Rohtak are among the well-known hot cities in India, where temperatures, of late, have gone up to 43 degrees Celsius in early summer

    Link: Climate change and Heat waves

    • Rising heat waves: Climate change is directly linked to the increase in the frequency, intensity, and duration of heatwaves around the world.
    • More severe and more frequent: As the Earth’s climate continues to warm, heatwaves are becoming more severe and occurring more frequently.
    • Global warming: This is because global warming is causing changes in the atmosphere, such as increased greenhouse gas concentrations, which trap heat and cause temperatures to rise.
    • For instance: Climate change is also causing heatwaves to last longer. A study published in the journal Environmental Research Letters found that heatwaves are lasting an average of 2.5 days longer than they did in the middle of the 20th century.

    Heatwave

    The Socio-economic impact of heat waves

    1. Impact on Health: Heat-related illnesses, such as heat exhaustion and heatstroke, are becoming more common, particularly among vulnerable groups such as the elderly, children, and outdoor workers.
    • In addition, heat waves can exacerbate existing health problems, such as respiratory and cardiovascular diseases.
    1. Impact on the environment
    • One of the biggest problems is the depletion of water resources:
    • Water sources are drying up as temperatures rise, leading to crises in many parts of the country.
    • As people try to keep cool, they use more air conditioning, increasing electricity use. This leads to an increase in the use of fossil fuels, which significantly contributes to air pollution.
    1. Impact on agriculture:
    • Impact on environment in turn, leads to agricultural problems, with crops failing and farmers struggling to make a living.
    • Given that around 40 per cent of India’s population is engaged in agriculture, this is a significant concern.
    • Reports are already coming from Punjab and Western Uttar Pradesh that the early heatwave has affected the growth of wheat crops and is expected to negatively affect the crop to the tune of 20 per cent.
    1. Impact on growth:
    • The healthcare costs associated with heat-related illnesses can be significant, particularly for vulnerable groups who may not have access to affordable healthcare.
    • In addition, heat waves can lead to a decrease in worker productivity, which can impact economic growth.

    Heatwave

    What can be done to deal with such problems?

    • Increase public awareness: People need to be educated about the impact of rising temperatures on their health, the environment, and the economy. This can be done through public campaigns, schools, and the media.
    • Increase the use of renewable energy: India has already made significant progress in this area. However, much remains to be done. The government could incentivise individuals and businesses to invest in renewable energy, such as solar panels. This would help reduce the impact of rising temperatures, create new jobs, and stimulate economic growth.
    • Improving water management: This could include introducing more efficient irrigation systems, better rainwater harvesting, and using recycled water for non-potable purposes. This would help to conserve water resources and reduce the impact of rising temperatures on agriculture.
    • Investing in infrastructure that can cope with extreme temperatures: This could include the construction of roads and buildings that are designed to withstand high temperatures, as well as the development of more efficient cooling systems that use less energy.

    Heatwave

    Conclusion

    • The rising heat wave in India is a serious concern that needs to be addressed urgently. The impacts of rising temperatures on human health, the environment, and the economy are significant. However, with the right strategies in place, it is possible to mitigate the impact of rising temperatures and ensure a sustainable future for the country.

    Mains Question

    Q. Climate change is exacerbating the problem of heat waves. In this backdrop discuss its socioeconomic impact and what measures can be done to tackle this problem?

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  • Poverty Eradication – Definition, Debates, etc.

    SDGs: India’s Progress Analysis

    op-ed snap | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Inclusive Growth & Issues,Issues relating growth and development, employment

    SDG

    Central Idea

    • A recent analysis published in The Lancet has concluded that India is not on-target to achieve 19 of the 33 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) indicators. The critical off-target indicators include access to basic services, wasting and overweight children, anaemia, child marriage, partner violence, tobacco use, and modern contraceptive use.

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    Analysis

    • On-Target: Districts that have not met the SDG target by 2021 and have observed a magnitude of improvement between 2016 and 2021 sufficient to meet the target by 2030.
    • Off-Target: Districts that have not met the SDG target by 2021 and either observed worsening between 2016 and 2021 or observed an insufficient magnitude of improvement between 2016 and 2021. If these districts continue with either of these trends, they will not meet their targets by 2030.
    • Progress in: Indicators shows the progress in reducing adolescent pregnancy, tobacco use in women, multidimensional poverty, teenage sexual violence, and improving electricity access.
    • Areas where more efforts are needed: More efforts are needed for reducing anaemia in women, improving access to basic services, providing health insurance for women, and reducing anaemia in pregnant women.

    Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

    • The SDGs, otherwise known as the Global Goals, are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity.
    • The SDGs were adopted by the United Nations in 2015 with a vision to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all. The 17 SDGs came into force with effect from 1st January 2016 as a part of 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
    • India is one of the signatory countries that has committed to achieving these goals by 2030.
    • Though not legally binding, the SDGs have become de facto international obligations and have the potential to reorient domestic spending priorities of the countries during the next fifteen years.
    • Countries are expected to take ownership and establish a national framework for achieving these goals.

    SDG

    Targets set for each of the SDGs

    • No Poverty: By 2030, eradicate extreme poverty for all people everywhere, currently measured as people living on less than $1.25 a day.
    • Zero Hunger: By 2030, end hunger and ensure access by all people, in particular the poor and people in vulnerable situations, including infants, to safe, nutritious and sufficient food all year round.
    • Quality Education: By 2030, ensure that all girls and boys complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to relevant and effective learning outcomes.
    • Gender Equality: End all forms of discrimination, violence, harmful practices against all women and girls everywhere. Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political, economic, and public life.

    SDG

    India’s progress towards achieving SDGs so far

    • SDG 1 (No Poverty): India has made significant progress in reducing poverty, with the poverty rate declining from 21.9% in 2011-12 to 4.4% in 2020. The government’s efforts to provide financial inclusion and social protection schemes have contributed to this progress.
    • SDG 2 (Zero Hunger): India has made progress in reducing hunger, with the prevalence of undernourishment declining from 17.3% in 2004-06 to 14% in 2017-19. The government’s initiatives such as the National Food Security Act and the Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Anna Yojana have contributed to this progress.
    • SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-being): India has made progress in improving maternal and child health, with maternal mortality ratio declining from 167 per 100,000 live births in 2011-13 to 113 in 2016-18. The government’s efforts to strengthen health systems and increase access to healthcare services have contributed to this progress.
    • SDG 4 (Quality Education): India has made progress in improving access to education, with the gross enrolment ratio for primary education increasing from 93.4% in 2014-15 to 94.3% in 2019-20. The government’s initiatives such as the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and the Right to Education Act have contributed to this progress.
    • SDG 5 (Gender Equality): India has made progress in improving gender equality, with the sex ratio at birth increasing from 918 in 2011 to 934 in 2020. The government’s initiatives such as the Beti Bachao Beti Padhao and the Maternity Benefit Programme have contributed to this progress.

    Recent findings by National Family Health Survey

    • Multidimensional poverty declined: At a compounded annual average rate of 4.8 per cent per year in 2005-2011 and more than double that pace at 10.3 per cent a year during 2011-2021.
    • Declining child mortality: There are some issues with the 2011 child-mortality data, but for each of the 10 components of the MPI index, the rate of decline in 2011-2021 is considerably faster than in 2005-2011.
    • Average decline in overall indicators: The average equally weighted decline for nine indicators was 1.9 per cent per annum in 2005-2011 and a rate of 16.6 per cent per annum, more than eight times higher in 2011-2021.
    • Consumption inequality decline: Every single household survey or analysis has shown that consumption inequality declined during 2011-2021. This is consistent with the above finding of highly inclusive growth during 2011-2021.

    Conclusion

    • The analysis provides a valuable tool for policymakers to address the gaps and focus on the indicators that require more attention, thereby improving the well-being of its citizens and creating a sustainable future for all.

    Mains question

    Q. What are Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)? Discuss India’s progress made so far in achieving these targets

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  • Disasters and Disaster Management – Sendai Framework, Floods, Cyclones, etc.

    Policy: Making India Earthquake Prepared

    op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Policy

    Central Idea

    • The destruction caused by earthquakes in Turkey should be alarming for India. Over the last three weeks, tremors have been felt in Himalayan states. Moreover, geologists have warned of a probable massive earthquake in the Himalayan state. In this context the Delhi High Court asked the state government to file a status report and action plan on the structural safety of buildings in Delhi. Nearly 58 per cent of the Indian landmass is vulnerable to earthquakes and the concerns that have been raised by the court need a policy response instead.

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    How do earthquakes happen?

    • According to the theory of plate tectonics, the Earth’s crust and upper mantle are made of large rigid plates that can move relative to one another.
    • Slip on faults near the plate boundaries can result in earthquakes.
    • The point inside the Earth where the earthquake rupture starts is called the focus or hypocentre.
    • The point directly above it on the surface of the Earth is the epicentre.

    What is missing in India’s policy on earthquake preparedness?

    • Current policy operates primarily at the scale of structural details: Guided by the National Building Codes, this includes specifying dimensions of the structural members columns, beams, etc. and details of the reinforcements that join these elements together.
    • While scientifically sound, this view on earthquake preparedness is myopic:
    1. It ignores the buildings that were constructed before such codes were published in 1962. Such buildings form a large part of our cities.
    2. It assumes infallibility in the processes of enforcement, relying only on penalisation and illegalities.
    3. It treats earthquakes as a problem of individual buildings, as if they exist and behave in complete isolation from their urban context.

    What needs to be done?

    • Preparedness at Building and City Scale through policy: Earthquake preparedness, therefore, needs to act at the scale of building details as well as that of cities. Moreover, we must think about it in the realm of policy and not just legal enforcement.
    • Need for Comprehensive Policy: At the scale of building details, we need to create a system of retrofitting existing structures and enforcing seismic codes with more efficiency. While there has been political talk and piecemeal efforts towards retrofitting, we still lack a comprehensive policy.

    A policy should include two measures

    1. Retrofitting Buildings to Seismic Codes:
    • To create a system of tax-based or development rights-based incentives for retrofitting one’s building up to seismic codes.
    • Such a system of incentives will enable the growth of an industry around retrofitting and will generate a body of well-trained professionals and competent organisations.
    1. Improving Seismic Code Enforcement:
    • By ensuring better enforcement of seismic codes through a similar model. A step forward in this direction was the National Retrofitting Programme launched in 2014.
    • Under the programme, the Reserve Bank of India directed banks to deny loans for any building activity that does not meet the standards of earthquake-resistant design.

    Case study: Japan

    • Japan has invested heavily in technological measures to mitigate the damage from the frequent earthquakes that it experiences.
    • Skyscrapers are built with counterweights and other high-tech provisions to minimise the impact of tremors.
    • Small houses are built on flexible foundations and public infrastructure is integrated with automated triggers that cut power, gas, and water lines during earthquakes.
    • All of this has been a result of cultivating an industry around earthquake mitigation and fostering expertise.

    Criteria for an urban-level policy to generate earthquake vulnerability maps

    1. The percentage of vulnerable structures in the area;
    2. The availability of evacuation routes and distances from the nearest open ground;
    3. Density of the urban fabric;
    4. Location of nearest relief services and the efficiency with which these services can reach affected sites.
    • For example: Flood zone mapping is a good example of such an exercise that has proven to be successful in terms of timely evacuation and efficient implementation.

    Conclusion

    • Governments and policymakers ought to know better than act in a piecemeal manner. Programmes like the ongoing Urban 20 meetings are an excellent opportunity for international knowledge exchange on earthquake preparedness. The Delhi High Court’s directions must act as a reminder for the inclusion of an earthquake preparedness policy in urban renewal programmes such as the Smart Cities Mission. A policy on earthquake preparedness requires a visionary, radical and transformative approach.

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  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    Case for open and verifiable Forest Cover Data

    | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    forest

    Central idea: From 19.53% in the early 1980s, today India’s total green cover stands at 24.62% ‘on-paper’.

    Defining Forest and Tree Cover

    • The Forest Survey of India (FSI) publishes its biennial State of Forest reports in 1987.
    • A/c to FSI, India counts all plots of 1 hectare or above, with at least 10% tree canopy density, irrespective of land use or ownership, within forest cover.
    • This disregards the United Nation’s benchmark that does not include areas predominantly under agricultural and urban land use in forests.

    How are forests categorized?

    The Forest Survey of India has listed four categories of forests. They are:

    1. Very Dense Forest (with tree canopy density of 70 per cent or above) (added since 2003)
    2. Moderately Dense Forest (tree canopy density of 40 per cent or above but less than 70 per cent)
    3. Open Forest (tree canopy density of 10 per cent or above but less than 40 per cent)
    4. Scrub (tree canopy density less than 10 per cent)

    New category:  NOT a forest (isolated or small patches of trees — less than 1 hectare)

    Satellite imagery used for precision

    • Until the mid-1980s (SFR 1987), the forest cover was estimated through satellite images at a 1:1 million scale.
    • The resolution then improved to 1:250,000, reducing the minimum mappable unit size from 400 to 25 hectares.
    • Since 19.53% in the early 1980s, India’s forest cover has increased to 21.71% in 2021.
    • By 2001, the scale improved to 1:50,000, bringing down the unit size to 1 hectare, and interpretation went fully digital.

    Accounting losses in forest cover

    • Satellite imagery shows decline: The National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) estimated declines in India’s forest cover using satellite imagery.
    • Official account on deforestation: While reliable data on encroachment is unavailable, government records show that 42,380 sq. km — nearly the size of Haryana— of forest land was diverted for non-forest use between 1951 and 1980.
    • Reconciled data: The NRSA and the newly established FSI “reconciled” India’s forest cover at 19.53% in 1987. The FSI did not contest the NRSA finding that the dense forest cover had fallen from 14.12% in the mid-1970s to 10.96% in 1981, and reconciled it to 10.88% in 1987.

    What about Total Recorded Forests?

    Ans. Lost some areas due to encroachment, diversion, forest fire etc.

    • In India, land recorded as forest in revenue records or proclaimed as forest under a forest law is described as Recorded Forest Area.
    • These areas were recorded as forests at some point due to the presence of forests on the land.
    • Divided into Reserved, Protected and Unclassed forests, Recorded Forest Areas account for 23.58% of India.

    One-third forest lost!

    • Almost one-third of India’s old natural forests — over 2.44 lakh sq. km (larger than Uttar Pradesh) or 7.43% of India are lost.
    • Even after extensive plantation by the forest department since the 1990s, dense forests within Recorded Forest Areas added up to cover only 9.96% of India in 2021.
    • That is a one-tenth slide since the FSI recorded 10.88% dense forest in 1987.

    Then why is there a net increase in India’s forest cover?

    • Plantations disguise as forest: The loss remains invisible due to the inclusion of commercial plantations, orchards, village homesteads, urban housings etc. as dense forests outside Recorded Forest Areas. Natural forests do not grow so fast.
    • Plantation data unavailable: The FSI provides no specific information on the share of plantations in the remaining dense forests inside Recorded Forest Areas.

    Why are plantations not an alternative to forests?

    Plantations can grow a lot more and faster than old natural forests. This also means that plantations can achieve additional carbon targets faster. However they are cannot be accounted as forests because-

    • Lack of biodiversity: Natural forests have evolved naturally to be diverse and, therefore, support a lot more biodiversity. Simply put, it has many different plants to sustain numerous species.
    • Non-sustainable: Plantation forests have trees of the same age, are more susceptible to fire, pests and epidemics, and often act as a barrier to natural forest regeneration.
    • Low carbon capacity: Natural forests are old and therefore stock a lot more carbon in their body and in the soil.

    How accurate are these estimations?

    • The FSI compares some interpreted data with the corresponding reference data collected from the ground under the National Forest Inventory (NFI) programme.
    • In 2021, it claimed to have established an overall accuracy of 95.79% in identifying forests from non-forests.
    • However, given the limited resources, the exercise was limited to less than 6,000 sample points.

    What led to such decline in forest cover?

    • Agricultural expansion
    • Infrastructure development
    • Mining and industrial activities
    • Illegal logging (for timber)
    • Climate change and natural disasters

    Way forward

    • Aggressive conservation policies and programs: The government needs to strengthen forest conservation policies and programs to promote the sustainable use and management of forests and trees.
    • Community participation and empowerment: Engaging local communities in forest conservation and management can promote sustainable practices and enhance their livelihoods.
    • Sustainable forest management practices: Promoting sustainable forest management practices like agroforestry, silvopasture, and mixed-use landscapes can enhance the productivity and resilience of forests.
    • Use of technology for monitoring and enforcement: Leveraging technology like remote sensing, geographic information systems (GIS), and blockchain can improve the monitoring and enforcement of forest conservation policies and programs.
    • Involving individuals and communities: They play a crucial role in protecting forests and trees by adopting sustainable practices, supporting forest conservation initiatives, and raising awareness about the importance of forests for the environment and people.

     

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