PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the Constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of a child in the womb to establish its paternity.
Linkage: The article highlights that data is the “digital era’s most valuable resource” and that compromising its control, including individual data, poses “serious security risks” and affects national competitive advantage. Safeguarding personal data is a crucial component of asserting digital sovereignty. |
Mentor’s Comment: The India–UK FTA, recently finalised, is hailed as a “gold standard” but raises concerns over digital sovereignty. India conceded access to source code and government data, weakening regulatory control and AI innovation leverage. The deal also marks a shift from India’s previous global stand on data localisation, contrasting positions taken even by countries like the US.
Today’s editorial analyses the concerns over digital sovereignty in the India-UK FTA. This topic is important for GS Paper II (International Relations) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The India–United Kingdom Free Trade Agreement (FTA), officially called the Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), is in the news because of a significant debate over its provisions for the digital sector and digital sovereignty.
What digital issues arise from the India-UK FTA?
- Unrestricted Use of Public Data: UK firms gain equal access to Indian public datasets, affecting domestic innovation potential. Eg: British companies can commercially exploit Indian transport or agricultural data.
- Weakened Data Localization Autonomy: India must engage in consultations before enacting data rules, reducing flexibility.
- No Safeguards for Critical Infrastructure: The deal doesn’t exempt sensitive sectors from source code restrictions. Eg: India can’t review software running in strategic areas like nuclear power plants.
- Lack of Coherent Digital Trade Policy: Commitments were made without a clear digital governance framework. Eg: Digital clauses went unchallenged, unlike the agricultural sector, which had strong negotiation backing.
- Restricted Source Code Access: India is barred from demanding source code or algorithms, limiting oversight.
What is Source Code?
Source code is the original set of instructions written by a programmer in a human-readable programming language (like Python, Java, or C++) that defines how a software program works. |
How does source code access loss affect India’s digital control?
- Weakens Cyber Sovereignty: Without access to source code, India cannot verify or modify software behavior, increasing reliance on foreign tech. Foreign telecom equipment may have backdoors compromising national security.
- Inhibits Regulatory Oversight: Lack of access hinders the ability of Indian regulators to audit algorithms or ensure compliance with local laws. Eg: India can’t fully inspect e-commerce platforms’ pricing algorithms for anti-competitive behavior.
- Compromises Data Privacy & Security: Source code opacity prevents India from detecting data leaks or unauthorized data transfers.
Why is a digital policy crucial for India’s trade interests?
- Ensures Data Sovereignty: A strong policy helps India control how data is stored and used globally. Eg: Prevents sensitive health data from being transferred without oversight.
- Protects Domestic Industry: Clear rules support Indian startups against unfair access by global players. Eg: Limits foreign firms from exploiting local e-commerce data.
- Strengthens Negotiation Power: Defined digital laws give India leverage in FTA talks. Eg: Helps resist pressure to allow free cross-border data flow in trade deals.
- Secures National Interests: Policy enables checks on cybersecurity threats and foreign surveillance. Eg: Restricts flow of defence-related digital information.
- Boosts Digital Economy: Promotes data-driven innovation and economic growth through regulation. Eg: Encourages investment in Indian cloud services by assuring legal clarity.
Way forward:
- Reassess Digital Commitments: Review FTA clauses that compromise digital sovereignty and seek renegotiation if needed.
- Strengthen Data Protection Laws: Enforce robust data localisation and privacy regulations to safeguard national interest.
- Ensure Source Code Access: Mandate conditional access to critical software for security audits and public interest.
- Promote Indigenous Tech: Invest in local AI and digital infrastructure to reduce foreign dependency.
- Align Trade with Policy: Harmonise trade agreements with India’s long-term digital and strategic goals.
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Why in the News?
Recently, US President Donald Trump has threatened additional penalties on Indian imports, specifically targeting India’s purchase of discounted Russian oil.
Why is India buying more oil from Russia?
- Steep Price Discounts: Russian crude is sold at prices significantly below global benchmarks. In FY 2024-25, India imported $56.9 billion worth of mineral fuels from Russia, up from $2.1 billion in 2020-21.
- Energy Security Priority: Ensuring affordable and reliable energy is vital for India’s economic stability and consumer welfare.
- No UN Sanctions: India legally continues trade since Russian oil is not under United Nations sanctions, unlike US/EU bans. India cites international legality and moral justification for its purchases.
- Strategic Pragmatism: India follows a non-aligned, interest-driven foreign policy, prioritizing national needs over bloc politics.
What are the impacts of the US and NATO warnings on India?
- Trade Penalty Threats: The US has imposed a 25% tariff on Indian goods and hinted at an additional penalty linked to India’s energy trade with Russia.
- Secondary Sanctions Warning: NATO has warned that countries continuing business with Russia may face secondary sanctions. NATO Secretary General Mark Rutte issued a caution to India, China, and Brazil for sustaining Russia’s wartime economy.
- Legislative Pressure in the US: A proposed US Congressional bill seeks a 500% duty on imports from nations trading in Russian-origin petroleum and uranium. If passed, this could impact Indian exports to the US due to its engagement in discounted Russian oil.
- Strained Strategic Ties: Continued trade with Russia risks diplomatic friction with key Western allies, affecting defence cooperation and technology sharing. India’s balancing strategy between Russia and the West becomes harder as the Western bloc consolidates against Moscow.
- Push for Energy Diversification: Western pressure is pushing India to rethink its energy security strategy and reduce dependence on Russian crude.
How can India change its strategy to buy oil from other countries?
- Diversify Import Sources: India can increase crude purchases from Gulf countries, the US, Latin America, and Africa to reduce dependence on Russia. Eg: India has ramped up imports from Iraq and Saudi Arabia, traditionally among its top suppliers.
- Sign Long-term Contracts: Establish long-term supply agreements with stable oil-exporting nations to ensure steady and secure inflow. Eg: India signed a long-term deal with Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) for crude supply and storage.
- Invest in Strategic Partnerships: Strengthen ties through energy diplomacy and joint ventures in oil exploration and production abroad. Eg: Indian PSUs like ONGC Videsh have stakes in oil fields in Vietnam, Venezuela, and Russia.
- Leverage Spot Market and Strategic Reserves: Use the global spot market for short-term deals and enhance strategic petroleum reserves (SPRs). Eg: India has bought crude from the US and Nigeria on the spot market during price dips.
- Boost Domestic Refining Flexibility: Upgrade refineries to process diverse crude grades, enabling imports from a wider range of countries. Eg: Reliance and Indian Oil refineries are capable of handling crude from the US, Middle East, and West Africa.
How can India protect its interests and handle pressure? (Way forward)
- Prioritize Strategic Autonomy: India should maintain an independent foreign policy, making decisions based on national interest rather than aligning with any geopolitical bloc.
- Engage in Diplomatic Dialogue: Proactively communicate with Western partners to explain its energy needs and seek carve-outs or exemptions from potential sanctions.
- Strengthen Domestic Resilience: Increase investments in renewable energy, expand strategic oil reserves, and boost refining capacity to reduce vulnerability to external shocks.
- Balance Competing Relationships: Carefully navigate ties with both Russia and the West, ensuring that economic cooperation does not compromise strategic partnerships elsewhere.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2019] What introduces friction into the ties between India and the United States is that Washington is still unable to find for India a position in its global strategy, which would satisfy India’s National self-esteem and ambitions” Explain with suitable examples.
Linkage: This question highlights the tension arising when India seeks to act according to its “National self-esteem and ambitions” rather than conforming to a global strategy dictated by another power (the US). This strongly aligns with the idea of India making independent decisions guided by its own interests.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark advisory opinion on July 23, 2025, clarifying the legal obligations of states regarding climate change.
Note: The International Court of Justice (ICJ) is the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. While advisory opinions are not formally binding, they hold persuasive (Convince other) legal weight and reflect the Court’s authoritative interpretation of international law.
What does the ICJ say about saving nature and the climate?
- Nature is a climate actor, not just a victim: ICJ recognizes ecosystems like forests, oceans, and coral reefs as active parts of the climate system. Eg: Forests absorb CO₂ and regulate rainfall.
- Protecting nature is a legal climate duty: Countries have a responsibility to safeguard nature as part of their climate obligations. Eg: Wetlands must be preserved to manage floods and store carbon.
- Ecological literacy is essential: Decision-makers must understand ecosystem roles in climate regulation. Eg: Mangrove destruction worsens storm impact and carbon release.
- Biodiversity and climate are equal: Climate action must not come at the cost of biodiversity. Eg: Solar parks should not destroy grasslands or wildlife zones.
- Global justice includes nature’s rights: The ICJ promotes a shift from human-centred to eco-centred justice. Eg: Legal personhood to rivers (like Ganga) aligns with this approach.
How can India align the ICJ view with Articles 21 and 48A of the Constitution?
- Recognize environmental rights as part of Right to Life (Article 21): Link clean air, water, and a healthy ecosystem to the fundamental right to life. Eg: Supreme Court’s recognition of the right to a healthy environment in the Subhash Kumar case.
- Implement Directive Principle on environment (Article 48A): Strengthen policies to protect and improve forests, rivers, and biodiversity. Eg: Initiatives like Namami Gange align with this duty.
What are the roles of Tribals in India’s climate plans?
The roles of tribals in India’s climate plans are crucial because they are deeply connected with nature and are key to conservation and climate resilience.
- Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Tribals have deep understanding of local ecosystems, useful for conservation and climate adaptation. Eg: Bhil tribes, Madhya Pradesh – traditional water harvesting for drought resilience.
- Forest and Biodiversity Guardianship: Indigenous communities act as forest protectors and biodiversity custodians, aiding carbon sequestration. Eg: Dongria Kondh, Odisha – protect Niyamgiri Hills’ biodiversity.
- Sustainable Livelihood Practices: Tribes follow low-carbon, eco-friendly practices, supporting climate goals. Eg: Apatani tribe, Arunachal Pradesh – eco-friendly wet rice farming (growing rice in flooded fields).
- Community-Based Climate Adaptation: Local innovation enables faster climate resilience and resource management. Eg: Women in Kutch, Gujarat – build check dams for water security.
- Effective Implementation of Climate Schemes: Grassroots involvement improves policy success, ensures inclusive development. Eg: Van Dhan Yojana – empowers tribal collectives for sustainable forest use.
Which laws should India improve to better protect nature and fight climate change?
- Strengthen Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): Make public consultations more transparent and science-based. Eg: Dilution in EIA 2020 draft faced criticism for reducing oversight on polluting projects.
- Amend Forest Conservation Act (FCA): Ensure tribal rights and ecological value are protected during land diversion. Eg: FCA 2023 allowed exemptions for some forest lands, risking biodiversity loss.
- Update Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981: Include stricter penalties and real-time monitoring for industrial emissions. Eg: Delhi’s recurring smog highlights the law’s limited deterrence.
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Way forward:
- Empower Local Communities: Recognize and support tribal and grassroots climate efforts through legal rights, funding, and capacity building.
- Mainstream Climate in Policy Planning: Integrate climate adaptation and mitigation into urban planning, agriculture, and infrastructure development.
- Promote Green Finance and Innovation: Incentivize clean technologies, nature-based solutions, and public-private partnerships for sustainable development.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] The most significant achievement of modern law in India in the constitutionalization of environmental problems by the Supreme Court. Discuss this statement with the help of relevant case laws.
Linkage: The article highlights that India’s Supreme Court has interpreted Article 21 (right to life) to include the right to a healthy environment, and the ICJ’s opinion internationalizes this idea, providing a strong basis for India’s legal framework to embrace a restorative vision.
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Information and Broadcasting has announced the 71st National Film Awards.
About National Film Awards:
- Establishment: Instituted in 1954, administered by the Directorate of Film Festivals (DoFF) under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India.
- Purpose:
- To encourage the production of films of aesthetic and technical excellence.
- Promote films that reflect the cultural and social fabric of India.
- Recognize and reward cinematic achievements across languages and formats.
- Award Components:
- Swarna Kamal (Golden Lotus): Includes medallion, certificate, and cash prize. Given in top categories.
- Rajat Kamal (Silver Lotus): Awarded in various other categories.
- Main Categories:
- Feature Films: For artistic and technical excellence across Indian languages.
- Non-Feature Films: For documentaries, shorts, and socially relevant content.
- Best Writing on Cinema: For books and critics advancing understanding of cinema.
- Eligibility Criteria:
- Films must be produced in India.
- Makers must be Indian nationals.
- Must be certified by CBFC between Jan 1 and Dec 31.
- Foreign co-productions have specific eligibility conditions.
- Jury and Selection:
- Independent juries for each category.
- No governmental or commercial influence in the selection process.
- Part of NFA.
- India’s highest cinematic honour.
- Instituted in 1969 to commemorate Dhundiraj Govind Phalke, India’s first filmmaker.
- Consists of:
- Swarna Kamal
- ₹10 lakh cash prize
- Certificate, silk roll, and shawl
- First recipient: Devika Rani Roerich
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Why in the News?
The Supreme Court of India has reserved its judgment (i.e. final decision is pending) in a set of petitions challenging the age-related eligibility criteria under the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021.
These cases involve couples who had initiated the surrogacy process prior to the enactment of the law on January 25, 2022, but are now disqualified due to the new age limits.
About the Surrogacy (Regulation) Act, 2021
- Objective: To regulate surrogacy in India, prohibit commercial surrogacy, and promote ethical, altruistic surrogacy based on medical necessity.
- Scope:
Key Provisions:
- Type Permitted: Only altruistic surrogacy (unpaid surrogate mother) is allowed; commercial surrogacy is banned.
- Eligibility Criteria for Intending Couples:
- Legally married for at least 5 years.
- Woman must be 23–50 years of age; man must be 26–55 years.
- Must not have any living biological, adopted, or surrogate child.
- Eligibility for Single Women:
- Only widows or divorcees between 35–45 years are eligible.
- Unmarried women are not eligible (currently under challenge).
- Surrogate Mother Criteria:
- Must be a close relative, married, and have at least one biological child.
- Age: 25–35 years.
- Certification Requirement: A Certificate of Essentiality is required, including:
- Proof of infertility
- Court order for parentage and custody
- Insurance for the surrogate mother
- Penalties: Commercial surrogacy invites imprisonment (up to 10 years) and fines (up to ₹10 lakh).
- Regulatory Structure:
- National Surrogacy Board at the central level.
- State Surrogacy Boards at the state level.
Issues Highlighted by the Supreme Court:
- No Transitional Provision: The Act lacks a grandfather clause to protect couples who began the surrogacy process (e.g., embryo freezing) before the law came into effect in January 2022.
- Rigid Age Limits: The court questioned the fairness of disqualifying couples solely on age grounds, especially when natural pregnancies at older ages are not prohibited.
- Violation of Fundamental Rights: Petitioners argued the age restrictions violate Article 14 (equality before law) and Article 21 (right to reproductive autonomy and personal liberty).
- Exclusion of Unmarried Women: The law permits only widows or divorcees (35–45 years) to pursue surrogacy, which the court noted may be arbitrary and discriminatory.
- Law’s Intent vs. Impact: The court stressed that while the law aims to prevent commercial surrogacy, it should not unreasonably prevent genuine intending parents from having children.
| [UPSC 2020] In the context of recent advances in human reproductive technology, “Pronuclear Transfer” is used for:
Options: (a) fertilization of egg in vitro by the donor sperm (b) genetic modification of sperm producing cells (c) development of stem cells into functional embryos (d) prevention of mitochondrial diseases in offspring* |
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Why in the News?
Researchers in Britain & Ireland are aiming to sequence all animals, fungi and plants under the Darwin Tree of Life (DToL) Project.
About Darwin Tree of Life (DToL) Project:
- Objective: To sequence the genomes of all ~70,000 known eukaryotic species (whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles) found in Britain and Ireland.
- Initiated: In 2019 as a UK–Ireland contribution to the Earth BioGenome Project.
- Geographic Focus: Great Britain and Ireland, chosen for their well-documented and accessible biodiversity.
Key Features:
- Phases:
- Pilot Phase (2019–2022): Focused on collecting 8,000 species; targeted 2,000 genome assemblies.
- As of 2025: ~8,000 species collected; over 2,000 genomes sequenced.
- Approach:
- Systematic specimen collection and species verification.
- High-quality genome sequencing using advanced tools and curated pipelines.
- Public Access: All genome data is released openly via the DToL portal and public archives.
- Scientific Significance:
- Enhances understanding of evolution, adaptation, and species relationships.
- Supports conservation efforts amid growing biodiversity threats.
- Applications: Informs conservation biology, medicine, agriculture, and climate adaptation.
| [UPSC 2011] At present, scientists can determine the arrangement or relative positions of genes or DNA sequences on a chromosome. How does this knowledge benefit us?
1. It is possible to know the pedigree of livestock.
2. It is possible to understand the causes of all human diseases.
3. It is possible to develop disease-resistant animal breeds.
Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 only (c) 1 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
The 155-year-old Patalpani–Kalakund heritage train services has resumed after a temporary halt.
About the Patalpani–Kalakund Heritage Line:
- Route: 9.5 km metre-gauge section between Patalpani and Kalakund in Madhya Pradesh.
- Section: Part of the Dr. Ambedkar Nagar (Mhow)–Khandwa route.
- Restoration Year: Revived in 2018 as a heritage line after being excluded from gauge conversion due to difficult terrain.
- Operational Details:
- Average speed: 5–10 km/h.
- Features scenic gorges, tunnels, embankments, Patalpani waterfall, and natural springs.
- Historical Origins:
- Proposed by Maharaja Tukoji Rao Holkar II in 1870.
- First constructed as part of Holkar State Railways, completed in 1878.
- Became part of Rajputana–Malwa Railway in 1881–82.
- Cultural Significance:
- Patalpani station named after Tantia Bhil, a tribal revolutionary.
- Kalakund station named after a local sweet delicacy.
Other Heritage Railways of India:
| Name & Route |
Details |
| Darjeeling Himalayan Railway |
- Location: West Bengal
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (1999)
- Built: 1879–81
- Highlights: Batasia Loop, zigzags, colonial-era steam engines
- Route: New Jalpaiguri to Darjeeling (88 km, narrow gauge)
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| Nilgiri Mountain Railway |
- Location: Tamil Nadu
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (2005)
- Highlights: Only rack-and-pinion railway in India, steep climbs, vintage locomotives
- Route: Mettupalayam to Ooty (46 km, metre gauge)
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| Kalka–Shimla Railway |
- Location: Himachal Pradesh
- UNESCO Status: World Heritage Site (2008)
- Built: 1898–1903
- Highlights: 102 tunnels, 800+ bridges; access to British summer capital
- Route: Kalka to Shimla (96 km, narrow gauge)
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| Matheran Hill Railway |
- Location: Maharashtra
- UNESCO Status: Tentative World Heritage Site
- Built: 1907
- Highlights: Zigzags, tight curves, eco-sensitive, vehicle-free destination
- Route: Neral to Matheran (21 km, narrow gauge)
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| Kangra Valley Railway |
- Location: Himachal Pradesh
- UNESCO Status: Tentative World Heritage Site
- Highlights: 971 bridges, 2 tunnels; scenic Dhauladhar views, access to ancient temples
- Route: Pathankot to Joginder Nagar (163 km, narrow gauge)
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| [UPSC 2009] Recently, which one of the following was included in the UNESCO’s World Heritage list?
Options: (a) Dilwara Temple (b) Kalka-Shimla Railway* (c) Bhiterkanika Mangrove Area (d) Vishakhapatnam to Araku Valley railway line |
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Why in the News?
The Union Culture Ministry has successfully retrieved the sacred ‘Piprahwa’ Buddhist relics, which were set to be auctioned in Hong Kong.
About the Piprahwa Relics:
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Discovery: Unearthed in 1898 by William Claxton Peppe, a British engineer, at Piprahwa (Siddharthnagar, Uttar Pradesh), near the Nepal border.
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Historical Significance: Identified as ancient Kapilavastu, capital of the Shakya republic, where Prince Siddhartha (Buddha) lived before renunciation.
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Findings at the Site: A buried stupa yielded a large stone coffer containing:
- Bone fragments believed to be Buddha’s relics
- Caskets made of soapstone and crystal
- A sandstone coffer
- Over 1,800 ornaments: pearls, rubies, sapphires, gold sheets
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Legal Custody:
- The British Crown claimed the relics under the Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878.
- Most artifacts were transferred to the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Stupas with Buddha’s Relics:
- After the Buddha’s death (Mahaparinirvana), his cremated relics were divided among 8 kingdoms and a Brahmin named Drona, who coordinated their distribution.
- Each recipient built a Stupa to enshrine their share of the relics, creating important pilgrimage sites and early centers of Buddhist worship.
- The 9 stupas were located in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava, Kushinagar, and Pippalivana.
- Emperor Ashoka (3rd century BCE) redistributed the relics from these stupas into thousands of new stupas across his empire.
- The stupa at Ramagrama is unique because it is believed to remain untouched and still holds the original relics.
- A typical early Buddhist stupa included a hemispherical mound (anda), a square railing (harmika), a central pillar (yashti) with umbrellas (chatra), and a path for circumambulation (pradakshinapatha).
| [UPSC 2023] With reference to ancient India, consider the following statements:
1. The concept of Stupa is Buddhist in origin.
2. Stupa was generally a repository of relics.
3. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] The world is facing an acute shortage of clean and safe freshwater. What are the alternative technologies which can solve this crisis? Briefly discuss any three such technologies citing their key merits and demerits.
Linkage: This question directly related to “alternative technologies” to address a critical global environmental and resource crisis (freshwater scarcity). This aligns with the broader theme that the world needs better and diverse green technologies to tackle urgent environmental problems and ensure resource self-sufficiency, as emphasized in the context of energy innovation. |
Mentor’s Comment: As the push for sustainable energy intensifies, concerns are rising over the efficiency limits of widely used silicon photovoltaics. With the growing need for green hydrogen and land constraints, experts are questioning whether next-gen solar technologies offer better solutions. India must invest in efficient, diverse, and scalable innovations to meet climate goals and ensure energy self-sufficiency.
Today’s editorial analyses the concerns that are rising over the efficiency limits of widely used silicon photovoltaics. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Environment) in the UPSC mains exam.
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, as the global need for clean energy has increased and countries aim to fulfill their climate promises, silicon solar panels have become the most popular choice, changing the look of places from city rooftops to large solar farms in villages.
What limits silicon photovoltaics in meeting India’s climate goals?
- Low Energy Efficiency: Silicon solar panels have an in-field efficiency of only 15–18%, meaning a significant portion of solar energy is not converted into electricity. Eg: In Rajasthan, more panels are required to meet energy demand, increasing cost and land use due to low conversion efficiency.
- High Land Requirement: Due to their low efficiency, silicon panels need a larger surface area to generate the same output compared to newer technologies. Eg: The Rewa Solar Park in Madhya Pradesh covers over 1,500 hectares, reducing land availability for agriculture and conservation.
- Slow Climate Impact: Despite growing solar capacity, CO₂ levels have risen from 350 ppm in 1990 to ~425 ppm in 2025, indicating renewables are not scaling fast enough. Eg: Even after installing 4.45 TWh of renewable energy by 2024, India remains behind on its climate targets.
- Environmental Footprint of Manufacturing: The production of silicon panels involves high energy use and toxic chemicals, partially offsetting their green benefits. Eg: Most panels are imported from China, where coal-powered factories dominate, adding to indirect emissions.
- Incompatibility with Advanced Applications: Silicon PVs are less suitable for high-efficiency applications like green hydrogen production, which needs more consistent, high-output energy. Eg: In pilot projects in Gujarat, using silicon panels reduces the overall efficiency of green hydrogen production due to energy losses.
Why rethink electrolysis-based green hydrogen?
- High Energy Consumption: Electrolysis requires more energy to produce green hydrogen than the energy hydrogen provides when used, making the process energy-inefficient. Eg: In India’s pilot projects in Ladakh, the high electricity input from solar panels results in low net energy gain, raising concerns about economic viability.
- Storage and Transportation Challenges: Hydrogen has very low density, making it difficult and expensive to store and transport, often requiring high-pressure tanks or cryogenic conditions. Eg: In hydrogen mobility projects, such as those in Delhi, leakage and compression issues have hampered safe and cost-effective deployment.
- Compounding Energy Losses in Conversion: Using green hydrogen to produce green ammonia or methanol, and then extracting hydrogen back, leads to multiple stages of energy loss. Eg: In proposed export hubs like Vizag, converting hydrogen to ammonia for shipping and then reconverting it abroad reduces overall energy efficiency.
How do land and efficiency issues impact India’s solar push?
- Low Efficiency Increases Land Requirement: Silicon solar panels with 15–18% efficiency require larger surface areas to generate the same energy as advanced solar technologies. Eg: In Rajasthan’s Bhadla Solar Park, vast desert land is used to compensate for low panel efficiency, which limits deployment in land-constrained states.
- Urbanisation Limits Land Availability: Rapid urban expansion and the need to conserve green zones reduce the availability of suitable land for large-scale solar projects. Eg: In Mumbai’s metropolitan region, limited open space has pushed the focus toward rooftop solar, which has its own technical and regulatory hurdles.
- Hinders Achievement of Renewable Energy Targets: The inefficient land-to-energy ratio slows down the pace of solar capacity expansion, affecting progress toward India’s net-zero commitments. Eg: In Tamil Nadu, where land is both fertile and scarce, competing demands between agriculture and solar installations have delayed key solar proposals.
What role can artificial photosynthesis play in renewable energy?
- Direct Conversion of Sunlight into Fuel: Artificial photosynthesis (APS) mimics natural photosynthesis to convert sunlight, water, and CO₂directly into fuels like green methanol or hydrogen, offering a clean, efficient alternative to traditional energy-intensive processes.
- Bypasses Inefficiencies in Current Technologies: APS has the potential to eliminate multiple energy-loss steps such as electrolysis, storage, and reconversion, thereby enhancing the overall energy efficiency of renewable fuel production systems.
Why invest in next-gen renewable tech like RFNBO? (Way forward)
- Enhances Energy Independence: Renewable Fuels of Non-Biological Origin (RFNBO) can reduce India’s heavy reliance on imported fossil fuels (currently ~85%), promoting energy self-sufficiency in a geopolitically volatile world.
- Supports Diverse and Efficient Decarbonisation: RFNBO technologies enable the production of cleaner fuels like green hydrogen, ammonia, and methanol using renewable electricity, offering higher efficiency and adaptability for industrial and transport sectors.
- Future-Proofing India’s Energy Strategy: Investing in RFNBO ensures India is aligned with global clean energy innovations, allowing it to meet net-zero targets and remain competitive in emerging green fuel markets.
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Why in the News?
The 25% tariff plus penalty imposed by U.S. President Donald Trump on Indian imports has brought renewed attention to the strain in India-U.S. trade relations.
Why did the U.S. impose a 25% tariff on Indian imports?
- High Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers by India: The U.S. accused India of maintaining high import duties and regulatory restrictions that limited American market access. Eg: Trump repeatedly criticized India’s high tariffs on U.S. goods like motorcycles and dairy products.
- Geopolitical Frustration Over India-Russia Ties: India’s continued energy and defense cooperation with Russia, despite U.S. pressure, triggered punitive action. Eg: Trump expressed displeasure at India’s oil imports from Russia, linking them to trade penalties.
- Failure to Reach a Mini-Trade Deal: Repeated delays and stalemates in talks over a limited trade agreement led to frustration in the U.S.
What stalled the India-U.S. mini-trade deal?
- India’s Reluctance to Lower Tariffs: India resisted U.S. demands to reduce import duties, especially in agriculture and dairy, to protect domestic interests. Eg: India declined to open its dairy sector to U.S. exporters, citing religious and cultural concerns over feed practices involving animal blood, which conflict with Indian dietary norms.
- Unclear Negotiation Timelines: The deal lacked a defined timeline, and momentum stalled due to shifting priorities on both sides. Eg: U.S. Trade Representative Jamieson Greer stated the deal needed “some more negotiations,” while India stopped referencing the mini-deal, signaling disengagement.
How do India’s farm and dairy policies hinder trade talks?
- Protection of Domestic Farmers: India maintains high tariffs and import restrictions to shield small and marginal farmers from foreign competition. Eg: India imposes import duties of up to 100% on dairy products, making it difficult for U.S. exporters to access the Indian market.
- Cultural and Religious Sensitivities: Indian regulations emphasise vegetarian feed practices, which clash with Western livestock farming methods. Eg: India rejected U.S. dairy imports because American cows are often fed blood meal, violating Hindu dietary norms.
- Subsidy and MSP System: India’s Minimum Support Price (MSP) and subsidy policies create a non-level playing field, raising concerns about fairness among trade partners. Eg: The U.S. has objected to India’s public stockholding of food grains, which they claim distorts global agricultural trade.
How do India-Russia ties affect India-U.S. trade relations?
- Strategic Autonomy in Foreign Policy: India maintains a non-aligned stance, continuing strong ties with Russia, especially in defence and energy sectors, despite Western pressure. Eg: India’s purchase of the S-400 missile system from Russia triggered U.S. concerns under the CAATSA sanctions regime.
- Energy Trade with Russia: India increased crude oil imports from Russia due to discounted prices amid the Ukraine conflict, which contradicts U.S.-led sanctions. Eg: In 2023, Russia became one of India’s top oil suppliers, raising questions in Washington about India’s commitment to Western-led efforts.
How can India balance sovereignty with export interests? (Way forward)
- Assert Strategic Autonomy while Building Economic Alliances: India must uphold its sovereign right to choose partners (e.g., Russia) while diversifying export markets and enhancing trade ties with nations like the U.S., EU, ASEAN, to reduce dependency and mitigate tariff risks.
- Pursue Issue-Based Bilateral Negotiations: India can engage in sector-specific negotiations that safeguard sensitive areas (like agriculture) while offering market access in others (like pharmaceuticals or services), thereby balancing domestic priorities with global trade expectations.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2018] How would the recent phenomena of protectionism and currency manipulations in world trade affect macroeconomic stability of India?
Linkage: The article is directly related to impact of “protectionism” on India’s macroeconomic stability. The “25% tariff ‘plus penalty’ on imports of Indian goods” by the U.S. is a clear example of protectionist measures in world trade. The article explicitly states that these tariffs place India at a “relative disadvantage”, directly relating to the “soured relations” and potential impact on India’s economic stability.
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Why in the News?
Recently, Prime Minister Narendra Modi’s two-day state visit to the Maldives (July 2025) marked a significant reset in bilateral ties after months of strain following the election of President Mohamed Muizzu, who had earlier run on an ‘India Out’ platform.
What caused the India-Maldives ties reset under Muizzu?
- Troop Withdrawal & Civilian Substitution: President Muizzu demanded the removal of Indian military personnel, citing sovereignty. India responded by replacing them with civilian technical staff.
- High-Level Diplomatic Engagements: Muizzu visited New Delhi in October 2024, signaling openness to dialogue.Indian PM reciprocated with a state visit to Male in July 2025, the first by a foreign Head of State under Muizzu.
- Economic Support & Debt Relief: India extended budgetary support and credit lines, easing Maldives’ financial burden. Eg: A ₹4,850 crore Line of Credit and 40% debt repayment reduction in 2025.
- Softening of Rhetoric & Public Signals: President Muizzu acknowledged historical ties, calling the Indian Ocean a testament to shared heritage. This marked a shift from his earlier India-Out campaign tone.
- Launch of Institutional Mechanisms: Announcement of India-Maldives Parliamentary Friendship Group and FTA discussions in 2025.
How has India ensured the Maldives’ security?
- Military Intervention in Crisis: In 1988, India launched Operation Cactus to foil a coup attempt, securing the capital and leadership.
- Bilateral Defence Cooperation: The DOSTI maritime exercise, started in 1991, strengthens Coast Guard coordination.
- Strategic Presence and Infrastructure Support: India maintained a defensive presence (now civilian) and supported surveillance capabilities like helped set up coastal radar systems.
- Humanitarian and Disaster Relief Operations: India has provided quick assistance during natural disasters, showcasing readiness and goodwill. India provided critical aid to Maldives after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
- Regional Security Engagements: Maldives is a key member of the Colombo Security Conclave, focusing on counter-terrorism and maritime security.
Why is the Maldives vital for India amid China’s presence?
- Strategic Location in the Indian Ocean: The Maldives lies along key international shipping lanes, making it critical for India’s maritime security and energy supply routes. Eg: Over 80% of India’s energy imports pass close to the Maldives archipelago, near the Eight Degree Channel.
- Countering China’s Expanding Influence: China’s increasing investments and debt diplomacy in Maldives threaten to shift the regional balance. Eg: The Sinamale Bridge, built with Chinese funding, raised concerns over strategic dependence.
- Ensuring Regional Stability and Security Cooperation: Maldives’ support is essential for coordinated patrols, anti-terrorism, and anti-piracy efforts.
Way forward:
- Strengthen People-to-People Ties and Institutional Dialogue: Promote educational, cultural, and tourism exchanges while deepening parliamentary and civil service cooperationto build long-term goodwill and trust.
- Enhance Transparent and Sustainable Development Partnerships: Focus on jointly planned, community-driven projects with clear benefits to Maldivian citizens, countering external influence through mutual respect and shared values.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Discuss the geopolitical and geostrategic importance of Maldives for India with a focus on global trade and energy flows. Further also discuss how this relationship affects India’s maritime security and regional stability amidst international competition?
Linkage: The article talk about the Maldives’ geographical location in the northern Indian Ocean and its historical and ongoing ties with India. It also highlights India’s concerns about “growing Chinese influence in the region”, which directly relates to “international competition” and its impact on “regional stability.” The question also touches upon “global trade and energy flows” and “maritime security,” which are intrinsic to the strategic importance of an island nation like Maldives.
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Why in the News?
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has released the July 2025 update to its World Economic Outlook (WEO).
About World Economic Outlook (WEO):
- Published By: International Monetary Fund (IMF)
- Frequency: Biannual (April, October) + updates in January and July
- Purpose: Provides global forecasts on GDP, inflation, trade, and policy trends
- Data Sources: IMF consultations with member nations and internal models
- Audience: Governments, institutions, investors, researchers
- July 2025 Update Title: “Global Economy: Tenuous Resilience amid Persistent Uncertainty”
Key Highlights – July 2025 Update:
- Global Growth Projections:
-
- 2025: 3.0% (↑ from 2.8% in April)
- 2026: 3.1% (↑ from 3.0%)
- Despite multiple shocks—COVID-19, the Ukraine war, tariff increases—global growth continues.
However, resilience remains fragile due to:
- US–China tariff tensions and rising protectionism
- Conflicts in Ukraine and the Middle East
- High public debt in advanced economies is raising interest rates
- Country Forecasts for 2025: United States: 1.9%, China: 4.8% (↑ from 4.0%), Euro Area: 1.0%, Germany: 0.1%, United Kingdom: 1.2%, Japan: 0.7%, Russia: 0.9%, Pakistan: 2.7%.
India – The Bright Spot:
- Growth Rate: 2023: 9.2%; 2024: 6.5%; 2025: 6.4% (strongest among major economies).
- Drivers of Growth:
- Robust domestic demand
- Strong services and manufacturing output
- Effective inflation and monetary policy management
- Strategic Position:
- Set to overtake several advanced economies in GDP size
- Viewed globally as a “bright spot” amid persistent uncertainties
| [UPSC 2014] Which of the following organisations brings out the publication known as ‘World Economic Outlook?
Options: (a) The International Monetary Fund * (b)The United Nations Development Programme (c) The World Economic Forum (d) The World Bank |
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Why in the News?
Skill Impact Bonds (SIB) were recently highlighted by the Skill Development Ministry.
About the Skill Impact Bond:
- Launched: November 2021
- Nature: India’s first Development Impact Bond (DIB) focused on employment-linked skill development
- Lead Agency: National Skill Development Corporation (NSDC), under the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship
- Collaborators: British Asian Trust, HSBC India, Michael & Susan Dell Foundation
- Target: Train and place 50,000 youth over 4 years, with 62% women participation
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- Risk Investors: Provide upfront capital to training providers
- Training Providers: Deliver skill training and ensure job placements
- Outcome Funders: Repay investors only if job outcomes are achieved
- Evaluators: Independently assess outcomes via CATI surveys and document verification
Key Features:
- Outcome-Focused Approach: Measures success by certification, placement, and 3-month retention, not just enrolment
- Eligibility Criteria:
- Age: 18–40 years; Education: Undergraduate or below
- Status: Unemployed or earning below ₹15,000/month, or household income below ₹25,000/month
- Sectoral Coverage: Retail, Healthcare, Apparel, Logistics, Information Technology & IT-enabled Services, Banking, Financial Services & Insurance.
- Women-Focused Design: Ensures 62% female participation to bridge the gender employment gap
| [UPSC 2018] With reference to Pradhan Mantri Kaushal Vikas Yojana, consider the following statements:
1. It is the flagship scheme of the Ministry of Labour and Employment.
2. It, among other things, will also impart training in soft skills, entrepreneurship, financial and digital literacy.
3. It aims to align the competencies of the unregulated workforce of the country to the National Skill Qualification Framework.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only* (d) 1, 2 and 3 |
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Why in the News?
According to the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), digital payments registered a 12.6% year-on-year rise as of March 31, 2024, as measured by the RBI’s Digital Payments Index (DPI).
About RBI’s Digital Payments Index (DPI):
- Launched by: Reserve Bank of India (RBI) in January 2021
- Purpose: Measures the extent of digital payment adoption across India
- Base Period: March 2018 (Index value = 100)
- Release Frequency: Semi-annually (with a 4-month lag)
- Objective: Track usage, infrastructure, and growth in digital payments
- Key Parameters (with Weightage): These evaluate infrastructure readiness, transaction volume, user adoption, and innovation.
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- Payment Enablers – 25%
- Payment Infrastructure – Demand Side – 10%
- Payment Infrastructure – Supply Side – 15%
- Payment Performance – 45%
- Consumer Centricity – 5%
Growth Highlight:
- Growth Trends in RBI-DPI: DPI grew nearly 5 times from 100 in March 2018 to 493.22 in March 2025, reflecting India’s rapid digital payment adoption.
- Nearly 5× increase from the base value in 7 years
- Driven by rapid expansion of Unified Payments Interface (UPI), mobile wallets, and QR code infrastructure
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following countries:
I. United Arab Emirates II. France III. Germany IV. Singapore V. Bangladesh
How many countries amongst the above are there other than India where international merchant payments are accepted under UPI?”
Options: (a) Only two (b) Only three* (c) Only four (d) All the five
Answer: (b) Only three (UAE, France, Singapore) |
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Why in the News?
The National Cooperation Policy (NCP) 2025 recently unveiled by Union Home and Cooperation Minister Amit Shah has drawn criticisms from SKM (Samyukt Kisan Morcha).
Also in news:
- The Union Cabinet has also approved a ₹2,000 crore Central Sector Scheme to aid National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC) from 2025–26 to 2028–29.
- NCDC was established in 1963 as a statutory Corporation under Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare.
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About Cooperatives in India:
- What is it: A cooperative is a voluntary, autonomous association of individuals who unite to meet common economic, social, or cultural needs through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise.
- Key Principles:
- One member, one vote: Equal say in governance, regardless of financial contribution.
- Based on collective benefit, democratic control, and mutual aid.
- Historical Evolution:
- 1904 & 1912: Cooperative Acts laid the foundation for the cooperative movement in India.
- Post-independence: Emphasis on rural credit, dairy, and agriculture cooperatives (e.g., Amul).
- Key Institutions: NABARD (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development), NCDC (National Cooperative Development Corporation).
- Constitutional & Legal Backing:
- 97th Constitutional Amendment (2011):
- Article 19(1)(c): Right to form cooperative societies.
- Article 43B: Directive Principle promoting cooperative societies.
- Part IXB (Articles 243ZH to 243ZT): Provides governance framework.
- MSCS Act, 2002: Governs multi-state cooperatives (under Central Registrar).
- State List (Entry 32): State legislatures regulate intra-state cooperatives.
- Scale:
- India has over 8.42 lakh cooperatives with 29 crore members (~27% of global total).
- Leading states: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Telangana, MP, Karnataka.
- Notable cooperatives: IFFCO, Amul — ranked among top 300 cooperatives globally.
|
National Cooperation Policy (NCP) 2025:
- Launch: Introduced by Union Minister Amit Shah on July 24, 2025.
- Vision: “Sahakar se Samriddhi” — promoting prosperity through cooperatives.
- Objective:
- Establish a comprehensive national framework for cooperative growth (2025–2045).
- Replace the 2002 policy and drive inclusive development through grassroots cooperatives.
- Key Features:
- 2 lakh new Primary Agricultural Credit Societies (PACS) in 5 years
- Scheme convergence: e.g., PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, NPDD
- Inclusive focus: Women, Dalits, Adivasis, youth
- Sector expansion: Into 25+ areas—dairy, fisheries, exports, technology
- Education: First cooperative university—Tribhuvan Sahkari University
- Export support: Through National Cooperative Exports Limited (NCEL)
- Digital thrust: Emphasis on digitisation and platform integration
Issues with NCP, 2025:
- Federalism Undermined
- Entry 32: Cooperatives are a State Subject
- SC Verdict (2021): Centre cannot regulate intra-state cooperatives
- Criticism: Policy lacks ratification by half the states (Article 368(2))
- Corporate Entry Fears
- Emphasis on digital platforms may enable indirect corporatisation
- Potential marginalisation of small farmers and FPOs
- Weak Social Inclusion
- Lacks focus on Minimum Support Price (MSP), surplus sharing
- No robust support for producer cooperatives or fair wages
- Inclusion of tribals, Dalits, women remains rhetorical
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to ‘Urban Cooperative banks’ in India, consider the following statements:
1. They are supervised and regulated by local boards set up by the State Governments.
2. They can issue equity shares and preference shares.
3. They were brought under the purview of the Banking Regulation Act, 1949 through an Amendment in 1966.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?”
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
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PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2019] Discuss the causes of depletion of mangroves and explain their importance in maintaining coastal ecology.
Linkage: The article explicitly details the importance of mangroves, stating they are “critical in India’s pursuit of climate resilience, biodiversity conservation, and the empowerment of coastal communities”. It explains their role as “natural barriers, protecting coastal communities from cyclones, tidal surges, and erosion”, and their significance in “biodiversity conservation”. The article also discusses the threats leading to their “depletion,” such as “urban expansion, aquaculture, pollution, and changing climate patterns”. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s mangrove forests have come into focus due to growing efforts to restore and protect them amid increasing threats from urban expansion, climate change, and pollution. Recent successful restoration projects in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Mumbai, along with support from government missions and private partners, highlight India’s growing role in mangrove conservation. These forests are vital for climate resilience, coastal protection, and biodiversity, making their preservation a national priority.
Today’s editorial analyses India’s growing efforts to restore mangrove forests. This topic is important for GS Paper III (Environment) in the UPSC mains exam.
_
Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
Recently, mangrove restoration efforts in Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Mumbai have been successful.
What is the extent of Mangroves in India?
- India’s total mangrove cover is 4,992 sq km, accounting for 0.15% of the country’s geographical area (as per ISFR 2021).
- West Bengal, Gujarat, and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands hold the largest mangrove areas, with West Bengal (Sundarbans) alone covering over 42% of the total.
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Why are mangroves vital for climate and coastal resilience in India?
- Natural Coastal Shield: Mangroves act as buffers against cyclones, storm surges, and coastal erosion. Eg: During the 2004 tsunami, villages protected by mangroves in Tamil Nadu suffered less damage compared to those without them.
- Climate Change Mitigation: They store “blue carbon” in biomass and deep soil, helping to absorb excess CO₂. Eg: India’s mangroves contribute significantly to carbon sequestration, aiding in climate targets under the Paris Agreement.
- Biodiversity Hotspots: Provide breeding grounds for fish, crabs, birds, and other marine life. Eg: Thane Creek Flamingo Sanctuary in Mumbai supports over 180 bird species due to nearby mangroves.
- Livelihood Support for Communities: Sustain traditional occupations like fishing, honey gathering, and crab farming. Eg: Sunderbans communities rely on mangroves for fishing and honey collection.
- Disaster Risk Reduction: Reduce the impact of natural disasters by slowing floodwaters and stabilising shorelines. Eg: In Odisha, mangroves helped minimise damage during Cyclone Phailin (2013).
What threatens India’s mangroves?
- Urbanisation and Industrial Expansion: Mangrove areas are cleared for ports, housing, and industrial zones. Eg: Mangrove loss in Mumbai due to Navi Mumbai airport construction.
- Aquaculture and Agriculture Encroachment: Conversion of mangrove land into shrimp farms or paddy fields disrupts ecosystems. Eg: Andhra Pradesh lost mangroves to extensive aquaculture projects.
- Pollution: Discharge of industrial effluents, plastic, and sewage harms mangrove health. Eg: Thane Creek, Mumbai, faces heavy pollution impacting biodiversity.
- Climate Change and Sea Level Rise: Changes in salinity, temperature, and rising sea levels affect mangrove regeneration. Eg: Sundarbans face submergence and loss due to rising sea levels.
- Overexploitation of Resources: Excessive collection of wood, honey, and fodder leads to degradation. Eg: In West Bengal, unsustainable practices by local communities reduce forest cover.
How has community involvement aided mangrove restoration in Tamil Nadu?
- Collaborative Restoration Projects: Community members partnered with institutions like the M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation and the Tamil Nadu Forest Department for restoring degraded mangroves. Eg: In Muthupettai’s Pattuvanachi estuary, locals helped implement a 115-hectare restoration plan.
- Tidal Canal Digging for Hydrology Restoration: Villagers participated in digging 19 major canals to restore natural tidal flow, crucial for mangrove survival. Eg: This intervention successfully revived water movement in Muthupettai, enabling mangrove regrowth.
- Seed Collection and Plantation: Locals actively collected and planted seeds of native mangrove species like Avicennia and Rhizophora. Eg: Over 4.3 lakh Avicennia seeds and 6,000 Rhizophora propagules were planted by community members.
- Removal of Invasive Species: Community groups helped clear invasive weeds like Prosopis juliflora, which compete with mangroves for space and nutrients. Eg: In Kazhipattur near Buckingham Canal, Chennai, invasive plants were removed before mangrove restoration began.
- Support for Green Missions and Monitoring: Local residents supported and maintained mangrove cover under the Green Tamil Nadu Mission, ensuring long-term success. Eg: Community participation helped double Tamil Nadu’s mangrove area from 4,500 ha to 9,000 ha (2021–2024).
What is the role of corporate partnerships in mangrove revival in Mumbai?
- Financial and Technical Support: Amazon’s Right Now Climate Fund invested $1.2 million (₹10.3 crore) in a restoration project along Thane Creek, enabling large-scale ecological rehabilitation.
- Pollution Control and Ecosystem Restoration: Partnered with Hasten Regeneration and Brihanmumbai Municipal Corporation to install trash booms that intercept plastic waste, aiming to collect 150 tonnes over 3 years while planting 3.75 lakh mangrove saplings.
- Community Empowerment and Livelihood Generation: Created paid employment opportunities for local women in planting and maintenance, linking ecological recovery with socio-economic upliftment.
Why is Gujarat leading in mangrove restoration?
- Ambitious Scale under MISHTI Scheme: Under the Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats and Tangible Incomes (MISHTI), launched in 2023, Gujarat planted over 19,000 hectares of mangroves within two years—far exceeding the national five-year target of 54,000 hectares.
- Strategic Coastal Coverage & Biodiversity Focus: Gujarat holds about 23.6% of India’s total mangrove cover, with major plantations in Kutch, Bhavnagar, Surat, and Dumas-Ubhrat. These areas support critical ecological balance, biodiversity, and local livelihoods.
- Strong Governance, Planning & Local Institutional Support: Efficient coordination between the Gujarat Forest Department, state environment agencies, and local communities has ensured success. Structured coastal mapping, restoration planning, and promotion of ecotourism-linked livelihoods have further strengthened outcomes.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Green India Mission & State Missions: Through the National Green India Mission and state-level initiatives like the Green Tamil Nadu Mission, the government supports afforestation, ecosystem restoration, and community-based conservation efforts.
- Inclusion in Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) Rules: Mangrove areas are designated as Ecologically Sensitive Zones (ESZ) under the CRZ Notification, restricting construction and promoting their protection through legal safeguards and regulatory oversight.
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Way forward:
- Strengthen Community-Based Conservation: Empower local communities through training, incentives, and formal roles in monitoring and maintaining mangroves to ensure sustainable, long-term protection.
- Integrate Mangroves into Climate and Development Planning: Recognise mangroves as vital climate infrastructure by integrating them into coastal zone management, disaster resilience strategies, and carbon credit frameworks.
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Why in the News?
Recently, the custodial death of Ajith Kumar in Tamil Nadu has reignited concerns about police torture and custodial violence in India, drawing attention to the ongoing abuse of power, lack of accountability, and systemic failures in law enforcement.
Note: “Dirty Harry’s shadow” is the ethical grey zone that officers may enter when they justify unethical or illegal behavior (e.g., excessive force, illegal search, or planting evidence) on the grounds that it’s necessary to serve a greater good (like convicting a dangerous criminal).
What is the status of custodial torture in India?
- Between 2010 and 2020, NHRC data reports 17,146 custodial deaths (judicial/police), averaging nearly five deaths per day.
- From 2001 to 2020, only 26 police personnel were convicted out of 1,888 recorded custodial deaths, reflecting a severe lack of accountability in the system.
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Why does custodial torture persist in India despite legal safeguards?
- Weak Enforcement of Legal Safeguards: Supreme Court guidelines (e.g., D.K. Basu guidelines) are often ignored, especially by lower-level police.
| The D.K. Basu guidelines are a set of procedural safeguards laid down by the Supreme Court of India in 1996 in the landmark case D.K. Basu vs. State of West Bengal to prevent custodial torture, deaths, and abuse of police power.
Key Guidelines (To be followed during arrest and detention):
- Arrest memo must be prepared, signed by the arrestee and a witness, with time and date.
- Inform a relative/friend: The person arrested must be allowed to inform someone about the arrest.
- Right to legal counsel: The arrestee has the right to meet their lawyer during interrogation.
- Medical examination: Arrestees must be medically examined every 48 hours by a government doctor.
- Copy of arrest memo: Sent to the local magistrate for records.
- Daily diary entry: Time, place of arrest, and custody details must be recorded in the police diary.
- Police identification: Arresting officers must have name tags and their details must be recorded.
- Notice board in police station: Display of rights of arrested persons.
- Timely production before magistrate: Within 24 hours of arrest, as per Article 22 of the Constitution.
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- Lack of Accountability: Very few police personnel are punished, creating a culture of impunity.
3. Societal Indifference and Pressure: Public tolerance for “tough policing” and pressure to solve cases fast encourages use of force to extract confessions.
- Legal Gaps That Enable Torture:
- No Standalone Law: There’s no specific law criminalising custodial torture. The 2010 Prevention of Torture Bill was never passed.
- Non-Ratification of UNCAT: India signed but hasn’t ratified the UN Convention Against Torture, so it lacks binding obligations to reform.
- Poor Protection for Victims/Witnesses: Those who report torture often face threats, with little legal protection – delaying or discouraging justice. Eg: The Jayaraj-Bennicks case (2020)
Should India ratify the UN Convention Against Torture?
- Enhances Legal Accountability and Human Rights Protections: Ratifying UNCAT would require India to enact a dedicated anti-torture law, ensuring clear definitions, accountability, and punishment for custodial abuse. Eg: In the Jayaraj and Bennicks case (2020), the absence of a strong torture law delayed justice and highlighted the need for international legal standards.
- Strengthens India’s Global Human Rights Image: As a democracy and UN member, ratification would align India with global norms, reinforcing its commitment to human dignity and justice. India often faces criticism at UN Human Rights Council reviews for non-ratification, which weakens its diplomatic stance on rights issues.
What reforms are needed? (Way forward)
- Enact a Dedicated Anti-Torture Law: Clearly define torture, prescribe strict punishment, and ensure victim compensation and rehabilitation.
- Set Up Independent Oversight Bodies: Create state and district-level police complaints authorities for unbiased investigation.
- Ensure Custodial Surveillance: Install CCTVs in all custody areas and mandate regular monitoring and audits.
- Train Police on Human Rights: Conduct regular training programs focused on rights-based policing and legal safeguards.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] The Constitution of India is a living instrument with capabilities of enormous dynamism. It is a constitution made for a progressive society”. Illustrate with special reference to the expanding horizons of the right to life and personal liberty.
Linkage: The article explicitly links the Supreme Court’s reaffirmation of “dignity and bodily autonomy as fundamental rights” in the K.S. Puttaswamy case (2017) to the ongoing issue of rampant torture in custody. This question allows for a discussion on how judicial interpretations have broadened the scope of fundamental rights, which are directly challenged by the “Dirty Harry” policing methods that the source criticises.
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Why in the News?
Recently the arrest of two Catholic nuns in Chhattisgarh on charges of human trafficking and forced religious conversion has sparked widespread political and religious backlash.
Why are anti-conversion laws controversial in tribal regions?
- Misuse Against Voluntary Conversions: These laws, intended to curb conversions through force or fraud, are often misused to harass tribal Christians and missionaries involved in voluntary and lawful religious activities. Eg: In Chhattisgarh, two Catholic nuns were arrested for alleged forced conversion, despite the tribal girls and their families confirming it was voluntary.
- Targeting of Minority Rights: Anti-conversion laws disproportionately affect Christian and Muslim minorities, leading to surveillance, fear, and restricted religious freedom, especially among tribal converts. Eg: Several tribal states like Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, and Odisha have used these laws to criminalise conversions, even when done without coercion.
- Threat of Delisting ST Converts: There is a growing debate on removing Scheduled Tribe status from tribals who convert to Christianity, threatening their constitutional safeguards and entitlements. Eg: In Chhattisgarh, such debates have intensified, questioning the identity and rights of Christian Adivasis.
What is the Sarna Religious Code?
The Sarna religious code is a demand by tribal (Adivasi) communities in India to recognize Sarnaism as a distinct religion in official government records, especially in the Census.
Key Features:
- Nature Worship Tradition: Sarna followers worship nature — like sacred groves (called Sarnas), hills, rivers, and the Earth. They follow traditional Adivasi customs, not Hindu, Christian, or Muslim practices.
- Cultural Assertion and Legal Recognition: Recognizing the Sarna code would safeguard tribal culture, language, and identity, and protect their constitutional and land rights from religious assimilation.
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What constitutional rights to religious freedom are being undermined?
- Right to Freedom of Religion (Article 25): Citizens have the right to freely profess, practice, and propagate any religion. This is undermined when voluntary conversions are falsely labelled as forced or illegal, especially among tribals and minorities.
- Right to Personal Liberty (Article 21): The right to make autonomous choices—including choosing one’s religion—is a part of personal liberty. Anti-conversion laws infringe on this by criminalizing voluntary decisions, often without evidence of coercion.
- Equality Before Law (Article 14): These laws are selectively enforced against Christians and Muslims, leading to discriminatory treatment. This violates the principle of equality and non-discrimination, a core part of India’s secular constitutional framework.
What are the actual conversions happened in India?
- Mass Dalit Conversions to Buddhism (1956 and after): Led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, over 5 lakh Dalits converted to Buddhism in 1956 to escape caste-based oppression and reclaim dignity. Eg: Ambedkar’s historic mass conversion in Nagpur triggered a broader movement of religious shift rooted in social reform.
- Christian Conversions in Tribal Regions: In states like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, many tribal communities have converted to Christianity, often due to access to education, healthcare, and social support from missionaries. Eg: The Kandhamal district in Odisha has seen a significant rise in Christian population over decades, leading to communal tensions.
- ‘Ghar Wapsi’ or Reconversion to Hinduism: Organised by Hindu groups like the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP), ‘Ghar Wapsi’ aims to reconvert people who earlier embraced other faiths back to Hinduism. Eg: In Uttar Pradesh (2014), VHP claimed hundreds of Muslims and Christians were brought back to Hinduism through Ghar Wapsi drives, raising ethical and legal concerns.
Do Conversions Impact Indian Society Negatively?
- Social Polarisation and Communal Tensions: Conversions whether into or out of a religion often become flashpoints for communal conflict, especially when framed as threats to majority identity. This can disrupt social harmony and lead to violence, as seen in Kandhamal (Odisha, 2008) and other conflict-prone areas.
- Political Exploitation and Fear-Mongering: Conversion is frequently politicised, used to mobilise vote banks or target minority communities, which undermines democratic values and diverts focus from genuine socio-economic development.
- Distrust and Fragmentation in Local Communities: Conversions may sometimes lead to social alienation or loss of community ties, especially in tightly-knit rural or tribal areas, where religious identity is deeply linked with cultural belonging.
Way forward:
- Strengthen Constitutional Safeguards: Ensure that anti-conversion laws align with Articles 25-28 of the Constitution by protecting voluntary religious choicewhile penalizing only coercive or fraudulent practices.
- Promote Interfaith Dialogue and Tribal Autonomy: Encourage community-level engagement and interfaith dialogue, and recognize tribal cultural rights including support for demands like the Sarna religious code to prevent polarization and protect indigenous identities.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2024] Intercaste marriages between castes which have socio-economic parity have increased, to some extent, but this is less true of interreligious marriages. Discuss.
Linkage: The arrest of the nuns and the subsequent clarification by the girls’ kin that there was “no forceful conversion” directly touches upon the sensitive issue of interreligious interactions and alleged conversions, which anti-conversion laws are often used to criminalize, especially in the context of interfaith marriages.
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Why in the News?
An 8.8 magnitude earthquake hit off Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula, triggering 16-foot tsunamis that reached Hawaii and northern California in the US.
About Earthquakes:
- Overview: Sudden ground shaking caused by release of stored energy in Earth’s crust due to tectonic stress.
- Cause: Occurs when tectonic plates slip at fault lines where stress had built up due to friction.
- Seismic Waves: Energy travels as:
- Primary Waves (P-waves): Fastest, compressional.
- Secondary Waves (S-waves): Slower, shear motion.
- Key Terms:
- Focus (Hypocenter): Underground origin point.
- Epicenter: Surface point directly above the focus.
- Measurement:
- Magnitude: Energy released (Richter Scale, logarithmic).
- Intensity: Observed ground shaking (varies by location).
- Seismograph: Records seismic wave activity.
How Earthquakes Trigger Tsunamis?
- Underwater Epicenter: Must occur beneath oceans to displace water.
- Shallow Depth: Quakes at <70 km transfer energy more efficiently to water surface.
- Reverse Faulting: One tectonic plate pushes over another, vertically shifting the seafloor.
- Rapid Displacement: Sudden seafloor uplift/downthrust generates massive water waves.
- High Magnitude: Quakes >7.0 (especially >8.0) likely to trigger tsunamis.
About the Kamchatka Region:
- Overview: Russian Far East; borders the North Pacific Ocean.
- Tectonic Zone: Sits on the Kuril-Kamchatka Trench—Pacific Plate subducting under Okhotsk Plate at ~86 mm/year.
- Seismic Hotspot: Historical major quakes in 1841, 1923, 1952, 2006, and 2020.
- Ring of Fire: Part of the 40,000 km Pacific Ring of Fire , known for quakes and volcanoes.
- 2025 Earthquake:
- Depth:3 km (shallow)
- Impact: Triggered tsunami waves up to 16 ft—one of the strongest earthquakes since 1900.
| [UPSC 2004] Consider the following geological phenomena:
1. Development of a fault 2. Movement along a fault 3. Impact produced by a volcanic eruption 4. Folding of rocks
Which of the above cause earthquakes?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 2 and 4 (c) 1, 3 and 4 (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
The Ministry of Education, in collaboration with the Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) Division at Central Sanskrit University, has launched the Setubandha Scholarship Scheme.
About the Setubandha Scholarship Scheme:
- Objective: Acts as a bridge between traditional Gurukul learning and modern research, enabling the mainstreaming of Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) into higher education.
- Target Group: Students trained under Gurus or in Gurukul systems for a minimum of 5 years.
- Focus: Encourages postgraduate and doctoral research across disciplines rooted in IKS.
- Institutions Involved: Provides access to mentorship and research facilities at top institutions like Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs).
Key Features:
- Financial Support:
- Postgraduate Scholars: Up to ₹1 lakh.
- PhD Candidates: Up to ₹2 lakh.
- Monthly Scholarships: Starting from ₹40,000.
- Eligibility:
- Age limit: Below 32 years.
- Minimum 5 years of Gurukul-based learning.
- No formal degree required—classical knowledge proficiency is the key criterion.
- Scope of Research:
- Supports 18 disciplines rooted in IKS, including:
- Vedic philosophy, Jyotisha, Ayurveda, Rasa Shastra
- Vastu Shastra, Dandaniti (political science), Indian arts and education
- Traditional law, linguistics, agriculture, and astronomy
- Broader Impact:
- Fosters integration of ancient wisdom with modern scientific inquiry.
- Recognizes and rewards excellence in traditional systems of knowledge.
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