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Type: Prelims Only

  • Capital Markets: Challenges and Developments

    SEBI proposed Retail Algo Trading Framework

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Algo Trading

    Why in the News?

    Initially exclusive to institutional investors, Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) now has proposed to allow retail participation in Algorithmic trading (algo trading) to ensure market stability and allow retail participation.

    What is Algo Trading?

    • Algo Trading, or Algorithmic Trading, is the process of using computer programs and pre-defined rules to execute financial market trades at high speed and efficiency.
    • It eliminates human intervention and emotions, allowing trades based on mathematical models, historical data, and market conditions.
    • How Does Algo Trading Work?
      • It follows pre-coded algorithms to identify trading opportunities and execute orders.
      • It uses technical indicators, price movements, volume, and other data to determine trade entry and exit points.
      • The system can scan multiple markets simultaneously and execute trades in milliseconds.
      • High-Frequency Trading (HFT) is a subset of algo trading that involves executing thousands of trades per second.
      • It reduces market impact, transaction costs, and slippage compared to manual trading.

    Key Highlights of Regulatory Framework:

    • Broker Responsibility: Only registered brokers can offer algo trading services to retail investors. Direct retail algo trading without broker approval is not permitted.
    • Market Surveillance: Exchanges must monitor algorithmic trades to prevent market manipulation and excessive order placement.
    • Latency and Co-location Rules: SEBI has set rules to ensure fair access to low-latency trading infrastructure and avoid unfair advantages.
    • Risk Management: Traders must maintain adequate margins, and there are circuit breakers to prevent excessive market volatility.
    • Pre-Approval for Strategies: Algo trading strategies must be tested and approved before deployment to minimize market disruption.
    • Algo vs. Non-Algo Identification: SEBI mandates separate tagging of algo trades for better transparency and oversight.
    • Ban on Self-Trading: Algorithms must not execute self-trades to manipulate market prices.

    PYQ:

    [2019] Which of the following is issued by registered foreign portfolio investors to overseas investors who want to be part of the Indian stock market without registering themselves directly?

    (a) Certificate of Deposit

    (b) Commercial Paper

    (c) Promissory Note

    (d) Participatory Note

     

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  • Article 200 of the Indian Constitution

    Prelims OnlySC Judgements | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Article 200

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has criticized Tamil Nadu Governor for creating an “impasse” by withholding assent to state bills and later referring them to the President, questioning his handling of state bills under Article 200 of the Constitution. The Governor has withheld 12 Bills, primarily concerning higher education and the appointment of Vice-Chancellors in State universities.

    Judicial Precursor: Rameshwar Prasad Case (2005)

    • Article 361 provides immunity to Governors from court proceedings for actions taken in their official capacity.
    • However, in Rameshwar Prasad & Ors. vs Union of India & Anr., the Supreme Court ruled that:
      • Immunity under Article 361 does not prevent judicial review of the Governor’s actions.
      • If a Governor withholds assent with malicious intent, the decision can be deemed unconstitutional.
      • Governors must provide valid reasons for withholding assent, as they cannot act arbitrarily.

    What is Article 200?

    • Article 200 governs the Governor’s options when a Bill passed by the State Legislature is presented for approval.
    • It outlines the Governor’s discretionary powers regarding assenting, withholding, returning, or reserving Bills.

    Provisions and Features:

    • The Governor has four options when presented with a State Legislature Bill:
    1. Assent to the Bill: The Bill becomes law.
    2. Withhold Assent: The Governor can refuse approval.
    3. Return the Bill: If it is NOT a Money Bill, the Governor can send it back to the State Legislature for reconsideration.
    • Reserve the Bill for the President’s Consideration:  If the Bill-
      • Violates the Constitution or a Central law.
      • Affects national interests or is ultra vires.
      • Opposes the Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP).
      • Concerns compulsory property acquisition under Article 31A.
      • Endangers the position of the State High Court (mandatory reservation).
    • Article 201 deals with Bills reserved for the President’s approval, granting the President the power to:
      • Assent to the Bill or withhold assent.
      • Return the Bill for reconsideration by the State Legislature.
    • Key Constitutional Debates:
      • No time limit exists for the Governor to act, leading to delays and constitutional challenges.
      • Judicial scrutiny has questioned prolonged withholding of assent, as seen in recent Supreme Court cases.

    PYQ:

    [2014] Which of the following are the discretionary powers given to the Governor of a State?

    1. Sending a report to the President of India for imposing the President’s rule
    2. Appointing the Ministers
    3. Reserving certain bills passed by the State Legislature for consideration of the President of India
    4. Making the rules to conduct the business of the State Government

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 1 and 3 only

    (c) 2, 3 and 4 only

    (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

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  • Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

    Genotype D1.1

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Genotype D1.1

    Why in the News?

    The US Department of Agriculture has confirmed a new spillover of H5N1 avian flu genotype D1.1 into dairy cattle in the United States.

    What is Genotype D1.1?

    • Genotype D1.1 is a strain of the H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus, primarily found in poultry and wild birds.
    • It is part of the H5 clade 2.3.4.4b, which has been responsible for multiple outbreaks worldwide.
    • It was recently confirmed in dairy herds in Churchill County, Nevada, USA.
    • Symptoms in Cattle: Includes fever, reduced milk production, coughing, sneezing, and nasal discharge.
    • Differences from B3.13: Genotype B3.13, the previous dominant H5N1 strain in cattle, caused milder infections in humans, whereas D1.1 has led to more severe cases.

    Bird Flu (Avian Influenza) Spillover of H5N1 Virus

    • A spillover event occurs when a virus jumps from its natural host species (wild birds) to other animals or humans.
    • It spreads through wild bird migration routes, carrying the virus across continents.
    • The virus has been detected in unpasteurized milk from infected cows, raising concerns about worker exposure.

    Impacts on India

    • Although genotype D1.1 has not been detected in India, the growing spread of H5N1 in cattle and humans abroad raises concerns for public health and livestock industries in India.
    • India is part of major bird migration routes (Central Asian Flyway & East Asian-Australasian Flyway), making it vulnerable to H5N1 spread from infected wild birds.
    • With India being the world’s largest milk producer, a spillover of H5N1 into dairy cattle could severely impact milk production and exports.
    • While human cases remain rare, a mutation allowing human-to-human transmission could lead to a pandemic-like scenario.
    •  India poultry products exports to Middle Eastern and Asian markets; an H5N1 outbreak could lead to bans and economic losses.

    PYQ:

    [2015] H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to which one of the following diseases?

    (a) AIDS

    (b) Bird flu

    (c) Dengue

    (d) Swine flu

     

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  • Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

    Biotechnology for Economy, Environment and Employment (BioE3) Policy

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: BioE3 Policy

    Why in the News?

    After the BioE3 Policy approval in August 2024, the Department of Biotechnology (DBT) held consultations with State governments on setting up biomanufacturing facilities across India.

    What is the BioE3 Policy?

    • It is a national initiative by the Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science and Technology to promote biomanufacturing and a circular bioeconomy in India.
      • Biomanufacturing involves the industrial production of bio-products such as biopolymers, enzymes, smart proteins, functional foods, precision biotherapeutics, and climate-resilient agricultural products.
    • It focuses on scaling up biotechnology-based industries, enhancing research and innovation, and creating employment opportunities in sustainable bio-based sectors.
    • It aligns with India’s Net Zero carbon commitment and aims to make biomanufacturing a key driver of economic growth.

    Objectives and Features of the BioE3 Policy

    • Promoting Biomanufacturing: Establishing biomanufacturing hubs and biofoundries to produce bio-based chemicals, polymers, and enzymes.
    • Strengthening R&D and Innovation: Encouraging state-driven biotechnology policies, bio-AI hubs, and technology-driven bioindustries.
    • State-Centric Implementation: States will adopt at least two thematic areas under BioE3, focusing on local bio-based industries and sustainable agriculture.
    • Workforce Development: Expanding biotechnology training programs in Tier-II and Tier-III cities to build a skilled workforce.
    • Biosafety and Regulatory Compliance: Ensuring adherence to global biosafety standards and responsible biotechnology innovation.
    • Carbon Capture and Sustainability: Supporting carbon sequestration technologies and climate-resilient agriculture to mitigate climate change impacts.
    • Encouraging Private Sector Investment: Creating a business-friendly environment for biotech startups, public-private partnerships, and global collaborations.

    Programs Implemented Under the BioE3 Policy:

    • State-Centric BioE3 Cells: Dedicated cells will be established in State departments to coordinate investments, research, and policy execution.
    • Precision Biotherapeutics and Functional Foods Initiative: Research into next-generation bio-based medicines, smart proteins, and functional foods.
    • Carbon Capture and Bioeconomy Models: Development of technologies for carbon sequestration and sustainable bio-based industrial processes.
    • Public-Private Partnerships: Collaboration between government, industry, and research institutions to drive biomanufacturing investments and commercialization.

    PYQ:

    [2015] With reference to bio-toilets used by the Indian Railways, consider the following statements:

    1. The decomposition of human waste in the bio-toilets is initiated by a fungal inoculum.

    2. Ammonia and water vapour are the only end products in this decomposition which are released into the atmosphere.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    10 New Agricultural Commodities added to the E-NAM platform

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: electronic-National Agriculture Market (E-NAM)

    Why in the News?

    The Agriculture Ministry has allowed trading of 10 additional commodities on the electronic-National Agriculture Market (E-NAM), taking the total number of tradable items on the platform to 231.

    About the 10 new commodities:

    The newly added commodities include dried Tulsi leaves, Besant (Chickpea flour), wheat flour, chana sattu (Roasted Chickpea Flour), water Chestnut flour, asafoetida, dried fenugreek leaves, baby corn, dragon fruit and water Chestnut, the ministry said in a statement.

    Current Status of E-NAM (As of December 2024):

    • 1,410 mandis connected across 22 states and Union Territories.
    • Inter-state trade worth ₹5,022 crore has been recorded.
    • ₹6,831 crore e-payments made across 948 mandis.
    • Trade in 1.44 lakh metric tonnes of grains and 3.4 crore units of perishable commodities such as bamboo, betel leaves, coconuts, and lemons.

    What is E-NAM?

    • E-NAM is a pan-India electronic trading platform launched by the Government of India on April 14, 2016.
    • It integrates existing Agriculture Produce Market Committees (APMCs) to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities.
    • The Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC), under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare, is the implementing agency for e-NAM.
    • The platform enables farmers, traders, and buyers to trade agricultural commodities online, across states, ensuring better price discovery and transparency.

    Objectives of e-NAM

    • Improve market efficiency by integrating APMC mandis into a unified online platform.
    • Enhance price discovery through a competitive bidding process, ensuring fair market prices for farmers.
    • Promote inter-state trade by removing barriers and unifying agricultural markets across India.
    • Reduce dependency on middlemen, ensuring direct benefits to farmers.
    • Facilitate e-payments to ensure quick and transparent financial transactions for farmers.

    What is E-NAM 2.0?

    • E-NAM 2.0 is an upgraded version of the Electronic National Agriculture Market (e-NAM), launched to improve inter-state agricultural trade, logistics, and digital accessibility for farmers.
    • It integrates logistics service providers, allowing farmers to sell produce directly from their farms using a farm-gate module.
    • Key features include real-time price discovery, Aadhaar-based e-KYC, warehouse-based trading, and direct online payments.
    • The platform enhances transparency, efficiency, and access to a nationwide market, reducing dependence on middlemen.
    • It aims to boost farmer incomes, minimize wastage, and create a unified digital agricultural ecosystem across India.

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] What is/are the advantage/advantages of implementing the ‘National Agriculture Market’ scheme?

    1. It is a pan-India electronic trading portal for agricultural commodities.
    2. It provides the farmers access to nationwide market, with prices commensurate with the quality of their produce.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    What is Brucellosis?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Brucellosis

    Why in the News?

    An 8-year-old girl in Kerala, recently succumbed to brucellosis, a bacterial infection primarily caused by the consumption of unpasteurised milk.

    About Brucellosis

    • Brucellosis is a bacterial infection caused by Brucella species, primarily affecting cattle, goats, sheep, swine, and dogs.
    • Humans contract it through direct contact with infected animals, consuming contaminated animal products, or inhaling airborne agents.
    • According to the World Health Organization (WHO), the most common cause is the ingestion of unpasteurised milk or cheese from infected livestock.
    • Symptoms and Risk Factors:
      • Symptoms: Fever, weakness, weight loss, and general discomfort. The incubation period is 1-2 months, but most cases develop within 2-4 weeks.
      • At-Risk Groups: Farmers, butchers, veterinarians, hunters, and laboratory personnel handling infected animal tissues.
    • Treatment and Prevention:
      • Treatment: Doxycycline (100 mg, twice daily for 45 days) and Streptomycin (1 g daily for 15 days) as per medical advice.
      • Prevention: Vaccination of livestock, pasteurisation of milk, and public awareness campaigns to discourage the consumption of unpasteurised dairy products.

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  • Indian Army Updates

    Joint Military Exercise ‘Ekuverin’

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Exercise Ekuverin

    Why in the News?

    The 13th edition of Exercise Ekuverin, the bilateral joint military exercise between India and the Maldives, commenced in the Maldives on February 4, 2025.

    About Exercise Ekuverin

    • The word “Ekuverin” means ‘Friends’ in the Dhivehi language, signifying the close ties between India and the Maldives.
    • The exercise was first conducted in 2009 as part of an annual bilateral military engagement.
    • It is held alternatively in India and the Maldives, promoting military cooperation between the two nations.
    • In 2023, the exercise was conducted at Chaubatia, Uttarakhand, from June 11 to 24.
    • In 2025, the exercise is being conducted in the Maldives, further strengthening defence relations.

    Features and Significance:

    • The exercise aims to enhance military interoperability.
    • It focuses on joint counter-insurgency and counter-terrorism operations, improving the preparedness of both nations.
    • The training includes humanitarian assistance and disaster relief (HADR) operations, equipping both forces to respond effectively to crises.
    • It seeks to strengthen defence cooperation and regional security in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR).

    India’s Defence Exercises with Southeast Asian Neighbours

    India actively participates in joint military exercises with its Southeast Asian partners to bolster regional security and defence cooperation.

    Key Bilateral and Multilateral Exercises:

    • Garuda Shakti: Special Forces exercise with Indonesia, conducted in November 2022 at the Sangga Buana Training Area, Indonesia.
    • Mitra Shakti: Annual military exercise between India and Sri Lanka, last conducted in 2022.
    • VINBAX: Joint military exercise with Vietnam, with the 3rd edition held in 2022.
    • IMBEX: Bilateral exercise between India-Myanmar, with its last known edition in 2017-18.
    • Maitree: Annual India-Thailand military exercise, conducted since 2006.
    • CORPAT: Coordinated Patrol (CORPAT) exercises with Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia to ensure maritime security.
    • AIME 2023: The first ASEAN-India Maritime Exercise (AIME) held in May 2023, involving navies from India and ASEAN nations (Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam).

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Asteroid 2024 YR4

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Asteroid 2024 YR4

    Why in the News?

    NASA has identified a newly discovered near-Earth asteroid, 2024 YR4, which has a slightly more than 1% chance of impacting Earth in 2032.

    Asteroid 2024 YR4

    Asteroid 2024 YR4 and its Geographical Features:

    • The asteroid was discovered in December 2024 by an observatory in Chile.
    • It measures between 40 to 100 meters across, making it roughly the size of a football field.
      • The exact size is uncertain because astronomers estimate an asteroid’s size based on its brightness.
    • On December 25, 2024, the asteroid passed within 800,000 kilometers of Earth, which is approximately twice the distance of the Moon.
    • It will fade from sight in April 2025 and will not be visible again until 2028, when it approaches Earth once more.
    • The asteroid is currently rated 3 on the Torino Scale, which measures the risk of impact on a scale from 0 to 10.

    Potential Destruction from 2024 YR4 Impact:

    • If 2024 YR4 collides with Earth, it is expected to release between 8 to 10 megatons of energy, equivalent to multiple nuclear explosions.
    • It injured 1,500 people and damaged thousands of buildings across several cities.
    • In comparison, the Apophis asteroid, discovered in 2004, was initially rated 4 but was later downgraded after further observations ruled out an impact threat.

    How often do Asteroids crash Into Earth?

    • Thousands of small asteroids burn up in Earth’s atmosphere daily due to friction.
    • The Chelyabinsk meteor (2013) exploded over Russia with 30 times the power of the Hiroshima bomb.
    • Asteroids around 40 meters can cause regional destruction if they hit Earth.
    • Large asteroids (1 km+ in size) can trigger global disasters, occurring about once every 260 million years.
    • The Chicxulub asteroid (66 million years ago) led to the extinction of dinosaurs.

    How Space Agencies prevent Asteroid Collisions?

    • NASA and global space agencies work on planetary defense to prevent impacts.
    • In 2022, NASA’s DART mission successfully changed asteroid Dimorphos’s trajectory using kinetic impact.
    • Scientists explore 3 key methods for asteroid deflection:
      • Kinetic Impact:  Using spacecraft to hit an asteroid and alter its path.
      • Gravity Tractors:  Using a spacecraft’s gravity to pull an asteroid off course.
      • Nuclear Explosions: As a last resort, detonating a nuclear device near an asteroid to deflect or destroy it.

     

    PYQ:

    [2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

    1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.
    2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.
    3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only
    (b) 1 and 3 only
    (c) 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    New Makhana Board and Food Institute to be opened in Bihar

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Agriculture and related issues

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Makhana Board

    Why in the News?

    The Union Budget 2025 has announced the establishment of a Makhana Board in Bihar to improve production, processing, value addition, and marketing of makhana (fox nut).

    What is Makhana? 

    makhana

    • Makhana, also known as fox nut, is the edible seed of the prickly water lily (Euryale ferox), grown in freshwater ponds across India and South Asia.
    • Bihar produces 90% of India’s makhana, with major hubs in Darbhanga, Madhubani, Purnea, and Katihar.
    • It is nutrient-rich, low-fat, and considered a superfood, gaining popularity in domestic and international markets.
    • Traditionally used in religious rituals, makhana is now promoted for its health benefits and commercial potential.

    About the Makhana Board 

    • The Makhana Board will train farmers, ensure market access, regulate pricing, and promote exports.
    • The Food Processing Institute will focus on value addition, quality control, research, and global trade facilitation.
    • Aims & Objectives:
      • Increase production by promoting high-yield varieties like Swarna Vaidehi and Sabour Makhana-1.
      • Improve processing infrastructure to reduce wastage and enhance product quality.
      • Support exports through cargo infrastructure, trade partnerships, and branding initiatives.
    • Structural Mandate:
      • Governing body led by government officials, farmer representatives, and industry experts.
      • Regional centers in key makhana-producing districts to assist farmers.
      • Partnerships with ICAR, NABARD, and agricultural universities for research and financial support.
      • ₹100 crore initial funding for infrastructure, training, and market expansion.
    • Powers & Functions: Regulate production, enforce quality standards, provide subsidies, promote research, develop export infrastructure, and launch branding campaigns.

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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM)

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM)

    Why in the News?

    The Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM) was recently announced by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO on January 14, 2025.

    What is Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM)?

    • The OCM, launched by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO, aims to enhance marine conservation and resource management.
    • It focuses on the Caribbean and North Brazil Shelf, regions with rich biodiversity, coral reefs, and fisheries generating $610 million annually.
    • The OCM promotes Blue Carbon Projects, using coastal ecosystems for carbon storage, benefiting both climate resilience and local communities.
    • It has secured $15 million in funding from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) under the UNDP/GEF PROCARIBE+ Project, with an additional $126.02 million in co-financing.

    Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission (IOC) of UNESCO

    • Established in 1961, the IOC/UNESCO promotes marine science cooperation for sustainable ocean governance.
    • It operates in key areas:
      • Ocean science research:  Supports studies on climate change, biodiversity, and sustainability.
      • Tsunami warning systems:  Maintains early warning mechanisms to mitigate risks.
      • Ocean observations:  Collects and analyzes oceanographic data for policy-making.
    • The IOC leads the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (2021-2030), known as the “Ocean Decade”, advancing global marine conservation efforts.

     

    Ocean Coordination Mechanism (OCM)

    About the Caribbean Sea

    • The Caribbean Sea is part of the North Atlantic Ocean, located south of the Gulf of Mexico and southwest of the Sargasso Sea.
    • Bordering Nations:
      • Greater Antilles – Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola (Haiti & Dominican Republic), Puerto Rico.
      • Lesser Antilles – Includes islands from Virgin Islands to Trinidad & Tobago.
      • South America – Borders Venezuela & Colombia.
      • Central America – Includes Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Guatemala, Belize.
    • Key Features:
      • Deepest Point – The Cayman Trough, at 7,686 meters below sea level.
      • Mesoamerican Barrier Reef – Second-largest barrier reef globally, stretching 1,000 km.
      • Major Gulfs and Bays – Includes Gulf of Venezuela, Gulf of Honduras, and Gulf of Darién.
    • The Caribbean Sea supports rich biodiversity but faces threats from climate change, pollution, and overfishing, making conservation efforts like OCM essential for sustainability.

    PYQ:

    [2021] Consider the following statements :​

    1. The Global Ocean Commission grants licences for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.​

    2. India has received licences for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.​

    3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on seafloor in international waters.​

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    (a) 1 and 2 only ​

    (b) 2 and 3 only​

    (c) 1 and 3 only ​

    (d) 1, 2 and 3​

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