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Type: Prelims Only

  • 125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

    Why in the News?

    Prime Minister Modi has paid respectful tributes to eminent thinker and educationist Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee on his 125th birth anniversary.

    125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

    About Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953):

    • Early life: He was born on July 6, 1901, in Kolkata, West Bengal.
    • Academics: He studied at Presidency College and the University of Calcutta, where he excelled academically.
    • Professional Career: He became a barrister after being called to the English Bar at Lincoln’s Inn, London. At the age of 33, he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, one of the youngest to hold the post.
    • Association with Freedom Movement: He began his political journey with the Indian National Congress. Later, he joined the Hindu Mahasabha, becoming its president.
    • Demise: He died in 1953, while in custody in Jammu and Kashmir, under mysterious circumstances that remain controversial to this day.

    His Contributions:

    • Role in Pre-Independence Politics:
      • He served as the Finance Minister of Bengal under British rule.
      • He resigned in 1942, protesting British policies during the Quit India Movement.
      • He became a strong voice against British repression and for Indian self-rule.
    • Advocacy for Partition of Bengal:
      • He advocated the partition of Bengal to safeguard Hindu interests during the run-up to Partition.
      • His efforts contributed to the creation of a separate West Bengal within the Indian Union.
    • Minister in Nehru’s Cabinet:
      • After independence, he served as India’s first Minister for Industry and Supply in Jawaharlal Nehru’s cabinet.
      • In 1950, he resigned from the cabinet in protest against the Nehru-Liaquat Pact.
      • He believed the pact failed to protect the Hindu minorities in East Bengal (now Bangladesh).
    • Founding of Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951):
      • In 1951, Mookerjee founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh with ideological support from the RSS.
      • The party aimed to present a nationalist alternative to the Congress Party.
    • Opposition to Article 370:
      • Mookerjee strongly opposed Article 370, which gave special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
      • He believed the article promoted separatism and weakened national integration.
      • He famously declared that- “One country cannot have two constitutions, two prime ministers, and two flags.”
    • Legacy:
      • Mookerjee’s thoughts continue to influence the ideological foundation and policies of the far right political parties.
      • He is remembered as a champion of national unity, constitutional equality, and strong central integration.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:

    Party: Its Leader

    1. Bharatiya Jana Sangh : Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee 2. Socialist Party : C. Rajagopalachari 3. Congress for Democracy : Jagjivan Ram 4. Swatantra Party : Acharya Narendra Dev How many of the above are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

     

  • Vera C Rubin Observatory 

    Why in the News?

    The Vera C. Rubin Observatory has recently begun a 10-year project to study dark matter and dark energy using a 3,200-megapixel camera (of the Simonyi Survey Telescope) from its site in the Chilean Andes.

    Vera C Rubin Observatory 

    About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:

    • Location: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is situated on Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 8,684 feet.
    • Naming: It is named after Vera C. Rubin, the astronomer who first provided robust observational evidence for the existence of dark matter in the 1970s.
    • Survey Duration: The observatory will carry out a 10-year continuous survey of the entire southern sky.
    • Data Volume: It is designed to collect approximately 20 terabytes of astronomical data per night.
    • Observation System: The telescope operates using an automated scripting system that selects observation targets dynamically, rather than through manual scheduling.
    • Objectives: Its key goals include understanding the formation of galaxies, identifying a possible ninth planet, detecting potentially hazardous asteroids, and studying the nature of dark matter and dark energy.

    Key Features:

    • Telescope Design: The observatory uses the Simonyi Survey Telescope, which features a three-mirror optical system for wide-field imaging.
    • How big is it: It has a field of view of 9.6 square degrees (compared to 0.04 sq. deg. for Hubble and 0.11 sq. deg. for James Webb), a 3,200-megapixel camera (vs. Hubble’s ~1.0 MP).
    • Field of View: It can capture a field of view equivalent to 40 full Moons in a single exposure — far wider than traditional space telescopes.
    • Spectral Filters: The camera includes six optical filters that capture data from across the electromagnetic spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared light.
    • Slewing Speed: The telescope is the fastest-moving large telescope, capable of repositioning and stabilizing in just 5 seconds.
    • Imaging Frequency: It can take up to 1,000 images per night, allowing it to scan the entire sky every three nights.
    • Change Detection: Its automated software compares new and old images to detect changes, issuing up to 10 million alerts per night for transient astronomical events.

    Breakthrough Discoveries:

    • First Light: The observatory released its first test images on June 23, 2025.
    • Initial Discoveries: Within 10 hours of collecting engineering data, it identified 2,104 new asteroids, including 7 near-Earth objects (NEOs).
    • Expected Discoveries: Over the full 10-year mission, it is projected to discover over 5 million asteroids and around 100,000 NEOs.
    • Impact on Database: These findings would triple the current global inventory of known asteroids.
    • Universe Mapping: The observatory will produce the most detailed map of the large-scale structure of the universe to date.
    • Dark Matter Study: The data will support analysis of dark matter, which constitutes 27% of the universe’s composition.
    • Dark Energy Study: It will also help scientists understand dark energy, which makes up 68% of the universe and drives cosmic expansion.
    • Visible Matter Context: Only 5% of the universe is composed of visible matter, making the observatory’s data essential to studying the remaining 95%.
    [UPSC 2002] The world’s highest ground-based telescopic observatory is located in:

    Options: (a) Colombia (b) India (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland

     

  • Operation Med Max

    Why in the News?

    The Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) has busted a global drug network spanning four continents through secret Operation Med Max.

    Back2Basics: Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB)

    • Institutional Mandate: The NCB is India’s central drug law enforcement and intelligence agency, functioning under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
    • Establishment: It was established on 14th November 1985 under the Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (NDPS) Act, 1985.
    • Role: The agency works closely with Customs, State Police, Intelligence Bureau, and international agencies like Interpol and the US DEA.
    • International Treaty Compliance: NCB is responsible for monitoring India’s compliance with global drug control conventions and facilitating cooperation with foreign drug enforcement bodies.
    • Operational Network: It maintains zonal offices nationwide and is staffed by officers from IPS, IRS, paramilitary forces, and direct recruits.
    • Financial Surveillance Role: The NCB is a member of the Economic Intelligence Council, reflecting its role in tracking financial transactions linked to drug crimes.
    • Digital Intelligence Focus: The agency is now expanding into cyber surveillance, targeting darknet networks, crypto-based payments, and online narcotics trade.

    About Operation Med Max:

    • Launch: It was initiated by the Narcotics Control Bureau (NCB) in May 2024, beginning with the interception of a car in Delhi, it seized 3.7 kg of Tramadol tablets.
    • Uncovering a Global Syndicate: Investigations revealed a transnational drug syndicate using encrypted apps, drop shipping, and cryptocurrency payments to smuggle controlled pharmaceutical drugs across four continents and over 10 countries.
    • Global Ramifications: The probe triggered international enforcement actions, including the arrest of a money launderer in Alabama (USA), closure of an illegal pill factory in Australia, and identification of a UAE-based drug kingpin.

    Also in News: Operation MELON

    • Overview: It was a coordinated crackdown on India’s top-rated darknet drug vendor, alias “Ketamelon”, active for over two years.
    • Drug and Crypto Seizures: The raid led to the seizure of 1,100 LSD blots, 131 grams of Ketamine, and ₹70 lakh worth of cryptocurrency, stored in a hardware wallet.
    • Darknet Threat: Ketamelon was classified as a Level 4 darknet vendor, the highest possible rank, underscoring the growing cyber-narcotics threat and NCB’s technical capacity to counter it.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following activities:

    1. Identification of narcotics on passengers at airports or in aircraft

    2. Monitoring of precipitation

    3. Tracking the migration of animals

    In how many of the above activities can the radars be used?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) All three (d) None

     

  • Invisible Exports of India

    Why in the News?

    As of 2024–25, India’s “invisibles” trade—comprising services exports and private money transfers—has not only surpassed its merchandise exports but also emerged as a key stabiliser of the current account deficit.

    What are Invisible Exports (in India’s context)?

    • What is it: Invisible exports refer to international trade in services and income flows that do not involve physical goods crossing borders. These transactions are digital or financial, rather than visible at ports or airports.
    • Types of Services Included: They comprise a wide range of service-based exports such as IT services, financial consulting, legal and accounting services, R&D, and BPO operations.
    • Inclusion of Remittances: Private remittances—money sent home by Indians working abroad—are counted as part of invisibles in India’s Balance of Payments (BoP).
    • BoP Classification: These transactions are recorded under the “Current Account” of the BoP, specifically in the sub-categories of services, primary income, and secondary income.
    • Characteristics: Unlike physical exports, invisible exports do not require shipping, face fewer trade barriers, and rely heavily on skilled human capital.
    • Leading Examples: India’s key invisible exports include software and IT-enabled services (by firms like Infosys, TCS, Wipro), Global Capability Centers, financial and legal services, and education, tourism, and medical services.
    • Role of Migrant Remittances: Remittances from NRIs and migrant workers play a crucial role and are one of the largest components of India’s invisible receipts.

    Their Contribution in Trade

    • Higher Value than Goods Exports: In 2024–25, India’s gross invisible receipts reached $576.5 billion, surpassing merchandise exports of $441.8 billion. Services alone brought in $387.5 billion, a major leap from $26.9 billion in 2003–04, while remittances added $135.4 billion.
    • Buffer Against Trade Deficits: While the merchandise trade deficit stood at $287.2 billion, a net invisible surplus of $263.8 billion helped reduce the overall current account deficit to just $23.4 billion, providing crucial stability.
    • Resilience Across Global Crises: Invisible exports remained strong during major disruptions like the 2008 financial crisis, COVID-19 pandemic, and ongoing geopolitical tensions, showcasing greater resilience than merchandise trade.
    • Human Capital-Driven Growth: Services exports are powered by India’s skilled workforce, not physical infrastructure. India thrives as the “office of the world”, moving beyond the traditional “back office” label.
    • Less Policy Dependence: Growth in invisible exports occurred largely without heavy government incentives or trade agreements. India still lacks strong service-sector provisions in its major trade deals.
    [UPSC 2006] Assertion (A): Balance of Payments represents a better picture of a country’s economic transactions with the rest of the world than the Balance of Trade.

    Reason (R): Balance of Payments takes into account the exchange of both visible and invisible items whereas Balance of Trade does not.

    Options: (a) Both A and R are individually true and R is the correct explanation of A **  (b) Both A and R are individually true and R is not the correct explanation of A (c) A is true but R is false (d) A is false but R is true

     

  • In news: Nagari Pracharini Sabha

    Why in the News?

    As language debates rise in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, the historic Nagari Pracharini Sabha, key to promoting Hindi and Devanagari, quietly resumed its work after decades.

    Hindi Under the British: A Language in Waiting

    • Until the late 19th century, Persian remained the court language in much of India. Even by 1861, courts in North-Western Provinces and Oudh still used English, Persian, and Urdu.
    • Hindi struggled to assert itself due to a lack of standardised vocabulary and administrative acceptance.
    • British official Antony MacDonnell began promoting Devanagari over Persian script in the 1890s.
    • On July 14, 1888, Maharaja Lakshmeshwar Singh of Darbhanga adopted Hindi as the official language in his region, influenced by the slogan “Hindi, Hindu, Hindustan.”

    About Nagari Pracharini Sabha:

    • Establishment: The Nagari Pracharini Sabha was founded on 16 July 1893 at Queen’s College, Varanasi by Shyamsundar Das, Pandit Ramnarayan Mishra, and Shivkumar Singh.
    • Early Patronage: The Sabha received initial support from Babu Radhakrishna Das, a cousin of Bharatendu Harishchandra, a leading figure in modern Hindi literature.
    • Organizational Presence: Its headquarters are located in Varanasi, with additional branches in New Delhi and Haridwar.
    • Primary Mission: The Sabha aimed to promote the Hindi language and Devanagari script in education, administration, and literature during a period dominated by Persian, Urdu, and English.
    • Library Establishment: In 1896, it established the Arya Bhasha Pustakalaya, which became the largest Hindi library in India.
    • Research Journal Launch: Also in 1896, it began publishing the Nagari Pracharini Patrika, now recognized as India’s oldest and most authoritative Hindi research journal.
    • Cultural Contributions: It managed the Bharat Kala Bhavan museum, until it was eventually transferred to Banaras Hindu University.
    • Modern Revival: After years of inactivity and disputes, it was revived in 2023 under Vyomesh Shukla’s leadership, following a court order from the Allahabad High Court.

    Its Role in Hindi Promotion:

    • Linguistic Standardization: It conducted surveys in rural and urban areas to collect regional vocabulary, laying the groundwork for a standardized Hindi language.
    • Lexicographic Landmark: This effort led to the publication of Shabd Sagar in 1929, a monumental 11-volume Hindi dictionary and a major lexicographical achievement.
    • Literary Influence: It published Saraswati magazine from 1900, edited by Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi, which played a transformative role in shaping modern Hindi literature.
    • Preservation of Classics: It produced critical editions of works by poets like Surdas, Tulsidas, Kabirdas, Bihari, and Bhushan, ensuring the preservation of Hindi literary heritage.
    • Official Language Recognition: The Sabha’s advocacy led to the recognition of Hindi in Devanagari script for official use in the North-Western Provinces and Oudh by the early 20th century.
    • Civil Service Policy Impact: It was instrumental in making Hindi and Urdu proficiency a requirement for government jobs in the United Provinces.
    • National Literary Conferences: In 1910, it helped organise the first Akhil Bharatiya Hindi Sahitya Sammelan, giving Hindi a pan-Indian literary platform.
    • Support from National Leaders: The Sabha’s mission was endorsed by Mahatma Gandhi, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lala Lajpat Rai, and Motilal Nehru, indicating its central role in the Hindi movement.
    [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:

    1. 21st February is declared to be the International Mother Language Day by UNICEF.

    2. The demand that Bangla be one of the national languages was raised in the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan.

    Which of the above statements is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

     

  • International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for FAO

    Why in the News?

    India has expressed serious concerns over proposed changes to the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)—popularly known as the Plant Treaty.

    About the Plant Treaty, 2001:

    • Adoption: It was adopted by the FAO on 3rd November 2001 and came into force in 2004.
    • Purpose: It governs the Multilateral System (MLS) for the access and benefit-sharing of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (PGRFA).
    • Key Features:
      • Coverage of Crops: The MLS currently includes 64 essential food crops and forages listed in Annex I, which together meet around 80% of the world’s plant-based food needs.
      • Access Mechanism: Access to these genetic materials is provided for research, breeding, and training purposes through a Standard Material Transfer Agreement (SMTA).
      • Benefit-Sharing Approach: The Treaty incorporates monetary and non-monetary benefit-sharing mechanisms, with a focus on supporting biodiversity in developing countries.
      • IP Restrictions: It prohibits any intellectual property claims over the raw genetic materials accessed under the system.
      • Recognition of Farmers’ Rights: It affirms farmers’ rights, such as the protection of traditional knowledge, equitable benefit-sharing, and participation in national decisions about PGRFA use and conservation.
    • India’s Participation: India is a signatory and active participant and implements the Treaty alongside domestic legislation like the Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Act, 2001.

    Proposed Amendments:

    • Objective: The upcoming proposal aims to expand the scope of the MLS to include all PGRFA, not just those in Annex I.
    • New Inclusions: The expansion would bring in indigenous varieties, non-commercial crops, and community-protected heirloom seeds under the MLS framework.
    • Impact on India’s Obligations: If passed, the amendment would mandate countries like India to share all plant germplasm through the existing SMTA process.
    • No Change in Benefit Terms: The amendment retains current benefit-sharing mechanisms, which critics argue are often non-monetary or merely symbolic.
    • Concerns over IP Rights: The broadened scope may lead to intellectual property loopholes if traditional seeds are repackaged or genetically altered.
    • Allegations of Biopiracy: Critics argue the proposal enables “backdoor biopiracy”, especially of the Global South’s rich seed diversity.

    India’s Concerns:

    • Loss of Seed Sovereignty: India fears it will lose discretion over which seeds to share, weakening its ability to protect unique plant biodiversity.
    • Undermining of Farmers’ Rights: The proposal might override the rights granted to farmers under the Plant Treaty and India’s PPV&FR Act, which view them as custodians of seed heritage.
    • Erosion of National Authority: The expansion could violate Articles 10 and 11 of the Treaty, which grant countries sovereign control over their genetic resources.
    • Violation of Federal Principles: The lack of consultation with States is seen as a breach of India’s federal structure, as agriculture is a State subject under Schedule VII of the Constitution.
    • Marginalization of Biodiversity Boards: The role of State Biodiversity Boards may be diminished, despite their importance in regulating local germplasm and community rights.
    • Lack of Equitable Returns: India argues that the global system offers little real benefit, raising doubts about fairness and justice in benefit-sharing.
    [UPSC 2014] Consider the following international agreements:

    1. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture.

    2. The United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification.

    3. The World Heritage Convention. Which of the above has/have a bearing on the biodiversity?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • How Heat led to Protocells formation on Earth?

    Why in the News?

    A new Nature Physics study suggests that warm volcanic rock surfaces may have concentrated organic molecules in watery cracks, triggering life-like chemistry—offering a clue to how protocells formed without membranes before life began.

    What are Protocells?

    • Overview: Protocells are primitive, cell-like bubbles believed to be early precursors of real biological cells. They were not fully alive but provided a space for early chemical interactions.
    • Lack of Complexity: These structures lacked complex parts like organelles or DNA systems but could hold important molecules like RNA and amino acids together.
    • Membrane Role: Protocells often formed simple membranes or boundaries, which allowed molecules to stay enclosed and interact more easily—helping early reactions like protein synthesis happen.
    • Importance: Although not living, they offered a model of how basic chemistry could evolve into biology, bridging the gap between non-living and living systems.

    History of Formation of Protocells:

    • Early Earth Conditions: Over 3.5 billion years ago, Earth’s surface had warm water pools and volcanic cracks filled with organic molecules made by natural processes like lightning.
    • Compartmentalization: The first step toward life was concentrating useful molecules in one place, so they could start reacting—this led to the idea of bubble-like protocells.
    • Old Theories: In the 1920s, Oparin and Haldane proposed that life began in a “primordial soup” with spontaneous chemical reactions in early Earth’s oceans.
    • Modern Insights: Newer research suggests cracks in volcanic rock or hydrothermal vents created temperature gradients and water flows that helped form protocells—no complex membranes were needed.

    Key Findings in the 2025 Study:

    • Lab Setup: Scientists created a 170-micrometre chamber with a warm top (40°C) and cool bottom (27°C), simulating early Earth rock cracks.
    • DNA Test: They added DNA and a protein-making kit (PURExpress). Only in the warm-cool chamber did the DNA make green fluorescent protein (GFP), showing real protein synthesis.
    • Molecule Gathering: Essential items like DNA, magnesium, and phosphate ions gathered more at the bottom—up to 70 times more concentrated than at the top.
    • Cell-Like Behavior: Even without a membrane, the system kept useful molecules inside while letting waste escape, mimicking real cell selectivity.
    • Big Implication: This experiment supports the idea that life could start in simple natural environments using just heat, flow, and basic chemicals—long before full cells appeared.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following statements:

    1. The Earth’s magnetic field has reversed every few hundred thousand years.

    2. When the Earth was created more than 4000 million years ago, there was 54% oxygen and no carbon dioxide.

    3. When living organisms originated, they modified the early atmosphere of the Earth. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1 and 3 only * (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • In news: Seine River

    Why in the News?

    French authorities have opened up the Seine River to public swimming for the very first time since 1923.

    In news: Seine River

    About the Seine River:

    • Overview: it is a major waterway in northern France, flowing through some of the country’s most important cultural and economic regions.
    • Length and Rank: It is approximately 777 km(483 miles) long, making it the second-longest river in France after the Loire.
    • Source and Elevation: It originates from the Langres Plateau in the Burgundy region, near the town of Source-Seine, at an elevation of about 444–471 meters above sea level.
    • Course Through France: It flows northwest, passing through regions such as Burgundy, Champagne, and Île-de-France, and cities like Troyes, Melun, Corbeil, and Paris.
    • Path Through Paris: In Paris, the Seine winds through the city center for about 13 kilometers, forming the famous islands Île de la Cité and Île Saint-Louis.
    • Tributaries: It is joined by several important tributaries, including the Marne, Yonne, Aube, and Oise rivers.
    • Drainage Basin and Rainfall: Its drainage basin spans 76,000–79,000 square kilometers, receiving moderate rainfall of 650–750 mm annually, and covering much of northern France.
    • Mouth and Termination: The river empties into the English Channel between Le Havre and Honfleur, on the Normandy coast.
    • Economic Role: The Seine supports commercial navigation and shipping, especially through the ports of Rouen and Le Havre, and provides about 50% of Paris’s drinking water.
    [UPSC 2020] Consider the following pairs: River Flows into

    1. Mekong Andaman Sea 2. Thames Irish Sea 3. Volga Caspian Sea 4. Zambezi Indian Ocean Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 3 only (c) 3 and 4 only* (d) 1, 2 and 4 only

     

  • WTO Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)

    Why in the News?

    Invoking the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS), India has notified the WTO of its plan to impose $724 million in retaliatory tariffs on the U.S. for breaching trade commitments through unilateral auto import duties.

    What is the Agreement on Safeguards (AoS)?

    • Overview: It is a World Trade Organization (WTO) treaty that allows countries to apply temporary trade barriers—called safeguard measures—when a domestic industry is harmed by a surge in imports.
    • Purpose in Practice: The agreement maintains global trade discipline, offering legal protection tools but with checks to avoid abuse.
    • Conditions for Use: Safeguards can only be used when there is clear evidence of serious injury or threat to domestic producers due to increased imports.
    • Rules-Based System: The agreement ensures safeguard actions are transparent, time-bound, and non-discriminatory, preventing misuse for permanent protectionism.
    • Key Rules:
      • Article 12.3: Before acting, a country must notify and consult with other WTO members who may be affected by the safeguard.
      • Article 8: If consultation fails, the affected country can retaliate by suspending trade benefits equal to the loss it suffered.
      • Ban on Informal Restrictions: AoS strictly prohibits voluntary export restraints or informal quotas that evade WTO rules, ensuring fairness.

    India’s Use of the AoS – The 2025 U.S. Tariff Case:

    • Trigger: The U.S. had imposed 25% tariffs on Indian-origin vehicles and parts in March 2025, which India claims are safeguard measures disguised as unilateral tariffs.
    • Violation of Rules: India alleges that the U.S. did not follow Article 12.3 (mandatory consultations) and thus violated both AoS and GATT 1994 rules.
    • Impact on Indian Exports: India estimates that $2.89 billion worth of exports have been affected and that the U.S. collected nearly $723.75 million in duties, matching India’s proposed retaliation.
    • India’s Justification: India asserts that this move is legal under WTO rules, not protectionist, and aims to defend its export interests while continuing trade talks with the U.S.

    India’s Changing Role in WTO Safeguard Policy:

    • Early Strategy (1995–2010): India was initially cautious at the WTO, accepting tough terms under TRIPS, GATS, and AoA, and rarely used legal tools like retaliation, focusing more on diplomatic solutions.
    • Recent Assertiveness (Post-2010): India now actively invokes WTO rules like AoS to protect its interests and has won key disputes—such as:
      • The solar panel case against the U.S.
      • Legal challenges to EU’s export restrictions on food.
    • Global Leadership Role: India has taken the lead among developing countries to protect food security rights and push for fairer global trade terms, especially at Bali (2013) and Nairobi (2015) WTO summits.

    Back2Basics: 

    TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights)

    • WTO agreement (1995) setting minimum standards for IPR protection (patents, copyrights, etc.).
    • Enforced 20-year patent protection; India amended its Patent Act in 2005 to comply.
    • Allows compulsory licensing in emergencies (e.g., for medicines).

    GATS (General Agreement on Trade in Services)

    • WTO treaty covering international trade in services like IT, banking, and tourism.
    • Operates through 4 Modes of Supply:
      1. Mode 1 – Cross-border supply (e.g., online consulting)
      2. Mode 2 – Consumption abroad (e.g., medical tourism)
      3. Mode 3 – Commercial presence (e.g., foreign bank branch in India)
      4. Mode 4 – Movement of natural persons (e.g., Indian professionals working overseas)
    • India strongly supports Mode 4 for its skilled labour force.

     

    [UPSC 2015] The terms ‘Agreement on Agriculture’, ‘Agreement on the application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures’ and ‘Peace Clause’ appear in the news frequently in the context of the affairs of the:

    Options: (a) Food and Agricultural Organization (b) United Nations Framework Conference on Climate Change (c) World Trade Organization* (d) United Nations Environment Programme

     

  • CJI assures ‘complete transparency’ in Collegium System

    Why in the News?

    Recently, CJI B.R. Gavai affirmed that the collegium system will ensure merit, transparency, and inclusive representation, and will not be swayed by external pressures.

    What is the Collegium System?

    • About: The Collegium System is the process by which judges are appointed and transferred in the Supreme Court and High Courts of India.
    • Origin: It was developed by the Supreme Court itself and is not mentioned in the Constitution.
    • Purpose: It aims to ensure judicial independence by minimizing the role of the executive in judicial appointments.
    • Basis for Appointments:
      • Supreme Court Judges: Under Article 124, the President appoints judges after consulting relevant judges from the Supreme Court and High Courts.
      • High Court Judges: Under Article 217, appointments are made by the President after consulting the Chief Justice of India, Governor of the State, and Chief Justice of the High Court concerned.
    • Structure of the Collegium:
      • Supreme Court Collegium: It consists of 5 judges — the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and the four senior-most judges of the Supreme Court.
      • High Court Collegium: It comprises the Chief Justice of the High Court and the two senior-most judges of that High Court.

    Qualifications for SC Judges:

    • Citizenship: Must be an Indian citizen.
    • Judicial Experience: At least 5 years as a High Court judge or 10 years as an advocate in one or more High Courts.
    • Alternative Route: Can also be a distinguished jurist, in the President’s opinion.

    Qualifications for HC Judges:

    • Experience: Must have held a judicial office for 10 years or practiced as an advocate for 10 years in a High Court.
    • Bar Enrollment: Must be enrolled with the Bar Council of India.

    Evolution of the Collegium System:

    • First Judges Case (1981): The Supreme Court ruled that the executive had primacy in appointments, and the CJI’s opinion was not binding.
    • Second Judges Case (1993): The Court reinterpreted “consultation” to mean “concurrence”, giving primacy to the judiciary and formally creating the Collegium System.
    • Third Judges Case (1998): On Presidential Reference, the Collegium was expanded to five members — the CJI + 4 senior-most judges.

    How does it Work?

    • Appointment of Chief Justice of India (CJI): The outgoing CJI recommends the next CJI, based on seniority. The Law Minister forwards it to the PM, who advises the President.
    • Appointment of Other SC Judges: The CJI initiates the proposal after consulting Collegium members and the senior-most judge from the concerned High Court.
    • Appointment of High Court Judges: Initiated by the High Court Chief Justice, approved by the High Court Collegium, and forwarded via the state government to the Union Law Ministry.
    [UPSC 2012] What is the provision to safeguard the autonomy of the Supreme Court of India?

    1. While appointing the Supreme Court Judges, the President of India has to consult the Chief Justice of India.

    2. The Supreme Court Judges can be removed by the Chief Justice of India only.

    3. The salaries of the Judges are charged on the Consolidated Fund of India to which the legislature does not have to vote.

    4. All appointments of officers and staff of the Supreme Court of India are made by the Government only after consulting the Chief Justice of India.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 3 only * (b) 3 and 4 only (c) 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4