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Type: Prelims Only

  • Air Pollution

    What are Green Crackers?

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court of India has temporarily permitted the sale and bursting of green crackers in the Delhi–NCR region from October 18 to 21 for Diwali celebrations.

    Background and Judicial Origin:

    • Trigger: Severe air pollution episodes during Diwali (2016–2017) pushed Delhi’s Air Quality Index (AQI) beyond 500, creating a public-health emergency.
    • Supreme Court Intervention (2018):
      • Affirmed that cultural freedom cannot override the Fundamental Right to Life (Article 21).
      • Banned conventional firecrackers containing heavy metals such as barium, lead, and mercury.
      • Directed CSIR to develop less-polluting alternatives, with PESO (Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation) tasked to test and certify them.
    • Outcome: Introduction of green crackers as a compromise solution balancing festive traditions with public-health protection.
    • Legal Oversight: The Supreme Court continues to monitor compliance, permitting use only within fixed time windows and under strict emission-control standards.

    About Green Crackers:

    • Overview: Green crackers are eco-friendly fireworks developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI) to curb air pollution during festive celebrations.
    • Chemical Composition: Manufactured using modified formulations that exclude barium nitrate and significantly reduce sulphur and aluminium content, thereby cutting toxic emissions.
    • Emission Reduction: These crackers emit about 30 % less particulate matter (PM₂.₅ and PM₁₀) and 10 % less sulphur dioxide (SO₂) and nitrogen oxides (NO₂) than conventional firecrackers.
    • Identification & Legality: Each authorised packet carries the Green Fireworks logo and a QR code verifiable through the CSIR-NEERI Green QR Code App; crackers without codes are illegal.
    • Purpose: Designed to retain the cultural and festive appeal of fireworks while mitigating health and environmental impacts in pollution-prone regions such as Delhi-NCR.

    Types of Green Crackers:

    1. SWAS (Safe Water Releasable): Releases water vapour during combustion to reduce dust and temperature, lowering particulate emissions.
    2. STAR (Safe Thermite Cracker): Uses thermite-based reactions instead of conventional oxidisers, producing bright light and sound with reduced toxic output.
    3. SAFAL (Safe Minimal Aluminium): Limits metallic fuel content, maintaining luminosity and sound intensity while reducing aluminium and sulphur emissions.

    All three maintain sound levels around 100–120 dB, comparable to traditional fireworks but with a cleaner emission profile and shorter atmospheric residence time.

    [UPSC 2024] What is the common characteristic of the chemical substances generally known as CL-20, HMX and LLM-105, which are sometimes talked about in media?

    (a) These are alternatives to hydro- fluorocarbon refrigerants

    (b) These are explosives in military weapons *

    (c) These are high-energy fuels for cruise missiles

    (d) These are propulsion fuels for rocket

     

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  • Indian Air Force Updates

    Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)-Mk1A

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Defence Minister inaugurated the third production line of Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) Mk1A at Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL), Nashik.

    About Tejas Light Combat Aircraft (LCA)-Mk1A:

    • Overview: Single-engine, 4.5-generation, supersonic multirole fighter aircraft developed indigenously under India’s LCA programme.
    • Developers: Designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) of DRDO and produced by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
    • Purpose: Conceived in the late 1980s to replace the ageing MiG-21 and Su-7 fleets of the Indian Air Force.
    • Operational Induction: Entered production for the Indian Air Force (IAF) in 2024 after extensive flight trials and certification.
    • Roles: Designed for air superiority, ground attack, close air support, and interception missions.
    • Manufacturing Hubs: Produced at HAL Bengaluru and HAL Nashik, with parallel assembly lines to meet IAF delivery targets.

    Key Features of Tejas LCA-Mk1A:

    • Design: Tailless compound delta-wing configuration ensuring high agility, aerodynamic efficiency, and reduced radar cross-section.
    • Engine: Powered by General Electric F404-GE-IN20 turbofan, enabling speeds up to Mach 1.8.
    • Avionics: Equipped with Active Electronically Scanned Array (AESA) radar, Electronic Warfare Suite, and Onboard Oxygen Generation System (OBOGS).
    • Flight Control: Features Digital Fly-by-Wire System for enhanced stability and pilot control.
    • Weapons Integration: Can carry air-to-air, air-to-ground, and precision-guided munitions, including Beyond Visual Range (BVR) missiles.
    • Cockpit: Modern glass cockpit with Helmet Mounted Display (HMD) and Hands-On-Throttle-And-Stick (HOTAS) controls.
    • Payload & Range: Payload capacity over 4,000 kg across eight external hardpoints; combat radius around 500 km, ferry range up to 1,700 km.
    • Network Capability: Integrated with secure data link systems for real-time communication and situational awareness.
    • Maintenance: Modular design allowing easy servicing, high turnaround rate, and improved mission readiness for sustained operations.
    [UPSC 2024] Consider the following aircraft:
    1. Rafael 2. MiG-29 3. Tejas MK-1
    How many of the above are considered fifth-generation fighter aircraft?
    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

     

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  • RBI Notifications

    RBI’s Gold Reserve exceeds $100 billion

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) reported that India’s gold reserves surpassed $100 billion for the first time in history, reaching $102.365 billion in the week ending October 10, 2025.

    India’s Gold Reserves and Composition (2025):

    • Total Holdings: As of March 31, 2025, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) held approximately 879.58 metric tonnes of gold.
    • Valuation Milestone: In October 2025, the value of India’s gold reserves crossed USD 100 billion, reaching about USD 102.36 billion, the highest in history.
    • Forex Share: Gold’s share in India’s total foreign exchange reserves rose to 14.7 %, the highest since 1996–97, driven by valuation gains and steady accumulation.
    • Yearly Rise: Early in 2025, gold comprised 12.5 % of reserves, indicating a sharp increase through the year amid global market volatility.
    • Repatriation Move: During FY 2024–25, the RBI repatriated 100.32 tonnes of gold from overseas vaults to India, expanding domestic holdings.

    Distribution of Gold Holdings (March 2025):

    • Domestic Holdings: About 200 metric tonnes held within India.
    • Overseas Holdings: Around 367 metric tonnes stored abroad.
    • Deposits with Foreign Institutions: Approximately 19 metric tonnes.
    • Trend Evolution: Gold share in reserves rose from 5.9 % (2021) to 11.7 % (2025) due to strategic diversification and valuation gains.

    What are Gold Reserves?

    • A gold reserve is the gold held by a country’s central bank, acting as a backup for financial promises and a store of value.
    • India, like other nations, stores some of its gold reserves in foreign vaults to spread out risk and facilitate international trading.
    • India’s Gold Reserves:
      • As of the end of March 2024, the RBI held 822.10 tonnes of gold, with 408.31 tonnes stored domestically.
      • The share of gold in the total forex of India is around 7-8% as of 2023.

    Where does the RBI store its gold?

    • India’s gold reserves are primarily stored in the Bank of England, which is known for its stringent security protocols.
    • The RBI also stores a portion of its gold reserves at the:
      1. Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland, and the
      2. Federal Reserve Bank of New York in the United States.
    During India’s foreign exchange crisis in 1990-91, the country pledged some of its gold reserves to the Bank of England to secure a $405 million loan, according to reports.

    Even though the loan was paid back by November 1991, India decided to keep the gold in the UK for convenience.

    Why does the RBI store its gold in foreign banks?

    • Convenience: Storing gold overseas makes it easier for India to trade, engage in swaps and earn returns.
    • Averting Risks: There are risks involved, especially during times of geopolitical tensions and war.
      • The recent freezing of Russian assets by Western nations has raised worries about the safety of assets kept abroad and the RBI decision to shift a portion of the gold reserve to India could be prompted by these concerns.
    • Stable Prices: Unlike fiat currencies, which can be subject to inflation or devaluation due to various economic factors, the value of gold tends to be relatively stable over time, which makes it an attractive asset for central banks to hold as a reserve.

    Benefits Offered by Gold Reserves

    • Control domestic gold prices: With its big stash of gold, the RBI can help control local gold prices by using some of it in India. Last financial year, the RBI added about 27.47 tonnes of gold to the total reserve, bringing it to 794.63 tonnes.
    • Security buffer: The increased gold reserve works as a hedge against any financial crisis and to take measures to control inflation as well as currency devaluation.
    [UPSC 2015] The problem of international liquidity is related to the non-availability of:

    (a) Goods and services

    (b) Gold and silver

    (c) Dollars and other hard currencies *

    (d) Exportable surplus

     

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  • Air Pollution

    Carbon Di-oxide Levels in 2024 set new records: WMO

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) reported that carbon dioxide (CO₂) concentrations reached a record 423.9 ppm in 2024, marking the highest annual increase (3.5 ppm) since global measurements began in 1957.

    About WMO Report 2025:

    • Publisher: Issued by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the UN specialised agency for weather, climate, and water systems.
    • Document: The 2025 Greenhouse Gas Bulletin presents global atmospheric data for carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄), and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
    • Global Record: Confirms 2024 as the warmest year ever, with average temperatures 1.55 °C above pre-industrial (1850–1900) levels.
    • Context & Timing: Released ahead of COP30 (Belém, Brazil) to guide mitigation policies and national climate commitments.
    • Key Warning: Notes a record surge in CO₂ and the weakening of natural carbon sinks such as oceans and forests.

    Key Highlights about Greenhouse Gases:

    • Carbon Dioxide (CO₂): Global mean reached 423.9 ppm in 2024, up 3.5 ppm from 2023, the largest annual rise since 1957. Concentrations are 152 % above pre-industrial (278.3 ppm); land and ocean sinks are declining in efficiency.
    • Methane (CH₄): Climbed to 1,942 ppb, 166 % above pre-industrial levels; ~60 % of emissions stem from livestock, fossil fuels, and rice cultivation.
    • Nitrous Oxide (N₂O): Reached 338 ppb, 25 % higher than pre-industrial; emitted mainly from fertiliser use, biomass burning, and industry; the third major long-lived GHG.
    • Drivers of Increase: Human emissions, El Niño-linked droughts and wildfires, and reduced oceanic absorption, especially from the Amazon and southern Africa in 2024.

    Implications and Risks:

    • Warming Acceleration: CO₂ causes ~66 % of total warming and 79 % over the last decade; persistent buildup locks in long-term temperature rise.
    • Weakening Carbon Sinks: Warmer seas and drought-stricken lands absorb less CO₂, reinforcing a feedback loop of accumulation.
    • Extreme Events: Intensified heatwaves, floods, droughts, and wildfires signal proximity to irreversible tipping points like ice-sheet loss and coral die-off.
    [UPSC 2012] The increasing amount of carbon dioxide in the air is slowly raising the temperature of the atmosphere, because it absorbs

    Options: (a) the water vapour of the air and retains its heat.

    (b) the UV part of the solar radiation.

    (c) all the solar radiations.

    (d) the infrared part of the solar radiation. *

     

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  • Forest Conservation Efforts – NFP, Western Ghats, etc.

    CG HC upholds cancellation of Forest Rights of Villagers

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The Chhattisgarh High Court has dismissed a petition challenging the cancellation of Community Forest Rights (CFRs) granted to villagers of Ghatbarra in the Hasdeo Arand forest, an area where Adani Enterprises–linked coal mines operate.

    Background of the Case:

    • Dispute Origin: The District-Level Committee (DLC) revoked CFR titles in 2016, citing that the area had already been diverted for mining in 2012 with MoEF clearance.
    • Petitioners’ Claim: The Hasdeo Arand Bachao Sangharsh Samiti argued that the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006 provides no revocation clause and that villagers were not given a fair hearing before cancellation.
    • Court’s View: The High Court upheld the State’s decision, calling the 2013 CFR grant a “mistake” void ab initio, and legally cancellable.

    Key Judicial Findings:

    • Legality of Revocation: FRA lacks explicit revocation provision, but erroneous grants may be rectified; hence cancellation was valid.
    • Prior Approvals Prevail: 2012 MoEFCC mining clearance overrode subsequent CFR grants.
    • State Mineral Ownership: FRA does not affect the State’s control over minerals beneath forest land.
    • Locus Standi: Petitioners lacked standing after the Forest Rights Committee withdrew; no authorised village representation remained.
    • Suppression of Facts: Petitioners had earlier challenged land acquisition (case dismissed in 2022) but failed to disclose it.

    Significance:

    This ruling marks the first judicial interpretation of whether forest rights granted under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 (FRA) can be revoked or cancelled, despite the Act containing no explicit provision for cancellation.

    About the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006:

    • Overview: The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, commonly called the Forest Rights Act (FRA).
    • Purpose: Enacted to correct historical injustices faced by forest-dwelling communities deprived of traditional land and resource rights during colonial rule.
    • Core Objective: Ensures tenurial security, livelihood protection, and ecological stewardship of forest-dependent populations.
    • Beneficiaries: Covers Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) who have lived in and depended on forests for generations.
    • Scope: Recognises both individual and collective rights over forest land and produce, extending to cultivation, habitation, and minor forest produce use.
    • Governance Principle: Empowers Gram Sabhas as the central authority for recognising and managing forest rights, reinforcing local autonomy.
    • Integration Goal: Aligns forest governance with tribal self-rule, complementing the Panchayats (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act, 1996 (PESA).

    Key Features of the FRA:

    • Individual & Community Rights: Legal recognition for occupation, cultivation, residence, and use/sale of minor forest produce.
    • Community Forest Resource (CFR) Rights: Grants Gram Sabhas control to protect, regenerate, and manage community forests.
    • Habitat Rights: Protects Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs) and pre-agricultural forest communities.
    • Governance Structure: Multi-level verification, Gram Sabha → Sub-Divisional Committee → District-Level Committee, for rights adjudication.
    • Development Provisions: Allows limited diversion of forest land for public utilities with Gram Sabha consent.
    • Eviction Safeguard: No eviction until claims are fully processed and rights recognised.
    • Decentralised Oversight: Empowers Gram Sabha as the final decision-making authority on forest rights and management.
    • Legal Integration: Reinforces PESA’s participatory governance and community-led conservation in Scheduled Areas.
    [UPSC 2021] At the national level, which ministry is the nodal agency to ensure effective implementation of the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006?

    Options: (a) Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change
    (b) Ministry of Panchayati Raj
    (c) Ministry of Rural Development
    (d) Ministry of Tribal Affairs*

     

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  • Wetland Conservation

    Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    The SAIME Initiative, developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) in the Sundarbans of West Bengal, has been conferred Global Technical Recognition by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations.

    What is SAIME Initiative?

    • Concept: A multi-stakeholder partnership model integrating shrimp aquaculture with mangrove restoration in the Sundarbans.
    • Implementing Agencies: Developed by the Nature Environment and Wildlife Society (NEWS) with support from the Global Nature Fund (Germany), Naturland, and Bangladesh Environment & Development Society (BEDS).
    • Purpose: Promotes climate-adaptive, conservation-linked livelihoods balancing ecological health with local economic growth.
    • Implementation: Covers 29.84 hectares with 42 fish farmers, achieving 100% rise in net profits through low-input, eco-friendly methods.
    • Target Group: Focuses on climate-vulnerable coastal communities, encouraging chemical-free shrimp farming to build coastal resilience.

    Core Features and Approach:

    • Ecosystem Integration: Maintains 5–30% mangrove cover within aquaculture ponds, directly linking productivity with ecosystem restoration.
    • Community Participation: Adopts a bottom-up co-management model, involving local farmers in planning, monitoring, and benefit-sharing.
    • Sustainable Practices: Utilises mangrove litter as shrimp feed, cutting chemical dependence and improving natural nutrient cycles.
    • Climate Resilience: Mitigates cyclones, salinity intrusion, and erosion, functioning as a nature-based adaptation system.
    • Economic Efficiency: Promotes low-input, high-yield aquaculture, enhancing smallholder profitability and resource efficiency.
    • Environmental Benefits: Supports carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, and blue carbon economy objectives.
    • Global Alignment: Advances SDG-13 (Climate Action), SDG-14 (Life Below Water), and SDG-15 (Life on Land) through integrated coastal sustainability.

    About the Sundarbans:

    Sustainable Aquaculture in Mangrove Ecosystems (SAIME) Initiative

    • Location: Situated in the South and North 24-Parganas districts of West Bengal, at the southern tip of the Gangetic Delta, where the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Meghna rivers meet the Bay of Bengal.
    • Area: Currently spans 2,585.89 sq km, with an expansion proposal to 3,629.57 sq km, making it the largest mangrove forest in the world.
    • Status: Designated as a Tiger Reserve, National Park, Biosphere Reserve, and a UNESCO World Heritage Site (since 1987).
    • Topography: Characterised by a dense network of tidal creeks, estuaries, and 105 mangrove-covered islands, influenced by daily tidal inundation.
    • Flora and Fauna:
      • Flora: Dominated by Avicennia, Rhizophora, Sonneratia, and Heritiera species.
      • Fauna: Includes Royal Bengal Tiger, Fishing Cat, Estuarine Crocodile, Irrawaddy Dolphin, King Cobra, and several endangered bird species.
    • Boundaries:
      • East: Bangladesh border (Raimangal & Harinbhanga rivers)
      • South: Bay of Bengal
      • North/West: Matla, Bidya, and Gomdi rivers
    • Ecological Importance: Acts as a natural shield against cyclones and tsunamis, a carbon-rich ecosystem, and a vital nursery ground for fisheries — forming the ecological heart of India’s blue economy and coastal resilience framework.

     

    [UPSC 2023] Which one of the following is the best example of repeated falls in sea level, giving rise to present-day extensive marshland?

    Options: (a) Bhitarkanika Mangroves

    (b) Marakkanam Salt Pans

    (c) Naupada Swamp

    (d) Rann of Kutch*

     

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  • Indian Missile Program Updates

    Akash Missile System 

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T – Applications In Everyday Life

    Why in the News?

    India has pitched for the supply of the Akash missile system to Brazil.

    akash

    About Akash Missile System:

    • Overview: Developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) and manufactured by Bharat Dynamics Ltd (BDL).
    • Type: A short-range Surface-to-Air Missile (SAM) designed to defend against aircraft, UAVs, and helicopters.
    • Operational Users: Inducted by both the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force, forming part of India’s layered air defence grid.
    • Purpose: Protects vital assets from aerial threats within the short to medium range segment.
    • Deployment Mode: Mounted on mobile launchers for rapid positioning, flexibility, and operational agility.
    • Comparison: Functionally comparable to Israel’s Iron Dome, though Akash focuses on intercepting larger aerial targets rather than small projectiles.

    Key Features:

    • Range & Altitude: Effective range 4.5–25 km; altitude coverage 100 m–20 km.
    • Engagement Capacity: A single firing unit can engage four targets simultaneously in both autonomous and group modes.
    • Speed & Accuracy: Capable of high-speed interceptions with radar-guided precision.
    • Propulsion & Dimensions: Length 5.87 m, diameter 350 mm, weight 710 kg; powered by solid-fuel propulsion.
    • Automation: Fully automated system ensuring rapid reaction time from detection to neutralization.
    • ECCM Capability: Built-in Electronic Counter-Counter Measures (ECCM) to resist enemy jamming
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    Mission Drishti: World’s First Multi-sensor EO Satellite

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Indian space-tech start-up GalaxEye, based in Bengaluru, has announced the upcoming launch of Mission Drishti, the world’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, in the first quarter of 2026.

    About Mission Drishti:

    • Objective: To provide high-resolution, real-time geospatial intelligence for governments, defence, and industries across critical domains such as disaster management, infrastructure, agriculture, and national security.
    • Developer: Conceived by Bengaluru-based GalaxEye Space, an Indian space-tech start-up founded by IIT Madras alumni.
    • Nature: World’s first multi-sensor Earth Observation (EO) satellite, capable of integrating multiple imaging technologies on a single platform.
    • Launch Timeline: Scheduled for first quarter of 2026, serving as the first step in GalaxEye’s plan to deploy a constellation of 8–12 satellites by 2029.
    • Innovation: Combines Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and optical sensors for multi-dimensional imaging across all weather and lighting conditions.
    • Significance: Marks India’s largest privately built satellite and establishes India’s position in the global EO market with indigenous, high-precision imaging technology.

    Key Features:

    • Multi-Sensor Payload: Integrates SAR and optical imaging systems on one platform, a first in global satellite technology.
    • Resolution and Capacity: Offers 1.5-metre resolution, providing ultra-clear imagery for tactical and analytical applications.
    • All-Weather Operation: SAR enables imaging day and night, through cloud cover and adverse weather, ensuring continuous monitoring capability.
    • Satellite Specifications: Weighs 160 kg, making it India’s heaviest privately developed EO satellite, designed for spatial, spectral, and temporal precision.
    • Constellation Vision: Part of GalaxEye’s long-term plan to deploy 8–12 satellites by 2029 for near-real-time global coverage.
    • Applications: Defence surveillance, disaster management, infrastructure auditing, agriculture analytics, and environmental monitoring.
    [UPSC 2019] For the measurement/estimation of which of the following are satellite images/remote sensing data used?

    1. Chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location 2. Greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location 3. Land surface temperatures of a specific location

    Select the correct answer using the code given below.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3*

     

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  • Indian Missile Program Updates

    DRDO to extend Astra Mark 2’s range to 200 km

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) is developing an extended-range variant of the Astra Mark 2 beyond-visual-range (BVR) air-to-air missile.

    Astra Mark 2 Missile:

    • Overview: An indigenously developed Beyond Visual Range (BVR) air-to-air missile by the DRDO, enhancing the Indian Air Force’s long-range interception capability.
    • Lineage: Successor to Astra Mark 1 (range ~100 km); marks a leap in India’s self-reliance in advanced air combat systems.
    • Integration: Compatible with Su-30 MKI and LCA Tejas, with future integration planned for Rafale, AMCA, and TEDBF.
    • Industry Collaboration: Co-developed with over 50 industries, including Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) and Bharat Dynamics Limited (BDL).

    Key Features:

    • Dual-Pulse Propulsion: Incorporates dual-pulse solid rocket motor (vs. single-pulse in Mk-1) for sustained thrust and high terminal energy.
    • Range & Speed: Operational range of 150–200+ km, speed up to Mach 4.5, enabling engagement of fast aerial targets.
    • Guidance & Seeker: Equipped with indigenous RF seeker and Electronic Counter-Countermeasures (ECCM) for precision and survivability.
    • All-Weather & Agile: Works in day/night, adverse conditions; supports off-boresight targeting and mid-course data-link updates.
    • Stealth & Safety: Uses smokeless propulsion for reduced detectability during launch.

    Recent Upgrade:

    • Extended Range Variant: DRDO developing version exceeding 200 km, beyond initial 160 km design.
    • Strategic Parity: Comparable to Chinese PL-15 and US AIM-120D AMRAAM, reinforcing India’s deterrence capability.
    • Future Roadmap: Forms baseline for Astra Mark 3, featuring solid-fuel ducted ramjet propulsion, under Atmanirbhar Bharat in advanced missile systems.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of fight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 *

     

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  • Dams and Hydroprojects

    Naying Hydroelectric Project

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Why in the News?

    The Naying Hydroelectric Project (1000 MW), proposed on the Siyom (Yomgo) River in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh, represents a major addition to India’s clean energy expansion under the Decade of Hydro Power (2025–35).

    About Siyom (Yomgo) River:

    • Geography: A right-bank tributary of the Brahmaputra, flowing entirely within Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Origin & Course: Arises in West Siang, travels ~170 km, and joins the Brahmaputra near Assam.
    • Ecology: Basin supports rich biodiversity, agro-pastoral livelihoods, and lies within the Eastern Himalaya Biodiversity Hotspot.
    • Protected Areas: Mouling National Park lies on its eastern bank, part of the Dibang–Siang biosphere landscape.
    • Hydrological Role: Ensures irrigation, microclimate regulation, and provides run-of-the-river potential for clean energy, though demanding careful ecosystem balance.

    About Naying Hydroelectric Project:

    • Overview: A proposed 1,000 MW (4×250 MW) run-of-the-river project located in Shi-Yomi district, Arunachal Pradesh.
    • Developers: Jointly undertaken by North Eastern Electric Power Corporation (NEEPCO) and Arunachal Pradesh Hydropower Corporation Ltd (APHCL).
    • Design & Output: Features a concrete dam, underground powerhouse, and diversion tunnels, expected to generate 4,966.77 GWh annually.
    • Regulatory Approval: Received Central Electricity Authority (CEA) concurrence in 2013; progress slowed by environmental and social concerns.
    • Public Consultation: Environmental hearing scheduled for 12 November 2025 at Yapik Community Hall to assess ecological and community impacts.
    • Timeline: Construction targeted to start by 2028, with commissioning by 2032.
    • Policy Context: Forms part of the state’s Decade of Hydro Power (2025–2035), aiming for 19 GW capacity addition to support India’s net-zero goals.
    • Regional Linkages: Among five key hydel projects in the region – Heo (240 MW), Hirong (500 MW), Tato-I (186 MW), and Tato-II (700 MW).
    [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:

    Reservoirs – States

    1. Ghataprabha — Telangana

    2. Gandhi Sagar — Madhya Pradesh

    3. Indira Sagar — Andhra Pradesh

    4. Maithon —Chhattisgarh

    Options:

    (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs”

     

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