PYQ Linkage
[UPSC 2016] Examine the main provisions of the National Child Policy and throw light on the status of its implementation.
Linkage: The National Child Policy envisions ensuring survival, development, protection, and participation of every child. Initiatives like Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi, Aadharshila, and Navchetna operationalise this by transforming Anganwadis into learning hubs and focusing on early stimulation. This reflects concrete implementation of policy goals through structured ECCE and parental involvement. |
Mentor’s Comment
India’s vision of Viksit Bharat depends on nurturing its youngest citizens. By placing Early Childhood Care and Education (ECCE) at the core of policy, Anganwadi centres are being reimagined as the first classrooms, not just nutrition hubs. This editorial highlights the significance of play-based learning, the reforms underway, and their impact on social, economic, and human capital development.
Introduction
Nation-building begins where learning begins, in Anganwadis and playschools where children first explore and imagine. Since 85% of brain development occurs before six, India has prioritised structured, play-based learning. Initiatives like the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi, Aadharshila curriculum, and Navchetna framework mark a decisive shift: education is no longer seen as starting at school, but from birth itself.
Why in the News?
Play-based learning has become a national policy priority under the present government. Anganwadi workers are being trained in ECCE, and centres are evolving into early learning hubs. This marks a historic policy turn, shifting focus from higher education to the earliest years of life, where investments yield the highest returns. Evidence shows ECCE can raise IQ levels by up to 19 points and deliver 13–18% returns (Heckman), making it one of the most impactful reforms in recent times.
Reimagining Anganwadis as Learning Hubs
- Anganwadis as First Schools: Transition from nutrition centres to vibrant learning hubs.
- Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi: A flagship initiative introducing structured ECCE and play-based learning.
- Training of Workers: First-ever systematic training of Anganwadi workers in ECCE methods.
- Budgetary Support: Enhanced allocations for teaching-learning materials.
- Community Trust: Parents now view Anganwadis as the foundation of their child’s education.
Scientific Evidence Supporting ECCE
- Brain Development: NEP 2020 highlights 85% of brain growth occurs before six years.
- CMC Vellore Study: Children exposed to 18–24 months of ECCE gained up to 19 IQ points by age five, and 5–9 points by age nine.
- Global Research: Nobel Laureate James Heckman shows 13–18% returns on early childhood investments.
Ensuring Holistic Development in Early Childhood
- Aadharshila Curriculum: National ECCE framework for children aged 3–6 years.
- 5+1 Weekly Plan: Balance of free play, structured learning, creativity, motor skills, social interaction, and values.
- Focus Beyond Cognitive Skills: Emotional, social, and physical development equally emphasised.
- Outdoor Play & Emotional Bonds: Ensuring resilience, socialisation, and value-building.
Birth-to-Three: The Neglected but Crucial Stage
- Navchetna Framework: National framework for Early Childhood Stimulation.
- Parental Involvement: Empowering caregivers with play-based activities at home.
- Equity Focus: State as equaliser for low-income families lacking resources.
Play-Based Learning as a Tool for Nation-Building
- Human Capital Formation: Better prepared children ensure stronger productivity.
- Social Inclusion: ECCE bridges gaps between privileged and underprivileged children.
- Nation’s Future: Early learning reduces dropout rates and improves long-term educational outcomes.
Conclusion
If India is to realise its vision of Viksit Bharat @2047, it must begin where life begins. By making play a policy, and not merely leisure, India is reshaping its future workforce and citizens. Anganwadis as learning hubs, structured ECCE, and parental engagement are steps that will yield dividends not just in GDP growth, but in nurturing empathetic, curious, and resilient human beings. Play is no longer child’s play, it is nation-building.
Value Addition
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Anganwadis
- Scale and Reach: Over 13.9 lakh Anganwadi Centres (AWCs) functioning under the Integrated Child Development Services (ICDS), covering nearly every village/urban ward.
- Holistic Role: Provide nutrition, health check-ups, immunisation, pre-school non-formal education, and referral services — making them the convergence point for child and maternal welfare.
- Policy Integration: Central to schemes like Poshan Abhiyaan, Poshan Bhi Padhai Bhi, and the Saksham Anganwadi & Poshan 2.0.
- Early Childhood Development: With Aadharshila curriculum and Navchetna framework, AWCs are being repositioned as first schools ensuring ECCE and holistic growth.
- Empowerment of Women: Run largely by women workers (anganwadi sevikas), providing local employment, social recognition, and female leadership at the grassroots.
- Challenges: Issues of infrastructure gaps, irregular honorarium, workload burden, training deficits, and low community awareness remain barriers.
- Global Alignment: Echoes UNICEF and UNESCO emphasis on early childhood care as foundational to human capital and demographic dividend.
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Introduction
The blocking of Sci-Hub in India marks a turning point in the battle between corporate publishers and the principle of open knowledge. At the heart of the issue lies the paradox of publicly funded research locked behind exorbitant paywalls. The government’s One Nation One Subscription (ONOS) scheme, with an allocation of ₹6,000 crore, aims to democratize access to 13,000 journals for research institutions. Yet, concerns remain about its cost-effectiveness, inclusivity, and long-term sustainability.
Why is this issue in the news?
- The Delhi High Court’s verdict against Sci-Hub is a landmark moment because:
- For the first time in India, the judiciary has formally sided with publishers in the long-drawn copyright battle.
- It stands in sharp contrast with the reality that research is funded by public money but monetized by private publishers with 30%+ profit margins.
- The problem is enormous: lakhs of rupees per journal subscription make access unaffordable for many institutions, forcing dependence on Sci-Hub earlier.
- The government’s ONOS initiative is the first large-scale attempt to address structural inequities in knowledge access, but doubts persist about its ability to replace shadow libraries.
The Distinctive Nature of Scientific Publishing
- No royalties for authors: Researchers and peer reviewers are unpaid, unlike musicians or filmmakers.
- Publicly funded research: Much of Indian science is taxpayer-funded, yet access is privatized.
- Exorbitant subscriptions: Institutions pay lakhs for a single journal. Publishers justify costs via “quality control” but enjoy 30%+ profit margins, raising concerns of rent-seeking.
The Global Controversy Around Sci-Hub
- Copyright infringement: Courts in the U.S., Europe, and now India have ruled against Sci-Hub.
- Essential access tool: For countless researchers, Sci-Hub was the only means to access knowledge, especially outside elite universities.
- Contempt charges: Alexandra Elbakyan allegedly violated court orders by running Sci-Net, a mirror service.
- Declining relevance: Technical unreliability and growing open-access alternatives are reducing its utility.
The Vision of One Nation, One Subscription
- Government-led subscription: Outlay of ₹6,000 crore (2023–2026) for bulk access to 13,000 journals.
- Phase I focus: All public institutions; Phase II may include private ones.
- Equal access: Seeks to eliminate inequities between elite and smaller research centres.
- Limitations: Independent researchers and those at private centres remain excluded until Phase II.
ONOS in the Context of Global Open-Access Movements
- Global open-access movement: Over half of papers are already open access through preprints and repositories.
- U.S. policy (2026): All federally funded research must be open.
- EU Horizon Europe: Similar open-access mandate.
- India’s challenge: At a time when the world moves toward open access, ONOS risks becoming an expensive detour.
Structural Flaws in Scholarly Publishing
- Dependence on foreign publishers: ONOS continues India’s reliance on Western journals.
- Copyright transfer: Indian researchers must still give away rights to their work.
- Pay-to-publish dilemma: Funds freed at institutions may shift to open-access journals, but may ignore institutional repositories.
- Need for rights retention: Policies like Harvard/MIT (mandatory deposit in repositories) could empower Indian researchers.
Conclusion
The Sci-Hub ban highlights the persistent inequities in access to scientific knowledge. While ONOS is a step forward, it risks being a band-aid solution unless paired with deeper reforms: indigenous publishing capacity, national repositories, and copyright retention policies. India must not merely manage the symptoms of an exploitative system but must cure the disease by reclaiming knowledge as a public good.
Value Addition
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Knowledge as a Public Good
- Publicly funded research must be accessible to all because it is financed by taxpayers.
- Blocking access (through high subscription fees or court orders) creates an elitist knowledge economy.
- UN and UNESCO treat knowledge access as a pillar of Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 4: Quality Education, SDG 9: Innovation).
Economic Dimension
- Global publishers enjoy 30%+ profit margins, while Indian institutions pay lakhs per journal subscription, draining public funds.
- ONOS at ₹6,000 crore (2023–2026) represents bulk negotiation power by the state, saving scattered institutional expenditure.
- Issue of dependency on foreign publishers persists, highlighting the need for indigenous publishing ecosystems.
Global Comparisons
- U.S. (2026 mandate): All federally funded research must be openly accessible.
- EU’s Horizon Europe: Immediate open access to publications funded under the programme.
- Plan S (Europe, 2018): Publicly funded research must be published in open-access journals.
- India risks being out of sync if it over-invests in subscriptions while others move to free access models.
Technology and Governance
- ONOS = India’s experiment in e-governance for knowledge.
- Needs to integrate institutional repositories, preprint servers, and rights retention policies (like Harvard/MIT) to empower researchers.
- Can be linked with the Digital India mission, showing tech-driven democratization of services.
Ethical Dimension
- Applied Ethics of Technology: Corporate profits vs. collective social welfare.
- Moral dilemma: Should intellectual property rights override public access to life-saving or path-breaking research?
- Covid-19 demonstrated that open-access collaboration saved lives by accelerating vaccine and drug development.
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PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2024] ‘’What is the present world scenario of Intellectual Property Rights? Although India is second in the world to file patents, still only a few have been commercialized. Explain the reasons behind this less commercialization.”
Linkage: The Sci-Hub ban and ONOS scheme reflect how IPR in scientific publishing creates barriers to access despite research being publicly funded. Globally, publishers extract high profits through restrictive copyright, mirroring the broader challenge of IPR becoming a tool of rent-seeking rather than innovation. India’s weak indigenous publishing ecosystem and overdependence on foreign journals parallel the problem of low commercialization of patents—both highlight the gap between innovation output and practical accessibility/utility.
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Introduction
Online real-money gaming is no longer an innocent form of entertainment. With mechanics borrowed from gambling, variable rewards, high engagement loops, and rapid gratification, these games are engineered to create dependency. For India’s youth, this shift has manifested in addiction, financial losses, academic decline, and severe mental health crises. The government’s ban may seem like a safeguard, but the issue is deeper: India’s children deserve not just a firewall, but also psychological care, awareness, and structured support.
Online Gaming Addiction as a Pressing Concern
- Gambling-like mechanisms: Real-money games mirror casino psychology, using reward loops to sustain engagement.
- Rising cases of harm: Children have drained family bank accounts, hidden debts, and even attempted suicide due to gaming stress.
- Mental health crisis: Anxiety, depression, and suicidal ideation among adolescents point to an urgent public health issue.
The Fallout of Gaming Addiction on Families
- Toxic home environments: Addiction leads to secrecy, conflict, and breakdown of trust.
- Academic decline: Falling grades and inability to concentrate fuel further parental distress.
- Financial stress: Unexpected credit card bills or loans worsen family relations.
The Limits of Gaming Bans
- Immediate relief: Bans reduce household conflicts and financial shocks.
- Partial bans & age-gating: Allowing adults while protecting minors can delay addiction onset.
- Psychological displacement: Without therapy, children may shift to pornography, substance abuse, or compulsive social media use.
Towards a Comprehensive Strategy Against Gaming Addiction
- School-based interventions: Routine mental health screenings and workshops on digital addiction.
- Parental guidance: Training parents to spot early warning signs and encourage healthy digital habits.
- Child-friendly counselling: Access to therapy services designed for adolescents.
- Awareness campaigns: Multi-stakeholder efforts targeting students, caregivers, and teachers.
Gaming Addiction as a Behavioural Health Challenge
- Beyond discipline: Punishment or restriction alone worsens secrecy and aggression.
- Long-term healing: A behavioural approach can repair family rifts and promote healthy tech use.
- Balanced future: Children should grow up with resilience, not dependency, in digital spaces.
Way Forward: Towards a Balanced Approach
- Public Health Lens: Treat gaming addiction as a behavioural health issue with school screenings, awareness drives, and accessible counselling.
- Smart Regulation: Use age-gating, spending caps, and parental consent instead of blanket bans.
- Global Lessons:
- China: Strict weekly limits → relief but drove youth to unregulated platforms.
- UK/EU: Regulate loot boxes as gambling → targeted, flexible control.
- South Korea: Late-night gaming ban + rehab centres → balance of restriction and support.
- India’s Path: A middle way combining safeguards with education and digital literacy, avoiding both overregulation and laissez-faire neglect.
Conclusion
India’s youth deserve more than prohibitionist measures. A firewall can block access, but not heal emotional wounds. True protection lies in combining thoughtful regulation with robust mental health programmes, counselling, and awareness. Only then can families find balance and children grow with a healthier relationship to technology.
PYQ Relevance
[UPSC 2023] “Child cuddling is now being replaced by mobile phones. Discuss its impact on the socialization of children.”
Linkage: Online real-money gaming, like mobile phones, is replacing natural child–parent interaction with addictive digital engagement. This weakens socialization, fuels secrecy and conflict within families, and erodes trust. Both highlight how technology-driven dependence disrupts healthy emotional development in children.
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Why in the News?
India is set to participate with over 700 personnel from tri-services for 19th edition of Exercise Bright Star 2025 in Egypt.
About Exercise Bright Star:
- Origin: Began in 1980 as a US–Egypt bilateral drill after the Egypt–Israel peace treaty.
- Nature: Now one of the largest and longest-running multinational tri-service military exercises in the Middle East.
- Frequency: Held biennially in Egypt with the United States as the principal partner.
- Objectives:
- Enhance regional security and stability.
- Improve jointness, interoperability, and operational coordination among partner nations.
Key Highlights of the 2025 Edition:
- Scale: Approximate 7,900 troops from 43 nations.
- 13 countries directly deploying troops.
- 30 countries participating as observers.
- Strategic Significance:
- Builds defence cooperation between India, Egypt, US, and partner nations.
- Important amid West Asia, Red Sea, and Gulf security challenges.
| [UPSC 2024] Which of the following statements about ‘Exercise Mitra Shakti-2023’ are correct?
1. This was a joint military exercise between India and Bangladesh.
2. It commenced in Aundh (Pune).
3. Joint response during counter-terrorism operations was a goal of this operation.
4. Indian Air Force was a part of this exercise.
Select the answer using the code given below:
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 (b) 1 and 4 (c) 1 and 4 (d) 2, 3 and 4* |
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Why in the News?
A recent IIT Indore study shows that climate change has caused a 10% shrinkage in the Gangotri Glacier System over four decades, altering snowmelt and hydrology.
About Gangotri Glacier System (GGS):
- Location: Uttarkashi District, Uttarakhand, in the Central Garhwal Himalayas.
- Origin: Near the Chaukhamba massif at ~7,000 metres above sea level.
- Size: Main trunk 30–32 km long, 2–4 km wide, with a total glacierized area of ~252 sq. km.
- Snout: Known as Gaumukh (“cow’s mouth”), source of the Bhagirathi River, which later merges with the Alaknanda at Devprayag to form the Ganga.
- Tributaries: Includes Chaturangi, Raktavarn, Meru, Rudugaira, Kedar, and Vasuki glaciers.
- Type: Valley-type glacier with granite, gneiss, and schist bedrock.
- Features: Moraines, supraglacial lakes, crevasses, and avalanche fans.
- Debris Cover: 20–24% of the glacier area is debris-covered, affecting melting rates.
Key Findings of the IIT Indore Study (1980–2020):
- Flow Contribution: Snowmelt 64%, glacier melt 21%, rainfall-runoff 11%, base flow 4%.
- Decline in Snowmelt Share: From 73% in 1980–90 to 63% in 2010–20, reflecting climate change impact.
- Temperature Rise: Mean annual temperature increased by 0.5°C in 2001–2020 compared to 1980–2000.
- Shift in Peak Discharge: From August to July since the 1990s due to earlier melting and reduced winter precipitation.
- Snowmelt Rebound: During 2010–2020, colder winters (–2°C) and higher winter precipitation (262 mm) increased snow accumulation.
| [UPSC 2019] Consider the following pairs:
Glacier: River
1. Bandarpunch -Yamuna
2. Bara Shigri -Chenab
3. Milam -Mandakini
4. Siachen -Nubra
5. Zemu -Manas
Which of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) 1, 2 and 4* (b) 1, 3 and 4 (c) 2 and 5 (d) 3 and 5 |
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Why in the News?
SpaceX’s Starship has completed its first fully successful test flight after a series of failures.
About SpaceX Starship:
- Design: A two-stage heavy-lift launch vehicle built to carry crew and cargo to Earth orbit, the Moon, Mars, and beyond.
- Developer: SpaceX, founded by Elon Musk, with the vision of enabling interplanetary travel and colonisation.
- Size: Nearly 120 metres tall with booster, making it the largest rocket ever built and flown. Taller than Saturn V (111 m) and India’s Qutub Minar (72.5 m).
- Historic Test Flight: On 27 August 2025, achieved its first fully successful flight. Booster splashed down in the Gulf of Mexico, spacecraft reached the Indian Ocean.
- Role in NASA Missions: Critical to Artemis Program for returning humans to the Moon and later missions to Mars.
- Long-term Goal: Make Starship fully and rapidly reusable, cutting costs and redefining space travel.
Key Features of Starship:
- Two-Stage Rocket System:
- Super Heavy booster powered by 33 Raptor engines generating 74 meganewtons of thrust, nearly double NASA’s SLS and twice Saturn V.
- Engines burn liquid oxygen and methane, enabling deep-space use and Mars resource utilisation.
- Booster fully reusable, capable of atmospheric re-entry and recovery.
- Six Raptor engines and four landing fins, designed for full reusability on long-duration missions.
- Payload Capacity: Can carry up to 150 tonnes to Low-Earth Orbit and over 100 tonnes to the Moon and Mars, more than all soft-landed lunar payloads combined.
- Cost Reduction Potential: Estimated to deliver 100 tonnes of cargo to Mars for ~$50 million, compared to NASA Shuttle’s $1.5 billion per launch with far less payload.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following space missions:
I. Axiom-4 II. SpaDeX III. Gaganyaan
How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All the three* (d) None |
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Why in the News?
Two Indian aquanauts dived over 5,000 m in the Atlantic aboard French vessel Nautile, as part of India’s Samudrayaan Mission.
What is Deep Ocean Mission (DOM)?
- Approved: 2021 by the Union Cabinet, with a budget of ₹4,077 crore for 5 years.
- Aim: Explore, conserve, and sustainably use deep-ocean resources to support India’s Blue Economy.
- Six Components:
- Develop technologies for deep-sea mining, submersibles, and robotics.
- Ocean climate change advisory service with observations + predictive models.
- Deep-sea biodiversity exploration and conservation.
- Surveys for polymetallic nodules and minerals.
- Energy & freshwater extraction technologies from oceans.
- Advanced Marine Station for ocean biology & engineering → to bridge research & industry.
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About Samudrayaan Mission:
- Nature: India’s first crewed deep-sea exploration mission.
- Objective: To send 3 humans up to 6,000 m depth into the central Indian Ocean by 2027.
- Vehicle: Crewed submersible Matsya-6000 (fish-shaped, 2.1 m personal sphere).
- Capacity: 3 aquanauts.
- Endurance: 12 hours normal + 96 hours emergency life support.
- Material: Titanium alloy sphere (80 mm thickness) to withstand ~600x atmospheric pressure.
- Coordinating Agency: National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT), Ministry of Earth Sciences.
- Strategic Significance: Will place India among a select group of countries (US, Russia, China, Japan, France) with human deep-sea exploration capability.
Progress made so far:
- Aquanaut Training: Discussed above.
- Matsya-6000 Development:
- Successfully wet tested in Feb 2025.
- Titanium alloy sphere fabrication ongoing at ISRO using electron beam welding.
- Initial steel test sphere used for 500 m trials.
- Technology Development:
- Indigenous acoustic telephone built for underwater communication (works in open ocean after initial failures).
- Life-support systems designed to maintain 20% oxygen and scrub CO₂.
- Next Steps:
- Human test dive at 500 m depth planned before full 6,000 m mission.
- Full Samudrayaan launch targeted by 2027.
| [UPSC 2021] Consider the following statements:
1.The Global Ocean Commission grants licenses for seabed exploration and mining in international waters.
2.India has received licenses for seabed mineral exploration in international waters.
3. ‘Rare earth minerals’ are present on the seafloor in international waters.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
Options:(a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3 |
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Why in the news?
Floods hit Punjab villages due to heavy rain in Himachal, high dam discharges (Bhakra, Pong, Ranjit Sagar), and regulated headworks flow.
About the Rivers, Dams, and Headworks of Punjab:
| River |
Origin & Entry into Punjab |
Major Dam (Location & Key Facts) |
Headworks & Functions |
| Sutlej |
Origin: Rakshastal Lake (Tibet); enters India at Shipki La (HP); enters Punjab at Rupnagar; joins Beas at Harike, then Chenab in Pakistan. |
Bhakra Dam (near Nangal, HP–Punjab border).
One of India’s highest gravity dams; reservoir = Gobind Sagar Lake; irrigation + hydropower. |
Ropar: Feeds Sirhind & BML canals (Punjab + Haryana).
Harike: Diverts Sutlej–Beas water to Rajasthan & Punjab canals.
Hussainiwala: Feeds Bikaner & Eastern Canals (Punjab + Rajasthan). |
| Beas |
Origin: Beas Kund (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Mukerian (Hoshiarpur); flows via Hoshiarpur, Gurdaspur, Tarn Taran, Amritsar. |
Pong Dam (Maharana Pratap Sagar), HP (Kangra).
Major irrigation + power dam; supplies Harike. |
Harike: Regulates Beas + Sutlej water; feeds Rajasthan & Punjab canals. |
| Ravi |
Origin: Bara Banghal (Rohtang Pass, HP); enters Punjab near Pathankot; flows via Pathankot, Gurdaspur;
Enters Pakistan and joins Chenab. |
Ranjit Sagar Dam (Thein Dam), Pathankot (Punjab–J&K border). Irrigation + hydropower. |
Madhopur: Feeds UBDC canal (Punjab).
Madhopur–Beas Link: Transfers surplus Ravi to Beas before Pakistan. |
| [UPSC 2021] With reference to the Indus river system, among the following four rivers, one of them joins the Indus directly:
Options: (a) Chenab (b) Jhelum (c) Ravi (d) Sutlej* |
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Why in the News?
The Union Cabinet has approved the restructuring and extension of the Prime Minister Street Vendor’s Atmanirbhar Nidhi (PM SVANidhi) scheme.
About PM SVANidhi Scheme:
- Launch: June 1, 2020, as Central Sector Scheme fully funded by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA).
- Purpose: To provide affordable credit to street vendors hit hard by the Covid-19 pandemic and help them restart/expand their businesses.
- Target Group: Urban street vendors in statutory towns and peri-urban/rural areas.
- Extension: Restructured and extended up to March 31, 2030.
- Beneficiaries: 1.15 crore vendors, including 50 lakh new ones.
Key Features:
- Collateral-free Loans (incremental):
- 1st tranche: ₹15,000 (earlier ₹10,000).
- 2nd tranche: ₹25,000 (earlier ₹20,000).
- 3rd tranche: ₹50,000.
- Digital Empowerment:
- Timely 2nd loan repayment → eligibility for UPI-linked RuPay Credit Card (for emergent business/personal needs).
- Digital cashback incentives up to ₹1,600 on retail & wholesale transactions.
- Capacity Building:
- Training in entrepreneurship, financial literacy, digital skills, and marketing.
- Food safety & hygiene training for street food vendors (with FSSAI partnership).
- Implementation:
- Jointly by MoHUA & Department of Financial Services (DFS).
- DFS facilitates loans & credit cards through banks/financial institutions.
- Wider Goals:
- Promote financial inclusion & digital adoption.
- Enable vendors’ business expansion & sustainable growth.
- Contribute to inclusive urban economic development.
| [UPSC 2011] Microfinance is the provision of financial services to people of low-income groups. This includes both the consumers and the self-employed. The service/services rendered under microfinance is/are:
1. Credit facilities 2. Savings facilities 3. Insurance facilities 4. Fund Transfer facilities
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 1 and 4 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4* |
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