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Judicial Reforms

[17th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Judicial Experimentalism versus the Right to Justice

op-ed snap | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2024] Starting from inventing the ‘basic structure’ doctrine, the judiciary has played a highly proactive role in ensuring that India develops into a thriving democracy. In light of the statement, evaluate the role played by judicial activism in achieving the ideals of democracy.

Linkage: The recent “cooling period” ruling in Shivangi Bansal (2025) shows the judiciary’s proactive, sometimes overreaching, role in experimenting with safeguards beyond legislative intent. While judicial activism has often upheld democracy by protecting rights (e.g., Kesavananda Bharati, Arnesh Kumar), such interventions can also compromise access to justice. Thus, the case illustrates both the potential and pitfalls of judicial activism in strengthening democratic ideals.

Mentor’s Comment

The Supreme Court’s recent endorsement of the Allahabad High Court’s guidelines introducing a “cooling period” before action in matrimonial cruelty cases (formerly Section 498A IPC, now Section 85 BNS) has sparked a heated debate. While the move aims to check misuse of law, critics argue it undermines a victim’s right to prompt justice. This article analyses the issue through the lens of judicial experimentalism, statutory intent, and the balance between liberty and justice, an important discussion for UPSC aspirants studying the interface of law, rights, and institutional reforms.

Introduction

Section 498A IPC was enacted to protect women from cruelty in matrimonial settings. However, fears of its misuse led courts and lawmakers to build safeguards against arbitrary arrests and frivolous cases. The recent Supreme Court ruling in Shivangi Bansal vs Sahib Bansal (2025) has endorsed a two-month “cooling period” and referral to Family Welfare Committees (FWCs) before action is taken on complaints. While it echoes earlier judicial experiments, critics highlight that such directions compromise victims’ right to timely justice and extend judicial power beyond legislative intent.

Judicial Experimentalism Versus Right to Justice

Why is this ruling in the news?

The ruling is significant because, for the first time since the rollback of Rajesh Sharma guidelines in 2018, the Supreme Court has revived the idea of FWCs and delayed coercive action through a “cooling period.” This marks a sharp contrast with previous judicial positions that upheld victims’ right to prompt redressal. The problem is big: over 1.4 lakh cases registered under Section 498A in 2022 (NCRB) yet with declining arrests, showing safeguards were already in place. Introducing new hurdles raises questions on judicial overreach and justice delivery.

Why was Section 498A enacted?

  1. Objective: Punish cruelty against women in matrimonial homes.
  2. Protection intent: Safeguard women from physical, mental, and emotional abuse by husband and family.
  3. Concerns of misuse: Courts acknowledged misuse through false FIRs and arrests, which led to checks and procedural safeguards.

What safeguards already existed against misuse?

  1. Lalita Kumari (2013): Classified matrimonial disputes under ‘preliminary inquiry’ before FIR registration.
  2. CrPC amendment (2008): Introduced the ‘principle of necessity’ in arrests.
  3. Arnesh Kumar (2014): Checklist for police; mandatory notice for appearance before arrest.
  4. Satender Kumar Antil (2022): Strengthened protection by ensuring bail if arrest directions were violated.
  5. Impact: NCRB shows while cases increased (1,13,403 in 2015 → 1,40,019 in 2022), arrests fell (1,87,067 → 1,45,095).

How does the “cooling period” affect justice delivery?

  1. Delay in action: Victims must wait two months before any coercive step is taken.
  2. Denial of prompt redressal: Even after FIR, police cannot act, worsening victim’s plight.
  3. Institutional overreach: FWCs lack statutory backing, leading to ambiguity about their jurisdiction and powers.
  4. Historical lesson: Similar FWC directions in Rajesh Sharma (2017) were termed “regressive” and rolled back by Social Action Forum for Manav Adhikar (2018).

What does this mean for judicial experimentalism?

  1. Judicial innovation vs legislative intent: Experimentation may be progressive but must not override statutory design.
  2. Checks already in place: With safeguards from CrPC amendments, Arnesh Kumar and Satender Kumar Antil, additional hurdles appear unnecessary.
  3. Risk of regressive rollback: Echoes earlier failed experiments that compromised women’s access to justice.

Conclusion

The Supreme Court’s endorsement of the Allahabad High Court’s “cooling period” in Section 498A cases reflects judicial anxiety over misuse of law but risks undermining victim protection, the very intent of the provision. With sufficient safeguards already in place, the ruling revives debates on judicial overreach and calls for revisiting its implications. Justice must balance the liberty of the accused with the victim’s right to immediate redressal, without diluting either.

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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

Unseen labour, exploitation: the hidden human cost of Artificial Intelligence

Explained | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Introduction

The promise of AI as an automated, error-free technology often masks the unseen human labour that makes it possible. From labelling raw data to moderating harmful content, “ghost workers” form the backbone of AI ecosystems. Yet, their contributions remain invisible, underpaid, and unprotected. The debate on AI is incomplete without recognising the human cost of automation, a matter of global ethics, labour rights, and governance.

The Hidden Human Cost of AI

Why is AI’s invisible labour in the news?

AI companies, especially in Silicon Valley, outsource essential annotation and moderation work to low-paid workers in developing countries. Recent revelations of exploitative conditions, such as Kenyan workers earning less than $2 an hour for traumatic tasks like filtering violent content, have exposed the dark underbelly of AI. This has amplified global concerns about modern-day slavery, violation of labour rights, and the absence of legal safeguards in AI supply chains.

Areas of Human Involvement in AI

  1. Data Annotation: Machines cannot interpret meaning; humans label text, audio, video, and images to train AI models.
  2. Training LLMs: Models like ChatGPT and Gemini depend on supervised learning and reinforcement learning, requiring annotators to correct errors, jailbreaks, and refine responses.
  3. Subject Expertise Gap: Workers without domain knowledge label complex data, e.g., Kenyan annotators labelling medical scans, leading to inaccurate AI outputs.

Are Automated Features Truly Automated?

  1. Content Moderation: Social media “filters” rely on humans reviewing sensitive content (pornography, beheadings, bestiality). This causes severe mental health risks like PTSD, anxiety, and depression.
  2. AI-Generated Media: Voice actors, children, and performers record human sounds and actions for training datasets.
  3. Case Study (2024): Kenyan workers wrote to U.S. President Biden describing their labour as “modern-day slavery.”

What Challenges Do Workers Face?

  1. Poor Wages: Less than $2/hour compared to global standards.
  2. Harsh Conditions: Tight deadlines of a few seconds/minutes per task; strict surveillance; risk of instant termination.
  3. Union Busting: Workers raising concerns are dismissed, with collective bargaining actively suppressed.
  4. Fragmented Supply Chains: Work outsourced via intermediary digital platforms; lack of transparency about the actual employer.

Why Is This a Global Governance Issue:

  1. Exploitation in Developing Countries: Kenya, India, Pakistan, Philippines, and China host the bulk of annotators, highlighting global North-South labour inequities.
  2. Digital Labour Standards: Current international labour frameworks inadequately cover digital gig work.
  3. Ethical Responsibility: Big Tech profits from AI breakthroughs while invisibilising the labour behind them.
  4. Need for Regulation: Stricter global and national laws must ensure fair pay, transparency, and dignity at work.

Way Forward

  1. Transparency Mandates: Disclosure of supply chains by tech companies.
  2. Fair Labour Standards: Minimum wages, occupational safety norms, and psychological health safeguards.
  3. Recognition of Workers: From “ghost workers” to “digital labour force.”
  4. Global Collaboration: Similar to climate treaties, AI labour governance requires multilateral regulation.

Conclusion

Artificial Intelligence is not fully autonomous—it rests on millions of invisible workers whose exploitation challenges the ethics of the digital age. For India and the world, the future of AI must balance innovation with human dignity, equity, and justice. Without recognising and regulating this labour, the AI revolution risks deepening global inequalities.

Value Addition

Global Frameworks and Conventions

  1. ILO Convention 190 (2019): Addresses workplace violence and harassment — highly relevant to content moderators exposed to graphic/traumatic data.
  2. ILO Recommendation 204: Transition from informal to formal economy — ghost workers are currently informal, with no rights.
  3. UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (2011): Corporate duty to respect human rights across supply chains, including digital gig platforms.
  4. EU Artificial Intelligence Act (2025): First comprehensive law regulating AI systems; includes risk categories and human oversight.
  5. Santa Clara Principles (2018): Framework for transparency, accountability, and due process in online content moderation.

Conceptual Tools and Keywords

  1. Digital Colonialism: Global North exploits cheap digital labour in Global South for AI systems.
  2. Surveillance Capitalism (Shoshana Zuboff): Big Tech monetises personal data and labour while eroding privacy and dignity.
  3. Platform Precarity: Gig workers face algorithmic control, constant surveillance, and lack of social protection.
  4. Ghost Work (Mary Gray & Siddharth Suri, 2019): Term for invisible human labour powering AI systems.
  5. Cognitive Labour: Work that relies on human judgment, emotional resilience, and meaning-making (beyond physical labour).
  6. Algorithmic Management: Use of algorithms to allocate, monitor, and discipline workers—stripping them of agency.
  7. Ethics of Invisibility: Recognition gap when workers’ contributions are hidden, making justice claims difficult.

Reports and Studies

  1. Oxford Internet Institute (2019, “Ghost Work”): Estimated millions of hidden workers behind AI, mainly in developing countries.
  2. WEF Future of Jobs Report (2023): Warned of AI-induced job displacements alongside new digital gig work.
  3. ILO Report on Digital Labour Platforms (2021): Documented widespread exploitation, lack of contracts, and cross-border regulatory challenges.

Indian Context

  1. Code on Social Security, 2020: Recognises gig and platform workers, but still weak on implementation.
  2. NITI Aayog Report on “India’s Booming Gig and Platform Economy” (2022): Predicts 23.5 million gig workers by 2030.
  3. Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Regulates data, but silent on labour rights of those who process AI data.
  4. India’s AI Mission (National Strategy for AI, NITI Aayog): Envisions “AI for All” but doesn’t sufficiently cover labour dimensions.

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2023] Introduce the concept of Artificial Intelligence (AI). How does Al help clinical diagnosis? Do you perceive any threat to privacy of the individual in the use of Al in healthcare?

Linkage: AI aids clinical diagnosis by analysing medical scans and predicting outcomes with high accuracy, but it relies on human annotators to label sensitive data. The article shows how even untrained workers in Kenya were tasked with labelling medical scans, raising concerns of reliability. Such outsourcing also heightens the risk of privacy violations in handling patient data across insecure global supply chains.

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Topography, climate change: Behind heavy rains in Himalayas

Explained | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Introduction

Extreme rainfall in Uttarakhand over the past week has triggered multiple landslides, swelling rivers and leading to the loss of at least 15 lives. While such events have always occurred in the Himalayan belt during the monsoon, the frequency, intensity, and unpredictability of these disasters have sharply increased in recent years. This phenomenon is closely linked to climate change, altered monsoon dynamics, and the fragile geology of the region.

Why in the News?

Uttarakhand and parts of Himachal Pradesh have witnessed back-to-back extreme rainfall events over the last month, leading to landslides, mudslides, flash floods, and large-scale disruption. The striking fact is not just the death toll, but the scale of surplus rainfall, 34% above normal in August and 67% above normal in early September. Such heavy rainfall, while common in coastal states like Kerala or Meghalaya, is catastrophic in the Himalayas where steep slopes, loose soil, and fragile ecosystems amplify the risks.

Why is rainfall unusually high in Uttarakhand this season?

  1. Active monsoon systems: Consecutive low-pressure systems from the Bay of Bengal have travelled farther north than usual, dumping large amounts of rain in the Himalayan belt.
  2. Surplus rainfall data: Northwestern India received 34% surplus rainfall in August and over 67% surplus rainfall in early September.
  3. Record-breaking events: Udhampur (J&K) recorded 630 mm in 24 hours, equivalent to a year’s rainfall in Rajkot, Gujarat; Leh recorded 59 mm in 48 hours, highest since 1973.

Why are hilly regions more vulnerable to disasters?

  1. Fragile geology: Extreme rainfall triggers landslides, mudslides, and flash floods as rainwater drags soil, rocks, and debris downhill.
  2. River choke-points: When streams are blocked, water gushes into settlements, destroying roads and bridges.
  3. Comparative impact: While 300 mm of rain in Goa or Kerala drains into the sea, the same amount in Uttarakhand leads to catastrophic slope failure.
  4. Recent examples: Landslides across Mandi, Kullu, Dharali, Tharali, and Jammu in the past two weeks illustrate cascading effects.

How is climate change altering monsoon dynamics?

  1. Southward shift of western disturbances: Once dominant in winters, these systems are increasingly interacting with the summer monsoon, intensifying rainfall events in the Himalayas.
  2. Global warming: Rising temperatures are linked to changing wind patterns and higher atmospheric moisture.
  3. Arctic connection: Melting Arctic sea ice may be influencing jet streams, further complicating rainfall behaviour.
  4. Future risks: Longer dry spells interspersed with intense rainfall events are likely to define Himalayan monsoons.

What does this mean for Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh?

  1. Human cost: Frequent deaths, loss of livelihoods, and displacement.
  2. Economic disruption: Road blockages, tourism losses, and damage to hydro projects.
  3. Policy challenge: Need for climate-resilient infrastructure, stricter land-use regulations, and predictive weather modelling.

Conclusion

The Uttarakhand landslides are a grim reminder that the Himalayas, often called the “third pole”, are at the frontline of climate change. Extreme rainfall patterns, when coupled with unregulated urbanization and fragile geology, amplify disaster risks. Building climate-resilient infrastructure, enhancing early warning systems, and ensuring ecological sensitivity in planning are essential for safeguarding lives and livelihoods in these vulnerable mountain states.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2017] ‘Climate Change’ is a global problem. How India will be affected by climate change? How Himalayan and coastal states of India will be affected by climate change?

Linkage: The Uttarakhand landslides highlight how Himalayan states are increasingly vulnerable to climate change–induced extreme rainfall, cloudbursts, and landslides due to fragile geology. Similarly, coastal states face rising sea levels, cyclones, and saline intrusion, threatening lives and livelihoods. Thus, climate change amplifies both mountain hazards and coastal vulnerabilities, making India’s geography uniquely exposed.

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Blockchain Technology: Prospects and Challenges

What are Stablecoins?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Globally, stablecoins face regulatory scrutiny; the Bank of England has proposed ownership limits (£10k–£20k for individuals, £10m for businesses) to reduce banking system risks.

About Stablecoins:

  • Definition: Cryptocurrencies designed to maintain stable value, usually pegged to fiat currency, commodities, or other crypto.
  • Role: Provide price stability, often used to park profits or enable fast, low-cost cross-border transactions without intermediaries.
  • Use: Rarely for retail payments; mainly act as a bridge asset within crypto markets.
  • Types:
    • Fiat-backed (e.g., Tether/USDT).
    • Commodity-backed (gold, silver, oil).
    • Crypto-backed (collateralised by other cryptos).
    • Algorithmic (peg maintained via programmed supply-demand adjustments).
  • Example: Tether (USDT) backed in theory by cash and US Treasuries.
  • Market Growth: Could rise tenfold to $2 trillion by 2028 (Standard Chartered, Apr 2025).

Risks Associated with Stablecoins:

  • Financial Stability Risk: Vulnerable to bank-run scenarios. Example: TerraUSD collapse (2022) lost 60% peg value.
  • Banking System Impact: Can drain deposits from banks, reducing lending capacity.
  • BIS Concerns:
    • Singleness: Deviations from fiat peg in secondary markets.
    • Elasticity: Limited expansion due to reserve requirements.
    • Integrity: Weak KYC, enabling money laundering, terror financing.
  • Cybersecurity: DeFi-linked stablecoins prone to hacking and theft.
  • Regulatory Gaps: Lack of uniform global standards leads to fraud and accountability issues.

Global Regulatory Approaches:

  • United States, GENIUS Act (2025): Only insured financial institutions may issue; must hold 1:1 low-risk reserves; AML/CFT compliance required.
  • European Union, MiCA (2024): Regulates E-money Tokens (EMTs) and Asset-Referenced Tokens (ARTs); issuers restricted to authorised EU firms; strict reserve and consumer protection.
  • Hong Kong, Stablecoin Ordinance (2025): Licensing by HK Monetary Authority; full high-quality liquid reserves; strict audits and AML/CFT rules.
  • United Kingdom, Bank of England: Proposed ownership limits to prevent rapid deposit outflows and maintain financial stability.
[UPSC 2016] With reference to ‘Bitcoins’, sometimes seen in the news, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. Bitcoins are tracked by the Central Banks of the countries.

2. Anyone with a Bitcoin address can send and receive Bitcoins from anyone else with a Bitcoin address.

3. Online payments can be sent without either side knowing the identity of the other.

Select the correct answer using the code given below.

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

 

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

What is Portable Ion Chromatography?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

Australian scientists have developed a simpler, portable version of ion chromatography called Aquamonitrix, enabling field-based analysis of nitrate and nitrite ions.

About Ion Chromatography:

  • Overview: A laboratory technique used to separate and measure ions (charged particles) in a sample.
  • Process: A liquid sample is passed through a long column that separates ions based on their properties.
  • Equipment: Requires large, complex, and costly lab machines.
  • Use in Environment: Detects harmful ions like nitrate and nitrite that pollute soil and water.

What is Aquamonitrix?

  • Overview: A portable ion chromatograph designed by the University of Tasmania (Australia).
  • Features: Small, battery-operated, and nearly 10 times cheaper than lab equipment.
  • Testing: Students tested it on soil pore water, measuring nitrate and nitrite levels accurately when compared with lab results.
  • How it Works?
    • Soil water collected with a vacuum pump and filtered.
    • Water injected into the Aquamonitrix unit.
    • Uses a sodium chloride solution to carry the sample.
    • Equipped with a UV light detector, showing nitrate and nitrite as clear peaks.
    • Simpler design avoids messy interference from multiple ions.

Applications:

  • Environment: Monitoring nitrate and nitrite pollution in soil and water.
  • Agriculture: Helps optimise fertiliser use and reduce overuse.
  • Water Safety: Tests drinking water quality on site.
  • Education: Serves as a teaching tool linking classroom to real-world chemistry.
[UPSC 2024] “Membrane Bioreactors” are often discussed in the context of:

Options: (a) Assisted reproductive technologies

(b) Drug delivery nanotechnologies

(c) Vaccine production technologies

(d) Wastewater treatment technologies*

 

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Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

Nankana Sahib Pilgrimage

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The Union Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) has directed State governments not to process applications for Sikh pilgrims’ visit to Nankana Sahib, Pakistan, for the November 2025 birth anniversary (Parkash Gurpurab) of Guru Nanak Dev Ji.

About Nankana Sahib:

  • Location: Punjab province, Pakistan, near Lahore.
  • Historical Significance: Birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469). Earlier called Rai-Bhoi-Di Talwandi; renamed Nankana Sahib in his honour.
  • Major Shrines:
    • Gurdwara Janam Asthan: Built over Guru Nanak’s birthplace by Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1818–19).
    • Other sites: Gurdwara Patti Sahib, Bal Leela, Mal Ji Sahib, Kiara Sahib, Tambu Sahib, and shrines linked to Guru Arjan (5th Guru) and Guru Hargobind (6th Guru).
  • Cultural Relevance: Pilgrimage site for millions of Sikhs globally; integral to the annual Parkash Gurpurab commemorations.

About Guru Nanak Dev Ji (1469–1539):

  • Birth & Early Life: Born in 1469 at Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib). Enlightened at Sultanpur Lodhi in 1496.
  • Teachings: Rejected rituals, caste hierarchy, and idol worship; emphasised devotion to one formless God (Nirankar).
  • Core Philosophy:
    • Three Pillars: Naam Japna (remembrance of God), Kirat Karna (honest work), Vand Chhakna (sharing with others).
    • Equality & Justice: Advocated gender equality, social service (Seva), and community dining (Langar).
    • Message: “Ek Onkar Satnam”, Oneness of God and humanity.
  • Death: Passed away in 1539 at Kartarpur Sahib (now in Pakistan). Appointed Guru Angad Dev Ji as successor.
[UPSC 2013] Consider the following Bhakti Saints:

1. Dadu Dayal

2. Guru Nanak

3. Tyagaraja

Which among the above was/were preaching when the Lodi Dynasty fell and Babur took over?

Options: (a) 1 and 3 (b) 2 only* (c) 2 and 3 (d) 1 and 2

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Sarnath and UNESCO Nomination

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

ASI will install a revised plaque at Sarnath, crediting Babu Jagat Singh (1787–88) for uncovering its archaeological importance, rather than British archaeologists.

About Sarnath:

  • Location: Near Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, at the confluence of the Ganga and Varuna rivers.
  • Religious Importance: After enlightenment at Bodh Gaya, Gautama Buddha delivered the Dhammachakkappavattana Sutta (First Sermon) here in 528 BCE to five disciples, laying the foundation of the Sangha.
  • Key Monuments:
    1. Dhamek Stupa (built c. 500 CE, 39 m high, 28 m diameter).
    2. Ashoka Pillar with Lion Capital (India’s national emblem) and Ashoka Chakra.
    3. Chaukhandi Stupa (Gupta era; octagonal tower added in Mughal period).
    4. Mulagandha Kuti Vihar with frescoes of Buddha’s life.
    5. Sarnath Archaeological Museum with the original Lion Capital and Buddhist sculptures.
  • Archaeology: Excavations over 200 years, including B. R. Mani (2013–14), show Buddhist activity even before Ashoka.
  • Holy Site: One of Buddhism’s Four Holy Places (others: Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Kushinagar).
  • Historic Role: By the 7th century CE, Sarnath hosted 30 monasteries and over 3,000 monks, flourishing under Mauryan, Kushan, and Gupta patronage.

Plaque Controversy and ASI Action:

  • Current Plaque: Credits Mr Duncan and Col. E. Mackenzie (1798) for exposing Sarnath, followed by excavations by Cunningham, Kittoe, Oertel, Marshall, Hargreaves, and Sahni.
  • Jagat Singh Claim: Descendant of Babu Jagat Singh (of Benares ruler Chait Singh’s family) petitioned ASI, arguing he first exposed Sarnath’s remains in 1787–88 during a digging exercise.
  • ASI’s Response: ASI confirmed revision; a corrected plaque will be installed soon. Officials noted many pre-1861 plaques reflected British biases.
  • Artifacts: Jagat Singh’s digging uncovered a casket with Buddha relics, now partly housed in the Asiatic Society, Kolkata.

Cultural Significance:

  • UNESCO Nomination: Officially proposed for the World Heritage List (2025–26 cycle) after 27 years on the tentative list.
  • Policy Context: India projects itself as the land of Buddha; recently issued notices to stop auctions of Buddhist relics abroad.
[UPSC 2019] In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka?

Options: (a) Kanganahalli* (b) Sanchi I (c) Shahbazgarhi (d) Sohgaura

 

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Pension Reforms

Unified Pension Scheme (UPS)

Schemes | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Why in the News?

The Centre has approved the Unified Pension Scheme, starting Apr 2025, with NPS employees allowed to switch till Sept 30, 2025.

About Unified Pension Scheme (UPS):

  • Launch & Applicability: Announced in August 2024; implemented from 1 April 2025. Applicable to central govt employees who joined service after 1 January 2004 (those under NPS).
  • Nature: Hybrid pension system combining features of the assured benefit of OPS and the contributory model of NPS.
  • Assured Pension: 50% of the average basic pay drawn in the last 12 months before retirement, with minimum 25 years of service.
  • Minimum Pension: ₹10,000/month assured after 10 years of service.
  • Family Pension: 60% of pension last drawn, payable to spouse on retiree’s death.
  • Contributions: Employee contributes 10% of basic pay + Dearness Allowances (DA); govt contributes 10% + an additional 8.5% towards a pooled corpus.
  • Lump Sum at Retirement: 1/10th of last pay + DA for every completed six months of service, in addition to gratuity.
  • Inflation Indexation: DA-linked relief on pensions, tied to CPI-IW.
  • Flexibility: Employees may choose between NPS and UPS, but once shifted, re-entry into UPS is not allowed.

Difference between OPS, NPS and UPS:

Old Pension Scheme (OPS) National Pension System (NPS) Unified Pension Scheme (UPS)
Type Defined Benefit Defined Contribution (market-linked) Hybrid (Defined + Contribution)
Employee Contribution None 10% of Basic + DA 10% of Basic + DA
Govt Contribution Entire burden on govt 14% of Basic + DA 10% + 8.5% pooled corpus
Assured Pension 50% of last drawn pay + DA None; depends on market returns 50% of avg. basic pay (last 12 months)
Minimum Pension Not fixed, but effectively higher None ₹10,000 after 10 years’ service
Family Pension 50% of pension last drawn Depends on accumulated corpus 60% of pension last drawn
Lump Sum Commutation of up to 40% pension (reduces monthly pension) 60% withdrawal of accumulated corpus at retirement Lump sum = 1/10th of last pay + DA for every 6 months of service; pension unaffected
Indexation (DA link) Full DA linked Market-driven returns; no DA link DA-linked inflation relief
Fiscal Burden High, unfunded Lower, market-based Moderate (partially funded + assured)

 

[UPSC 2021] With reference to casual workers employed in India, consider the following statements:

1. All casual workers are entitled to Employees Provident Fund coverage.

2. All casual workers are entitled to regular working hours and overtime payment.

3. The government can, by notification, specify that an establishment or industry shall pay wages only through its bank account.

Which of the above statements are correct?

Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2, and 3

 

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