PYQ Relevance:
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[UPSC 2020] Do you think India will meet 50 percent of its energy needs from renewable energy by 2030? Justify your answer. How will the shift of subsidies from fossil fuels to renewables help achieve the above objective? Explain.
Linkage: The transition is inherently linked to climate change mitigation, conservation, and pollution control. Recent topics include CCUS, India’s updated climate commitments (NDCs), and balancing development with environmental protection. |
Why in the News?
The successful trial of India’s first hydrogen-powered coach at the Integral Coach Factory (ICF), Chennai, in July 2025 marks a critical milestone in the Indian Railways’ decarbonisation strategy.
Introduction:
With a target of achieving net-zero carbon emissions by 2030, four decades ahead of India’s national goal, the Indian Railways is reshaping its energy, infrastructure, and financing architecture to become a global model for sustainable mobility.
Carrying over 24 million passengers and 3 million tonnes of freight daily, this transition directly supports India’s nationally determined contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
India’s Energy Transition Context (2025):
- As of June 2025, over 50% of India’s installed power capacity (476 GW total) comes from non-fossil sources, five years ahead of its 2030 Paris target.
- Renewables: Solar (110.9 GW) and wind (51.3 GW) continue rapid expansion; nuclear capacity adds 8.8 GW.
- Electrification: 100% village electrification achieved, with household access nearing universality.
- Challenges:
- Fossil fuel reliance: Coal consumption rose to 21.98 EJ in 2023, up from 6.53 EJ in 1998, with petroleum demand increasing in agriculture.
- Energy equity gaps: Access to clean cooking fuel remains uneven; LPG adoption under PM Ujjwala Yojana suffers from affordability constraints.
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Green Transition and Decarbonisation Efforts in Railways:
- Network Electrification: Over the past decade, the Indian Railways has electrified nearly 45,000 km of its broad-gauge network, bringing 98% of routes under electrification. This has drastically reduced diesel use and greenhouse gas emissions, marking a major shift toward energy efficiency.
- Renewable Integration: Renewable power capacity has reached 756 MW (553 MW solar, 103 MW wind, 100 MW hybrid). Over 2,000 stations and offices are now powered by solar energy, reducing grid dependence and promoting clean traction power.
- Net-Zero Buildings: Several railway complexes and offices have received the “Shunya” Net-Zero label from the Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) for achieving energy neutrality and carbon efficiency.
- Hydrogen for Heritage Initiative: This flagship programme aims to deploy 35 hydrogen-powered train units, with the first prototype hydrogen coach rolled out in 2025, representing a major milestone in green rail mobility.
- Freight and Efficiency Gains: Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs) are projected to prevent 457 million tonnes of COâ‚‚ emissions over the next 30 years. The goal is to increase the rail freight modal share from 27% to 45% by 2030, cutting road-sector emissions.
- Complementary Actions: Railways are also expanding biofuel blending, green building construction, and rolling stock modernisation with regenerative braking and energy-efficient locomotives.
Hydrogen Coach Technology and Innovation:
- Fuel-Cell Mechanism: The hydrogen coach uses fuel-cell technology to generate electricity through a chemical reaction between hydrogen and oxygen, producing only water vapour as the by-product, ensuring zero tailpipe emissions.
- Operational Context: Designed for non-electrified heritage routes where full electrification is uneconomical, these trains combine lightweight coach design, aerodynamic efficiency, and AI-based traction optimisation to minimise operational costs.
- Global Positioning: With this innovation, India joins the league of nations such as Germany and Japan that are pioneering hydrogen-based railway systems as part of a wider low-carbon transport transition.
Climate Finance and Institutional Architecture:
- Green Financing Framework: India has issued â‚ą58,000 crore worth of sovereign green bonds since FY2023, with â‚ą42,000 crore specifically allocated to electric locomotives, metros, and suburban rail projects.
- IRFC’s Role: The Indian Railway Finance Corporation (IRFC) pioneered a $500 million green bond in 2017 for refinancing electric locomotive projects, and in 2025 extended a ₹7,500 crore loan to NTPC Green Energy to support renewable generation for traction power.
- Multilateral Support: The World Bank’s $245 million Rail Logistics Project (2022) aims to decongest corridors and reduce transport-sector emissions through improved infrastructure efficiency.
- Institutional Integration: Together, these instruments embed climate goals into national capital budgeting, aligning transport infrastructure with India’s low-carbon growth pathway.
Policy and Operational Priorities:
- Renewable Power Procurement: Long-term contracts with solar and wind producers are critical to ensure that electrified routes are powered by green energy rather than coal-based electricity.
- Green Mobility Hubs: Major stations are being redesigned as multi-modal eco-hubs with integration of EV charging stations, e-buses, and bicycle-sharing systems.
- Freight Decarbonisation: Emphasis on electric, LNG, and hydrogen-fuelled trucks for last-mile logistics, reducing the carbon footprint beyond rail.
- Rolling Stock Modernisation: Accelerated adoption of lightweight aluminium coaches, regenerative braking, and energy-efficient locomotives.
- Behavioural Initiatives: Introduction of green certification for trains, carbon labelling of freight, and public awareness programmes to mainstream sustainability.
Projected Outcomes by 2030:
- Net-Zero Achievement: The Indian Railways aims to achieve net-zero carbon emissions by 2030, preventing an estimated 60 million tonnes of COâ‚‚ annually, equivalent to removing 13 million cars from the roads.
- Economic Impact: Fuel cost savings from electrification and energy efficiency could exceed â‚ą1 lakh crore by 2030, freeing capital for further green infrastructure.
- Global Benchmark: The Indian Railways is positioned to become the world’s first large rail system to achieve net-zero operations, setting a global precedent for state-run low-carbon transport.
Conclusion:
- The hydrogen-powered coach exemplifies the synergy of technology, finance, and policy in achieving sustainable national mobility.
- The Railways’ green transformation is both an environmental necessity and a strategic innovation model for the developing world.
- Its successful execution will anchor India’s net-zero and green industrialisation vision, proving that scale and sustainability can coexist profitably.
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Why in the News?
The Delhi government has decided to declare 41 sq. km of the Southern Ridge as a reserved forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, following long-pending directions from the National Green Tribunal (NGT).
About Delhi Morphological Ridge:
- The Delhi Ridge is the northern extension of the ancient Aravalli Range, stretching approximately 35 km from Tughlaqabad to Wazirabad, along the Yamuna River.
- It is composed mainly of quartzite rock, is over 1.5 billion years old, and significantly older than the Himalayas.
- It functions as Delhi’s green lungs, aiding in carbon sequestration, temperature regulation, and air pollution reduction.
- It acts as a natural barrier against desert winds from Rajasthan and supports rich biodiversity, making Delhi one of the world’s most bird-rich capitals.
- It is divided into four zones: Northern Ridge, Central Ridge, South-Central Ridge, and Southern Ridge.
- Key conservation areas include the Northern Ridge Biodiversity Park and the Asola Bhatti Wildlife Sanctuary.
Land Use Regulation in the Ridge:
- Although the area shares ecological features with the Delhi Ridge, it is NOT officially notified as forest land, but it enjoys judicial protection.
- A 1966 directive prohibits any NON-forest use or encroachment without court approval.
- Any change in land use must be cleared by the Ridge Management Board (RMB) and the Supreme Court-appointed Central Empowered Committee (CEC).
- The area is mapped using data from the Delhi Forest Department and the 2006 Seismic Zonation Map.
- Formal notification as a Reserved Forest under the Indian Forest Act, 1927, is pending due to the absence of ground-truthing.
- In revenue records, it is often marked as “gair mumkin pahad”, meaning uncultivable rocky hill.
- The terrain is ecologically fragile, with shallow soil and rocky outcrops, making it unsuitable for construction.
| [UPSC 2001] The approximate age of the Aravalli range is-
Options: (a) 370 million years (b) 470 million years (c) 570 million years (d) 670 million years |
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Why in the News?
A new Stanford University-led study has revealed that the Snow Leopard has the lowest genetic diversity among all big cats, even lower than the Cheetah.
About Snow Leopard:
- Overview: Also called the “ghost of the mountains”; Belongs to the genus Panthera but genetically distinct from tigers and leopards, with unique adaptations for alpine life.
- Physical Features: Thick pale-gray fur with rosettes, powerful hind limbs, and a long, muscular tail that aids balance and warmth.
- Habitat: Found at altitudes between 3,000–5,500 metres, thriving in rugged, snow-covered mountain ranges and alpine meadows.
- Geographical Distribution:
- In India: Present in Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and parts of Jammu & Kashmir.
- Globally: Distributed across Central and South Asian mountain systems, including the Himalayas, Pamirs, and Tien Shan.
- Population Status:
- Global estimate: 4,500–7,500 individuals.
- India: Approximately 718 individuals, representing 10–15% of the global total.
- Conservation Status:
- IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
- CITES: Appendix I
- Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 (India): Schedule I
- National Conservation Measures:
- Project Snow Leopard (2009): Integrates community participation in Himalayan conservation.
- SECURE Himalaya Project (GEF–UNDP): Focuses on sustainable ecosystem management.
- Himalaya Sanrakshak (2020): Enlists local guardians for high-altitude habitats.
- National Protocol on Population Assessment (2019):Â Ensures standardized monitoring.
Ecological Significance:
- Apex Predator Role: Serves as the top carnivore in the Himalayan and Central Asian alpine ecosystems, maintaining the balance between herbivores like blue sheep, ibex, and argali.
- Indicator of Ecosystem Health: Its presence reflects ecosystem integrity, as it thrives only in undisturbed, well-connected, prey-rich habitats.
- Climate Regulation: Snow leopard landscapes, glaciers, permafrost zones, and alpine grasslands, act as major carbon sinks and regulate water flows to nearly two billion people across Asia.
- Biodiversity Link: By controlling herbivore populations, it prevents overgrazing, thus preserving alpine vegetation and soil stability.
- Cultural and Economic Value: Revered in Himalayan folklore and central to eco-tourism-based livelihoods, symbolizing coexistence between humans and nature.
- Transboundary Importance: Its habitat spans across 12 range countries, making it a flagship species for international cooperation under the Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection Programme (GSLEP).
| [UPSC 2012] Consider the following:
1. Black-necked crane 2. Cheetah 3. Flying squirrel 4. Snow leopard
Which of the above are naturally found in India? Options: (a) 1, 2 and 3 only (b) 1, 3 and 4 only* (c) 2 and 4 only (d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 |
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Why in the News?
The 2025 Nobel Prize in Economic Sciences (Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Memory of Alfred Nobel) was awarded to Joel Mokyr (Northwestern University, US), Philippe Aghion (Collège de France, INSEAD, LSE), and Peter Howitt (Brown University, US) for their pioneering explanations of innovation-driven economic growth.
What is the Nobel Economics Prize? Â
- Officially called the Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, established in 1968.
- It is NOT part of the original Nobel Prizes created by Alfred Nobel in 1895.
- Created by the Swedish central bank to honor Alfred Nobel’s legacy.
- Although not an original Nobel Prize, it is presented alongside the other Nobel Prizes on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel’s death.
- Includes a diploma, gold medal, and a one-million-dollar prize for the laureates.
Who are the Nobel Laureates for 2025?
- Joel Mokyr (Northwestern University, USA): An economic historian, renowned for studying how scientific knowledge, cultural openness, and institutional change during the Enlightenment triggered the Industrial Revolution.
- Philippe Aghion (Collège de France, INSEAD, LSE): A leading growth theorist, known for advancing the Schumpeterian model of innovation-driven growth and the economics of creative destruction.
- Peter Howitt (Brown University, USA): Collaborator of Aghion, co-developer of the Aghion–Howitt growth model, integrating firm-level innovation dynamics into macroeconomic theory.
Their Contributions:
- Joel Mokyr:
- Demonstrated that before the 18th century, societies possessed “prescriptive knowledge” (how things worked) but lacked “propositional knowledge” (why they worked).
- Showed that the Scientific Revolution merged science with craftsmanship, turning discovery into applied innovation.
- Highlighted that the Enlightenment’s intellectual openness enabled acceptance of “creative destruction,” allowing new technologies to replace old ones without institutional backlash.
- Philippe Aghion & Peter Howitt:
- Developed the 1992 Schumpeterian Growth Model, mathematically linking innovation, competition, and economic growth.
- Explained that constant firm turnover—where new innovators replace old incumbents—creates long-term, stable growth.
- Introduced the idea of “general equilibrium in innovation”, connecting household savings, financial markets, R&D investment, and production into a single dynamic framework.
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Why in the News?
RBI Governor has unveiled the Unified Markets Interface (UMI) a next-generation financial market infrastructure developed by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI).
What is Unified Markets Interface (UMI)?
- Overview: The UMI is a next-generation financial market infrastructure conceptualized by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) to tokenize financial assets and settlements using the wholesale Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC).
- Purpose: It aims to modernize India’s financial markets by enabling blockchain-based asset transactions, improving market transparency, and streamlining settlements through digital automation.
- Significance: The UMI represents India’s entry into asset tokenization, the conversion of real-world financial instruments into digital tokens, thereby integrating CBDC, smart contracts, and digital public infrastructure within a single interoperable ecosystem.
Features of UMI:
- CBDC-Enabled Settlement: Uses the wholesale Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC) to execute high-value settlements instantly and securely.
- Asset Tokenization: Converts traditional financial assets into digital tokens on blockchain, allowing fractional ownership and seamless transferability.
- Unified Infrastructure: Creates an integrated, interoperable market interface linking banks, investors, and financial intermediaries on a single digital framework.
- Smart Contract Automation: Employs programmable contracts for real-time clearing, settlement, and compliance, reducing manual intervention.
- Transparency and Efficiency: Blockchain ensures immutable transaction records and enhances traceability, reducing fraud and settlement delays.
Back2Basics: Asset Tokenization
- Definition: The process of converting real-world assets, such as bonds, real estate, commodities, or equities, into digital tokens stored on blockchain networks.
- Mechanism: Each token represents fractional ownership, enabling smaller investors to participate in high-value assets traditionally limited to institutions.
- Technology Base: Built on blockchain and smart contracts, ensuring transparent, secure, and automated transactions.
- RBI’s Application: Tokenized financial assets under UMI will settle through wholesale CBDC, providing real-time, tamper-proof, and traceable transactions.
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Why in the News?
The National Book Trust has released a book on highlighting physicist Anna Mani’s pioneering ozone and pollution studies in Pune decades before “climate change” entered discourse.
Who was Anna Mani (1918–2001)?
- Overview: Indian physicist and meteorologist from Peermade, Kerala; pioneered India’s meteorological instrumentation and atmospheric science.
- Alma mater: Studied physics at Presidency College, Chennai (1939); trained at Imperial College, London; joined IISc Bengaluru under C.V. Raman, publishing five crystallography papers.
- Professional Career: Joined the India Meteorological Department (IMD) in 1948; later headed its Instruments Division; earned the title “Weather Woman of India.”
Key Contributions:
- Meteorological Instrumentation: Designed and standardized 100+ weather instruments, including India’s first pyranometers and sunshine recorders, ending dependence on imports. Established the Regional Instrumentation Centre, Pune, for nationwide calibration.
- Measurement Infrastructure: Created a national network of solar, wind, and radiation observatories; introduced WMO-grade calibration; data later used for India’s first Wind Energy Atlas.
- Ozone & Atmospheric Research: In 1964, developed India’s first ozonesonde balloon measuring ozone up to 35 km; integrated into the WMO Global Ozone Mapping Programme. Her studies on ground-level ozone and urban aerosols anticipated modern air-pollution science.
- Instrument Design & Ethics: Innovated with glass and Teflon components to remove chemical errors in ozonesondes; upheld the credo “wrong measurements are worse than none.” Her Pune lab became a model of scientific precision.
- Publications: Authored “Handbook for Solar Radiation Data for India” (1980) and “Wind Energy Resource Survey in India” (1992), both still reference standards for renewable-energy studies.
- Environmental Vision: Warned early about CFC emissions and ozone depletion; connected industrialization to atmospheric alteration, foreshadowing the Anthropocene concept.
- Legacy: Her datasets form India’s earliest continuous record of ozone, radiation, and aerosol change, anchoring present-day climate-model validation and policy research.
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