From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Missing Data and Limitations of Disaster Databases
Why in the news?
The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations noted a rise in global disasters from roughly 100 yearly in the 1970s to about 400 in recent years, influenced partly by reporting biases.
Recent Observations
Increase in Disaster Events: The number of disaster events reported worldwide has risen from 100 events per year in the 1970s to around 400 per year in the last 20 years. Patterns in disaster data reveal factors such as increased resilience, climate change, and improved humanitarian response.
Improved Reporting: Reporting of small events, particularly those with fewer than 200 deaths, has increased significantly since the 1980s and 1990s. Historical data mainly included major events due to limited interest and capacity for data collection in earlier periods.
Missing Data and Limitations of Disaster Databases
Biases and Gaps in Historical Records: Earlier records predominantly captured major disasters, with smaller events often missing. Data coverage is particularly poor in low-income regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia, where economic losses from disasters are frequently underreported.
Missing Economic Damage and Insured Losses: More than 40% of disasters between 1990 and 2020 lacked estimates of monetary damages. Insured damages were missing in 88% of disaster reports, and 96% needed records of reconstruction costs.
No coverage of Heat Events and Health Impacts: Reporting of heat events is concentrated in a few countries, suggesting underreporting in other regions. Indirect health effects of extreme temperatures, such as increased cardiovascular disease risk, are challenging to quantify and often underestimated.
Need for Data (Way Forward)
Improving Data Coverage: Enhanced data collection in low-income regions and better integration of smaller events into disaster databases are crucial.
Accurate Health Impact Quantification: Improved methods for estimating indirect health effects of extreme temperatures and other disaster-related conditions are needed. Utilising statistical methods to capture the broader health impacts of disasters can aid in better policy formulation.
Policy and Resilience Planning: Reliable and comprehensive disaster data are essential for effective policy-making and resilience planning. Data-driven insights and predictive analytics can help foresee the long-term impacts of disasters and guide regulatory measures to enhance disaster preparedness and response.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing from the earlier reactive approach. (UPSC IAS/2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Credit rating agencies
Mains level: How to ensure the benefits of high growth trickle down to the lower income categories?
Why in the news?
The release of India’s GDP data was eagerly anticipated, especially following the recent upgrade in the “sovereign rating outlook” by S&P. It comes just days before the announcement of the union election results.
Back2Basics: Rating Agency
A rating agency is a company that assesses the financial strength of companies and government entities, especially their ability to meet principal and interest payments on their debts.
Fitch Ratings, Moody’s Investors Service and Standard & Poor’s (S&P) are the big three international credit rating agencies controlling approximately 95% of the global rating business.
In India, six credit rating agencies are registered under the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI): CRISIL, ICRA, CARE, SMERA, Fitch India and Brickwork Ratings.
What does the data say?
India’s GDP growth for 2023-24 is 8.2%, exceeding market expectations and surpassing the previous year’s growth of 7%.
Fourth-quarter growth is particularly robust at 7.8%, with upward revisions in previous quarters contributing to overall growth.
Notable divergence of 1 percentage point between GDP and GVA growth in 2023-24, mainly due to increased net taxes.
Sectoral analysis reveals mixed performance, with manufacturing and construction showing strong growth, while agriculture remains subdued.
Expenditure-side breakdown highlights a slower growth rate in private consumption but healthy growth in investment, led mainly by government spending.
Pillars need to be sustained:
Private Consumption: Ensuring sustained consumer spending, particularly by addressing high inflation and low wage growth, to maintain economic momentum.
Investment: Continuously stimulating both government and private sector investment to drive economic expansion and foster innovation and productivity.
Exports: Maintaining competitiveness in global markets and promoting export-oriented growth to leverage external demand and diversify revenue sources.
How to ensure the benefits of high growth trickle down to the lower-income categories?
Improving Private Consumption: Focus on reviving private consumption, especially among lower-income groups. Address concerns of high inflation and low wage growth affecting consumer confidence.
Enhancing Employment Opportunities: Prioritize improving the employment scenario, particularly in sectors generating significant employment like IT and the unorganized sector. Recognize the importance of employment in sustaining consumption growth and overall economic stability.
Investment in Rural Development: Ensure spatial and temporal distribution of rainfall for rural demand recovery. Moderating food inflation and improving employment conditions crucial for rural consumption revival.
Boosting Private Capex Cycle: Create an environment conducive to private investment, focusing on policy certainty and confidence in economic stability. Encourage private sector investment through favourable policies and supportive regulatory frameworks.
Policy Focus on Inclusive Growth: Direct policy attention towards ensuring that the benefits of high growth extend to lower-income categories. Implement targeted social welfare programs and initiatives to support vulnerable groups and reduce income inequality.
Monitoring Global Developments: Stay vigilant of global economic trends and developments that could impact the Indian economy, such as geopolitical tensions and supply shocks. Adapt policies accordingly to mitigate risks and capitalize on opportunities for sustained economic growth.
Conclusion: The Indian government aims to bolster equitable growth through measures such as stimulating private consumption, enhancing employment prospects, and fostering a conducive investment environment, supported by targeted policies and proactive global monitoring.
Mains PYQ:
Q Explain the difference between the computing methodology of India’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) before the year 2015 and after the year 2015. (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Gold Reserves of RBI
Why in the News?
The RBI has repatriated over 100 tonnes of gold from the UK to its domestic vaults, the largest transfer since at least 1991.
What are Gold Reserves?
A gold reserve is the gold held by a country’s central bank, acting as a backup for financial promises and a store of value.
India, like other nations, stores some of its gold reserves in foreign vaults to spread out risk and facilitate international trading.
India’s Gold Reserves:
As of the end of March 2024, the RBI held 822.10 tonnes of gold, with 408.31 tonnes stored domestically.
The share of gold in the total forex of India is around 7-8% as of 2023.
Where does the RBI store its gold?
India’s gold reserves are primarily stored in the Bank of England, which is known for its stringent security protocols.
The RBI also stores a portion of its gold reserves at the:
Bank for International Settlements (BIS) in Basel, Switzerland, and the
Federal Reserve Bank of New York in the United States.
During India’s foreign exchange crisis in 1990-91, the country pledged some of its gold reserves to the Bank of England to secure a $405 million loan, according to reports.
Even though the loan was paid back by November 1991, India decided to keep the gold in the UK for convenience.
Why does the RBI store its gold in foreign banks?
Convenience: Storing gold overseas makes it easier for India to trade, engage in swaps and earn returns.
Averting Risks: There are risks involved, especially during times of geopolitical tensions and war.
The recent freezing of Russian assets by Western nations has raised worries about the safety of assets kept abroad and the RBI decision to shift a portion of the gold reserve to India could be prompted by these concerns.
Stable Prices: Unlike fiat currencies, which can be subject to inflation or devaluation due to various economic factors, the value of gold tends to be relatively stable over time, which makes it an attractive asset for central banks to hold as a reserve.
Benefits Offered by Gold Reserves
Control domestic gold prices: With its big stash of gold, the RBI can help control local gold prices by using some of it in India. Last financial year, the RBI added about 27.47 tonnes of gold to the total reserve, bringing it to 794.63 tonnes.
Security buffer: The increased gold reserve works as a hedge against any financial crisis and to take measures to control inflation as well as currency devaluation.
Why is the recent move significant?
Efficiency and Confidence: Bringing gold back to India reduces storage fees and signals confidence in the stability of the Indian economy.
Logistical Efficiency: Moving gold to India saves on storage fees paid to foreign custodians, such as the Bank of England.
Diversified Storage: Repatriation ensures diversified storage, enhancing security and reducing dependency on foreign storage.
Has the RBI made similar purchases or transfers of gold in the past?
RBI started buying gold in 2018 and had previously bought 200 tonnes during the global financial crisis in 2009.
In the first quarter of 2024, the RBI bought 19 tonnes of gold, surpassing the 16 tonnes purchased throughout 2023.
PYQ:
[2015] The problem of international liquidity is related to the non-availability of:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Hunga Tonga Volcano
Why in the News?
Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai (Hunga Tonga) erupted in Tonga, triggering a tsunami and global seismic waves.
About Hunga Tonga Volcano
The Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcano is situated in the western South Pacific Ocean, west of the main inhabited islands in the Kingdom of Tonga. It lies on the Pacific Ring of Fire.
It forms part of the Tofua Arc, within the larger Tonga-Kermadec volcanic arc, resulting from the subduction of the Pacific Plate beneath the Indo-Australian Plate.
It comprises two small uninhabited islands, Hunga-Ha’apai and Hunga-Tonga.
Hunga Tonga is one of 12 confirmed submarine volcanoes along the Tofua Arc.
Key Findings on Hunga Tonga Eruption
The Hunga Tonga eruption primarily emitted water vapour, which reached the stratosphere, affecting ozone depletion and acting as a potent greenhouse gas. Minimal smoke was produced.
Impact on Weather
Ozone Hole: The study reveals that Hunga Tonga contributed to the exceptionally large ozone hole in the preceding year and the unexpectedly wet summer of 2024.
Global Mean Temperatures: While the eruption had a negligible effect on global temperatures, it induced lasting regional disruptions in atmospheric wave patterns.
Traditionally, massive volcanic eruptions reduce temperatures by emitting sulfur dioxide, which forms sulphate aerosols reflecting sunlight.
Regional Effects: Anticipated changes include colder and wet winters in northern Australia, warmer winters in North America, and colder winters in Scandinavia until approximately 2029.
Do you know?
Previous volcanic eruptions, such as Tamborain 1815 and Samalasin 1257, have significantly impacted global climate, leading to phenomena like the “year without a summer” and the onset of the Little Ice Age.
PYQ:
[2021] Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake-related hazards. Give examples including the salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three decades.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: PraVaHa Tool
Why in the News?
The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) has launched the Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) software named Parallel RANS Solver for Aerospace Vehicle Aero-thermo-dynamic Analysis (PraVaHa).
About PraVaHa
PraVaHa was developed at ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), showcasing India’s prowess in aerospace technology.
It can simulate both external and internal flows on various aerospace vehicles, including launch vehicles, and winged, and non-winged re-entry vehicles.
It facilitates initial aerodynamic design studies by evaluating numerous configurations, crucial for optimizing vehicle performance and safety.
Role of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
CFD predicts aerodynamic and aerothermal loads by solving governing equations. It has matured to offer high accuracy and fast simulations, addressing aerospace challenges like high pressure and intense heat flux.
Integration in Gaganyaan Program
Key Applications: PraVaHa plays a pivotal role in the Gaganyaan program, facilitating aerodynamic analysis of human-rated launch vehicles such as HLVM3, Crew Escape System (CES), and Crew Module (CM).
Scalability and Collaboration: Designed to leverage both CPU and GPU architectures, PraVaHa ensures compatibility with existing and future supercomputing facilities, fostering collaboration with academic and government institutions.
PYQ:
[2010] In the context of space technology, what is “Bhuvan”, recently in the news?
(a) A mini satellite launched by ISRO for promoting the distance education in India.
(b) The name given to the next Moon Impact Probe, for Chandrayaan-II.
(c) A geoportal of ISRO with 3D imaging capabilities of India.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Colombo Process
Why in the News?
India has become chair of the regional grouping “Colombo Process” for the first time since its inception in 2003.
What isthe Colombo Process?
The Colombo Process, established on March 19, 2003, in Colombo, Sri Lanka, is a regional consultative initiative addressing challenges faced by migrant workers from South and Southeast Asia.
Objective:
Primary Goal: The Colombo Process aims to enhance the management of contractual labour migration from Asian countries.
Focus: It seeks to safeguard the rights and welfare of migrant workers while maximizing the benefits of labour migration for both sending and receiving countries.
The Process is non-binding and decision-making is by consensus.
Membership:
Initial Composition: Initially comprising 11 member countries, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam.
Expansion: The Process has since expanded to include additional countries like Cambodia and Myanmar.
Five Thematic Area Working Groups (TAWGs) i.e.
Skills and Qualification Recognition (chaired by Sri Lanka);
Fostering Ethical Recruitment (chaired by Bangladesh);
Pre-Departure Orientation and Empowerment (chaired by the Philippines);
Remittances (chaired by Pakistan) and
Labour Market Analysis (chaired by Thailand).
Key Focus Areas:
Policy Development: Addressing various aspects of labour migration, including policy development, capacity building, data collection, and sharing best practices.
Rights Protection: Ensuring the protection of migrant workers’ rights, skills recognition, ethical recruitment, and combating human trafficking and irregular migration.
Activities and Initiatives:
Dialogue Platforms: Regular meetings, conferences, and workshops serve as platforms for dialogue and cooperation among member countries.
Guidelines and Toolkits: Development of guidelines, toolkits, and policy frameworks to assist member countries in effectively managing labour migration.
Collaboration: Collaboration with international organizations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO) and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) to implement joint initiatives and projects.
PYQ:
[2022] ‘India is an age-old friend of Sri Lanka.’ Discuss India’s role in the recent crisis in Sri Lanka in light of the preceding statement.
Q Public health system has limitations in providing universal health coverage. Do you think that the private sector can help in bridging the gap? What other viable alternatives do you suggest? (UPSC IAS/2015)
Q The increase in life expectancy in the country has led to newer health challenges in the community. What are those challenges and what steps need to be taken to meet them? (UPSC IAS/2022)
Mentor Comment: Health insurance, now central to India’s UHC policy, is being enhanced by digital advancements, enabling reforms akin to the U.S. but with cost-effective local adaptations. A South Indian healthcare chain recently integrated insurance and care provision, forming an Indian-style MCO. This prompts reflection on MCOs’ potential to extend universal health care in India significantly.
Let’s learn_ _
Why in the news?
Universal healthcare poses a multifaceted challenge, yet managed care organizations may offer a piece of the solution that Indian healthcare requires.
What is a Managed Care Organization?
A Managed Care Organization (MCO) is a health care company or a health plan that is focused on managed care as a model to limit costs, while keeping quality of care high.
The background of Managed Care Organizations (MCOs) in the United States and India:
Evolution of MCOs in the United States:
MCOs have their origins in rudimentary prepaid healthcare practices in the 20th century.
The mainstreaming of MCOs gained momentum in the 1970s due to concerns over healthcare costs.The economic slowdown post-1970s made high insurance premiums less attractive to purchasers.
A shift occurred towards integrating insurance and healthcare provisioning functions. Focus areas included prevention, early management, and cost control, all under a fixed premium paid by enrollees.
MCOs have evolved through multiple generations and forms, deeply penetrating the health insurance market. While evidence of their effectiveness in improving health outcomes and prioritizing preventive care is mixed, they have been effective in reducing costly hospitalizations and associated costs.
Evolution of MCOs in India:
The first public commercial health insurance emerged in the 1980s.The focus has primarily been on indemnity insurance and covering hospitalization costs.
There is a significant market for outpatient consultations, valued at nearly $26 billion.
Health insurance in India has traditionally lagged behind life and general insurance. The sector faces issues such as lack of innovation and high, often unsustainable, operational costs.
As per Thomas (2011), Health insurance has played a secondary role to other forms of insurance. The industry’s operational inefficiencies and high costs have been persistent issues.
Challenges in India:
Lack of Natural Incentives for Cost Control: The evolutionary trajectory of Indian health insurance has not incentivized consumer-driven cost control.
Target Demographic: Health insurance has mainly targeted a thin, urban, well-off segment, neglecting broader demographics.
Informality in Outpatient Practices: There is widespread informality among outpatient practices, complicating efforts to standardize and regulate care.
Lack of Clinical Protocols: The absence of widely accepted clinical protocols hampers the quality and consistency of care.
Economic Viability: Unprofitable operations and unaffordable premiums pose significant economic challenges, preventing sustainable growth and systemic improvement.
Limited Impact on UHC: Private initiatives, despite their potential, are unlikely to significantly contribute to Universal Health Coverage (UHC) without public support.
Insufficient Control Over Patient Journeys: Health insurers have little control over the patient’s journey before hospitalization, limiting their ability to manage early interventions and reduce costs through comprehensive outpatient care.
Prospective Solutions and Remaining Issues:
Potential for Big Healthcare Brands: Large healthcare brands with loyal urban patient bases and substantial resources may initiate successful managed care projects.
Need for Public Patronage: Exploring managed care with cautious and incremental public patronage could be promising, indicating a need for government involvement to achieve broader impacts.
Underutilization of Outpatient Insurance: Given the low share of insurance in outpatient care spending and the average of three consultations per year per person, there is significant potential to reduce healthcare costs through early interventions and comprehensive outpatient care coverage.
NITI Aayog Report:
Outpatient care insurance scheme: In 2021, NITI Aayog released a report advocating for an outpatient care insurance scheme based on a subscription model to enhance savings through improved care integration.
Yield significant benefits: A well-functioning managed care system can yield significant benefits, including consolidating practices, streamlining management protocols, and emphasizing preventive care in the private sector.
Catering for the beneficiaries of PMJAY: The report highlights the potential of incentives under the Ayushman Bharat Mission to encourage the establishment of hospitals in underserved areas catering to beneficiaries of the Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (PMJAY).
Conclusion: While Managed Care Organizations are not a perfect solution, they can play a role in addressing the complexities of achieving Universal Health Coverage (UHC) in India by being part of a broader strategy.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Lancet Report;
Mains level: Women Issues in Indian Society; Health Issues;
Why in the news?
Over 30 years, a study examining 20 diseases revealed minimal advancements in narrowing the disparity between genders as per “the Lancet Public Health Journal”.
What does the New Lancet report say?
On Health Disparities: The study highlights that women tend to suffer more from lower back pain, depression, and headaches, while men have shorter life expectancies due to higher rates of road accidents, cardiovascular diseases, and, recently, COVID-19.
On Health Burden: Women spend more time in poor health, while men are more likely to die prematurely from severe conditions.
Overall Global Analysis: The analysis examines differences in the 20 leading causes of illness and death globally, considering all ages and regions.
What Causes the Differences in Diseases Between Women and Men? (Observations)
Biological Factors:
Hormonal Differences: Hormonal fluctuations in women, such as during menstrual cycles, pregnancy, and menopause, can influence susceptibility to certain conditions like migraines, depression, and autoimmune diseases.
Genetic Variations: Variations in genes and genetic predispositions may contribute to differences in disease susceptibility and severity between sexes.
Anatomical Variances: Physiological differences, such as in skeletal structure and hormonal regulation, can affect the manifestation of certain diseases like lower back pain and reproductive disorders.
Societal and Gender Norms:
Healthcare-Seeking: Societal norms and gender roles may influence healthcare-seeking behaviors, with men often less likely to seek medical attention for mental health issues due to perceived notions of masculinity.
Occupational Hazards: Occupational differences between genders can lead to varying exposures to health risks, with certain professions associated with higher rates of injury or exposure to harmful substances.
Socioeconomic Factors: Disparities in socioeconomic status can impact disease prevalence and outcomes differently for women and men.
Healthcare System Bias:
Diagnostic Bias: Gender biases in healthcare may result in underdiagnosis or misdiagnosis of certain conditions in women, leading to delays in treatment and poorer health outcomes.
Treatment Disparities: Differences in treatment approaches and responses may exist between sexes, with women sometimes receiving less aggressive treatment for cardiovascular diseases or being undertreated for pain conditions.
Research Bias: Historically, medical research has often focused on male subjects, leading to a lack of understanding of how diseases manifest and progress differently in women.
No Improvement in Care for Women Over Time
Stable Gender Gap: Despite overall health improvements, the disparity between male and female health conditions remains stable.
Conditions Affecting Women: Conditions like lower back pain and depressive disorders have shown little to no decrease over time compared to male-dominated conditions.
Reproductive Focus: Global health systems have historically focused on women’s reproductive health, neglecting other significant health issues affecting women.
What Needs to Be Done (Way Forward)
Better Data Collection: Governments should consistently collect and categorize health data by sex and gender to better understand and address health disparities.
Targeted Health Interventions: Specific health interventions should be developed and implemented based on detailed sex and gender data.
Increased Funding: More financial resources should be allocated to underfunded conditions that disproportionately affect women, such as mental health.
Addressing Healthcare Bias: Efforts should be made to eliminate biases in healthcare to ensure women receive appropriate and timely treatment for their conditions.
Mains PYQ:
Q Can the vicious cycle of gender inequality, poverty and malnutrition be broken through microfinancing of women SHGs? Explain with examples. (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Function of SEBI
Mains level: Market Regulations in India;
Why in the news?
SEBI issued a consultation paper, proposing a framework to enable domestic Mutual Funds (MFs) to invest in their overseas counterparts or Unit Trusts (UTs) that allocate a portion of their assets to Indian securities.
About the Framework for Facilitating Investments by Domestic Mutual Funds (MFs)
Aim: To clarify the process and regulations surrounding such investments to encourage domestic MFs to diversify globally while maintaining limited exposure to Indian securities.
About the Proposals:
On Investment Cap: SEBI proposes that overseas instruments being considered for investment by domestic MFs must not have more than 20% exposure to Indian securities.
This cap is intended to balance facilitating global investments while preventing excessive exposure to Indian markets.
On Pooling of Contributions: Indian MFs must ensure that all investors of the overseas MF/UT pool their contributions into a single investment vehicle. This ensures fair distribution of gains among investors, proportional to their contributions, without any preferential treatment.
On Autonomous Management: Investments must be made autonomously by the manager of the overseas instrument, without influence from investors or undisclosed parties, to avoid conflicts of interest.
About Transparency and Disclosure: SEBI requires periodic public disclosures of the portfolios of such overseas MF/UTs for transparency.
No Advisory Agreements: SEBI warns against any advisory agreement between the Indian MF and the overseas MF/UT to prevent conflicts of interest and avoid undue advantage.
On Observance Period: If an overseas instrument breaches the 20% limit, the Indian MF scheme will enter a six-month observance period for rebalancing the portfolio.
Further investments will only be allowed when the exposure is below the limit. If not rebalanced within six months, the MF must liquidate its investment in the overseas instrument.
Impacts of the Regulation
Diversification of Opportunities: The framework provides a structured path for Indian MFs to invest in overseas instruments, enhancing diversification opportunities for Indian investors.
Market Transparency: The requirement for periodic public disclosures of portfolios will increase transparency and investor confidence in overseas investments.
Risk Management: The 20% exposure cap and autonomous management of investments help mitigate risks associated with excessive exposure to Indian securities and conflicts of interest.
Compliance Burden: The need to adhere to strict regulations and rebalance portfolios within specified periods may increase the compliance burden on domestic MFs.
Potential for Growth: By facilitating global investments, the framework can potentially attract more investors to Indian mutual funds, contributing to the growth of the mutual fund industry in India.
What are the concerns associated with this framework?
RBI’s Upper Limit: The Reserve Bank of India’s (RBI) upper limit for overseas investment by mutual funds poses a concern. RBI Governor Shaktikanta Das indicated there are no plans to increase this limit, which means the overall industry limit for overseas investments is already exhausted.
Practical Impact: As the industry limit for overseas investments is effectively exhausted, the changes to regulations may not have an immediate practical impact, limiting the diversification opportunities for Indian investors.
Implementation and Compliance: Ensuring compliance with the 20% exposure cap and other regulations may pose challenges for domestic MFs, requiring careful monitoring and management of their overseas investments.
Conclusion: Need to establish collaborations with global investment firms to gain insights and best practices in managing overseas investments. Learning from established global players can help Indian mutual funds navigate the complexities of international markets more effectively.
Mains PYQ:
Q The product diversification of financial institutions and insurance companies, resulting in overlapping of products and services strengthens the case for the merger of the two regulatory agencies, namely SEBI and IRDA. Justify. (UPSC IAS/2013)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Inequality and Democratic Governance;
Why in the news?
Studies conducted by researchers from “the Paris School of Economics” indicate that inequality in contemporary India surpasses that of colonial times.
How does Inequality harm Democratic processes?
Concentration of Power: Inequality can lead to the concentration of monopoly power among a few capitalists relative to the labor force. This concentration allows dominant business groups to set prices, resulting in lower real wages and reduced purchasing power for the majority.
Impact on Consumption and Welfare: High inequality can negatively impact consumption and welfare due to higher mark-ups and lower real wages.
Lower real wages mean that workers can afford fewer goods, which reduces overall consumption and welfare.
Effect on Democratic Processes: Economic inequality can translate into unequal political power, undermining democratic processes.
Those with significant wealth can have disproportionate influence over political decisions, policies, and elections, leading to governance that favours the wealthy over the general populace.
How Redistribution and Growth Can Work Together
Wealth Taxes and Redistribution: Taxing wealth and redistributing it can enhance economic growth by increasing incomes and consumption among the lower and middle classes, who have a higher propensity to consume.
Multiplier Effect: Redistribution can strengthen the multiplier effect, where an initial increase in investment leads to a greater overall increase in income and consumption. Higher incomes among workers and goods-sellers lead to more purchases, driving further economic activity and growth.
Investment and Profit Expectations: Investment is driven by future profit expectations rather than past wealth. Therefore, taxing wealth does not necessarily reduce investment.
Creation of New Entrepreneurs: Redistribution can support the emergence of new entrepreneurs by providing financial resources and reducing dependence on wage employment. This can foster innovation and competition, further contributing to economic growth.
Curtailing Monopolies: Reducing monopolistic power through redistribution and other policy measures can lower prices and increase real wages. Higher real wages boost demand, leading to increased investment and economic expansion.
Conclusion: Addressing inequality through redistribution can promote inclusive growth, empowering marginalized communities and advancing progress towards a more equitable society, essential for fulfilling SDG Goal 10 (Reduced Inequalities).
Mains PYQ:
Q How did land reforms in some parts of the country help to improve the socio-economic conditions of marginal and small farmers? (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Mains level: Women Issues;
Why in the news?
Although women’s representation in the workforce has grown over the years “LinkedIn’s Economic Graph data” indicates that progress has stalled since 2022 and declined in 2024.
What does the data show?
Representation of women in the workforce has increased over the years but progress has stalled since 2022 and declined in 2024. The promotion of women to senior and leadership roles has stagnated in recent years.
Sectors like healthcare, education, administrative, and support services have higher female representation in senior positions, while sectors like manufacturing, construction, oil, and gas have poor representation.
Representation of women in the overall workforce and in senior positions
Entry and career progression of women
Oil, Gas, and Mining: Among the lowest representation of women in leadership roles, at around 11%.
Construction: Very few women are represented, especially in senior roles.
Utilities: Women face significant barriers in advancing to leadership positions.
Wholesale: Low entry and career progression for women.
Manufacturing: Poor representation of women across all positions, including senior roles.
Transportation: Limited career progression opportunities for women.
Real Estate: Few women in leadership positions, with significant entry barriers.
About the accommodation and other services
Representation of women in senior roles within the accommodation and food services sector falls between 15% and 20%.
This sector exhibits a moderate level of female representation compared to other industries.
While not the highest, it surpasses sectors like oil, gas, mining, construction, utilities, wholesale, manufacturing, transportation, and real estate, where women hold just 11%-14% of leadership positions.
The data suggests there’s still room for improvement in increasing the number of women in leadership roles within the accommodation and food services sector.
Efforts to improve gender diversity and inclusion should be continued and perhaps intensified in this sector, aligning with broader industry and societal goals for gender parity in the workforce.
Administrative and support services:
Women hold senior positions in administrative and support services at a rate of 22% to 30%, indicating a moderate level of representation compared to other sectors.
This sector demonstrates a higher level of female representation in leadership roles compared to industries like oil, gas, mining, construction, utilities, wholesale, manufacturing, transportation, and real estate, where women’s leadership roles range from 11% to 14%.
The education sector boasts the highest representation of women in senior positions at 30%, suggesting that sectors like administrative and support services still have room for improvement.
Efforts to promote gender diversity and inclusion within administrative and support services should be sustained, aiming for further increases in the representation of women in leadership roles.
Continued focus on addressing biases, societal norms, and structural barriers is essential to achieving greater gender parity and advancement opportunities for women within this sector.
Way Forward
Efforts by policymakers and business leaders are needed to tackle challenges faced by women in reaching leadership roles, focusing on “women-led development”.
Stricter enforcement of laws such as the Companies Act, 2013, which mandates women directors on company boards. Between April 2018 and December 2023, 507 companies were fined for non-compliance, with 90% being listed companies.
Mains PYQ
Q Micro-Finance as an anti-poverty vaccine, is aimed at asset creation and income security of the rural poor in India”. Evaluate the role of the Self Help Groups in achieving the twin objectives of empowering women in rural India. (UPSC IAS/2020)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Coal Gradation, Coal reserves in India, Imports etc
Why in the News?
A report by the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project suggests Adani Group claimed ‘low grade’ coal imported from Indonesia to be ‘high quality’ coal.
They inflated its value and sold it to Tamil Nadu’s power generation company, TANGEDCO (Tamil Nadu Generation and Distribution Company).
Coal Gradation in India
These terms are relative and depend on the coal’s Gross Calorific Value (GCV denoted in kilo-calories per kg), which indicates its energy generation potential. Higher GCV denotes better quality coal.
High-Grade (GCV > 7,000 kcal/kg) to
Low-Grade (GCV 2,200-2,500 kcal/kg).
Overall there are 17 grades of coal according to the Coal Ministry‘s classification.
Characteristics of Indian Coal:
Historically, Indian coal is high in ash content and low in calorific value compared to imports.
Higher ash content leads to increased emissions of particulate matter and pollutants.
Clean Coal Technologies:
Coal Washing: On-site processes such as coal washing are employed to reduce ash and moisture content, thereby improving energy efficiency and reducing environmental impact.
Coal Gasification:
Another approach is coal gasification, where coal is converted into syngas through an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC).
This process enhances efficiency and reduces emissions compared to traditional coal-burning methods.
Coal gasification produces a mixture of gases known as syngas, primarily composed of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), and carbon dioxide (CO2).
Other gases present in syngas can include methane (CH4) and water vapor (H2O).
Coal Reserves in India
India boasts the fourth-largest coal reserves globally, totaling nearly 319.02 billion tonnes.
Geological Distribution: These reserves are primarily located in:
Older Gondwana Formations: in Peninsular India, about 250 million years old.
Younger Tertiary Formations: in the North-Eastern region, 15 to 60 million years old.
Gondwana coal constitutes 99% of India’s coal production.
The top 5 States in terms of total coal reserves in India are: Jharkhand > Odisha > Chhattisgarh > West Bengal > Madhya Pradesh.
Types of Coal found:
Anthracite: This highest-grade coal contains 80-95% carbon and is found in smaller quantities in regions of Jammu and Kashmir.
Bituminous: A medium-grade coal with 60 to 80% carbon content, it is abundant in Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, Chhattisgarh, and Madhya Pradesh.
Lignite: The lowest-grade coal, with 40 to 55% carbon content, is found in regions of Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, and Jammu & Kashmir.
Status of Coal in India
In the fiscal year 2023-24, India’s coal production peaked at 997 million tonnes, primarily sourced from state-owned Coal India Ltd and its subsidiaries. Coking coal accounted for 58 million tonnes.
During the first quarter of 2024, renewable energy constituted 71.5% of India’s unprecedented 13.6 GW power generation capacity addition, signalling a notable departure from reliance on coal.
Coal Import Trends:
Reduction in Share: The share of coal imports in India’s total coal consumption decreased to 21% from April 2023 to January 2024, down from 22.48% in the corresponding period of the previous year.
Blending and Power Plant Imports: While there was a significant reduction of 36.69% in coal imports for blending by thermal power plants, imports by coal-based power plants surged by 94.21% during the same period.
Reasons for Coal Imports:
Quality Constraints: The scarcity of good quality coking coal, essential for steelmaking, necessitates coal imports to meet industrial demands.
Rising Energy Demand: Coal remains a vital component of India’s energy mix, prompting the need for imports to fulfil growing energy requirements.
Infrastructure Challenges: Challenges such as geological constraints, land acquisition issues, and environmental regulations impede domestic coal production
Quality and Cost Considerations: Importing coal can offer cost advantages and access to better-quality coal compared to domestic sources
PYQ:
[2020] Consider the following statements:
Coal ash contains arsenic, lead and mercury.
Coal-fired power plants release sulphur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen into the environment
High ash content is observed in Indian coal.
Which of the statements given above is/ are correct?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Mangroves in India
Why in the News?
The International Union for Nature Conservation (IUCN) has listed mangroves in coastal regions spanning Tamil Nadu, Sri Lanka and Maldives as ‘critically endangered’ in its first global assessment of mangrove ecosystems.
Red List of Mangrove Ecosystems: Study by IUCN
Global assessment reveals a 50% risk of mangrove ecosystem collapse. Without further conservation, by 2050, 7,065 sq km more mangroves will be lost, and 23,672 sq km submerged.
If we let this happen, the world is at risk of losing:
1.8B tonnes of carbon stored, costing society $336B (based on the social cost of carbon). Protects 2.1M lives and $36B worth of property from coastal flooding..
Sea-level rise is the main threat affecting mangrove ecosystems.
25% of the global mangrove area is predicted to be submerged in the next 50 Years.
1/3 of the world’s mangrove ecosystem provinces will be severely affected by sea-level rise.
Tamil Nadu’s Efforts for Mangroves Conservation
The Tamil Nadu Forest Department has doubled mangrove cover from 23 sq km in 2001 to 45 sq km in 2021, as per the Indian State of Forest Report.
Mangrove restoration projects have been undertaken across Nagapattinam, Thiruvarur, Cuddalore, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram, Thiruvallur, and Villupuram districts, with plans for an additional 15 sq km restoration under the Tamil Nadu Coastal Restoration Mission funded by the World Bank.
Tamil Nadu’s TN-SHORE initiative, launched in January 2024, aims to address environmental challenges along the coastline. With Rs 1,675 crore funding, including 70% from the World Bank, it focuses on blue carbon sequestration.
Back2Basics: Mangroves
Mangroves constitute a group of trees and shrubs inhabiting the coastal intertidal zone.
They are found globally in tropical and subtropical regions, typically between latitudes 25° N and 25° S.
Mangroves are predominantly located in tropical regions due to their intolerance to the extreme cold conditions prevalent in temperate zones.
Features of Mangroves:
Adaptation to waterlogged and anoxic soil: Mangroves possess unique characteristics allowing them to survive in waterlogged and oxygen-deficient environments.
Halophytes: Mangrove species have the ability to filter out up to 90% of the salt from seawater as it enters their roots, with some species also excreting salt through glands in their leaves.
Water retention capacity: Thick succulent leaves store fresh water, while a waxy coating on some species’ leaves minimizes evaporation.
Pneumatophores: Certain mangroves develop pencil-like roots that emerge from the ground to absorb oxygen from the air, aiding in coping with tidal flooding.
Prop roots: Many mangrove trees possess dense aerial roots descending from their trunks and branches, which stabilize and support them against waves and tides.
Lenticellated bark: Oxygen enters mangroves through lenticels, small breathing pores in the bark and roots, enabling them to adapt to low oxygen conditions.
Viviparity: Seed pods germinate while still on the tree, facilitating immediate root growth upon dropping.
Mangroves in India:
According to the India State of Forest Report 2021, mangrove cover in India comprises 0.15% of the country’s total geographical area.
West Bengal has the highest percentage of area under total mangrove cover among states and union territories, followed by Gujarat and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
The Sundarbans, characterized by the dominant mangrove species sundari (Heritiera fomes), is the largest continuous mangrove forest globally.
Various mangrove areas in India are protected within reserves and sanctuaries such as the Sundarbans Tiger Reserve, Bhitarkanika, Coringa, Nelapattu, Point Calimere Wildlife Sanctuaries, Pirotan National Park, among others.
PYQ:
[2011] The 2004 Tsunami made people realize that mangroves can serve as a reliable safety hedge against coastal calamities. How do mangroves function as a safety hedge?
(a) The mangrove swamps separate the human settlements from the sea by a wide zone in which people neither live nor venture out
(b) The mangroves provide both food and medicines which people are in need of after any natural disaster
(c) The mangrove trees are tall with dense canopies and serve as an excellent shelter during a cyclone or tsunami
(d) The mangrove trees do not get uprooted by storms and tides because of their extensive roots.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Frequent Volcanic eruptions this year, Sundhnuksgigar and other Volcanoes Why in the News?
Why in the News?
Southwest Iceland witnessed the eruption of the Sundhnuksgigar volcano, triggering evacuations in the nearby areas.
About Sundhnuksgigar Volcano
Sundhnuksgigar is a row of craters just outside the town of Grindavik on the Reykjanes peninsula
It is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a divergent boundary where the Eurasian and North American tectonic plates are moving apart.
What is a Volcano?
A volcano is a fissure or vent in the Earth’s crust through which gases, molten rock materials (lava), ash, steam, sulphur dioxide etc., are expelled during an eruption.
These openings occur where the rock layers in the Earth’s crust are relatively weak.
Volcanic activity is categorized as an endogenic process, originating from within the Earth.
Depending on the explosivity of the volcano, various extrusive and intrusive landforms can be formed.
Different types of volcanoes can be classified based on the frequency of eruption and the nature of the eruption:
1. Frequency of eruption:
Active volcanoes: Frequent eruptions in Pacific Ring of Fire: New Zealand, Southeast Asia, Japan, western Americas. Linked to plate tectonics, like Kilauea and Santa Maria. High seismicity, volcanic activity.
Dormant Volcanoes: These are not currently erupting but have the potential to erupt again in the future. An example is Mount Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, the highest mountain in Africa.
Extinct or inactive volcanoes: These have not erupted in the distant geological past. Dhinodhar Hill in Gujarat is an example.
2. Nature of Eruption:
Shield Volcanoes: Largest and least explosive volcanoes, formed from basalt lava. Often low in explosivity, except when water interacts. Hawaiian volcanoes exemplify this..
Composite Volcanoes: Volcanoes with cooler, thicker lava, built up through explosive eruptions. Layer ash, pyroclastic material, and lava flow. Examples: Mayon, Fuji, Rainier.
Calderas: The most explosive volcanoes, prone to collapsing inward during eruptions rather than building upwards. The resulting depressions are called calderas.
Flood Basalt Provinces: These volcanoes erupt highly fluid lava that travels long distances, covering vast areas with thick basalt flows.
Reasons for Iceland’s Volcanism
Tectonic Activity: Iceland is situated on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, where the Eurasian and North American plates diverge. This creates volcanic rift zones where magma rises to the surface, leading to eruptions.
Hotspots: Additionally, Iceland is positioned over a hotspot, contributing to heightened volcanic activity. Hotspots are areas where magma from the mantle rises towards the surface, fueling eruptions.
Subglacial Volcanism: Iceland’s volcanic activity is not limited to the surface; some eruptions occur beneath glaciers, leading to explosive interactions between lava and ice. These subglacial eruptions can produce powerful steam explosions, ash clouds, and catastrophic floods known as jokulhlaup.
PYQ:
[2021] Mention the global occurrence of volcanic eruptions in 2021 and their impact on the regional environment.
[2013] Consider the following:
Electromagnetic radiation
Geothermal energy
Gravitational force
Plate movements
Rotation of the earth
Revolution of the earth
Which of the above are responsible for bringing dynamic changes on the surface of the earth?
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: JADES-GS-z14-0 Galaxy, JWST
Why in the News?
The James Webb Space Telescope (JWST), launched by NASA, has unveiled a groundbreaking find It has captured imagery of the universe’s earliest-known galaxy, revealing unexpected brightness and size given its formation during the universe’s infancy.
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST)
JWST is a joint venture between NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) launched in December 2021.
It is an orbiting infrared observatory that will complement and extend the discoveries of the Hubble Space Telescope, with longer wavelength coverage and greatly improved sensitivity.
Webb was formerly known as the “Next Generation Space Telescope” (NGST) and it was renamed in 2002 after a former NASA administrator, James Webb.
It will be a large infrared telescope with an approximately 6.5-meter primary mirror.
JWST is positioned at the Earth-Sun L2 Lagrange point, 5 million km away.
It consists of a mirror, spanning 6.5 meters in diameter compared to Hubble’s 2.4 meters, as well as its specialized instruments optimized for infrared observations.
Key Objectives:
JWST observes deeper into the universe than Hubble.
Observes celestial objects from earlier epochs.
Enables the detection of light from the universe’s earliest stars, dating back over 13.5 billion years.
About JADES-GS-z14-0 Galaxy
Named JADES-GS-z14-0, this galaxy was formed approximately 290 million years after the Big Bang.
Spanning about 1,700 light-yearsacross, it consists of a mass equivalent to 500 million stars akin to our Sun.
Despite its ancient age, the galaxy is actively generating stars at a rapid pace, producing around 20 new stars annually.
Scientific Insights:
Historical Context: Previously, the earliest-known galaxy was dated to approximately 320 million years post-Big Bang, indicating the significance of this new discovery.
Luminosity Theories: While hypotheses suggest various explanations for the galaxy’s luminosity, including supermassive black holes or unusually bright stars, further research is required to validate these theories.
PYQ:
[2012] Which of the following is/are cited by the scientists as evidence/evidence for the continued expansion of the universe?
Detection of microwaves in space
Observation of redshift phenomenon in space
Movement of asteroids in space
Occurrence of supernova explosions in space
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Koya Tribe
Mains level: Legal Challenges and Rights
Why in the news?
The Koya tribe in Andhra Pradesh is facing a cultural crisis due to stricter liquor regulations enforced by the Special Enforcement Bureau (SEB).
About Koya tribe
Koya are one of the few multi-racial and multi-lingual tribal communities in India.
They live in the forests, plains, and valleys on both sides of the Godavari River which lies in Andhra Pradesh. Many also live in the states of Madhya Pradesh and Orissa.
They believe their main deity still resides in a cave in the Bastar region.
Cultural Crisis (Disruption of Traditions):
Mahua liquor is brewed from the flowers of the Mahua tree which is integral to Koya cultural and religious ceremonies including naming ceremonies, weddings, and death anniversaries.
Police raids and seizures of Mahua liquor disrupt these traditions causing cultural shocks within the community. For example, recently the naming ceremony of Madakam Janakamma’s child was held without Mahua liquor due to SEB raids.
Tribal Rights (Legal Challenges and Rights):
The Andhra Pradesh Prohibition Act, 1995, does not exempt the Koya tribe from brewing and storing Mahua liquor, despite its cultural significance.
The Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA), 1996empowers the gram sabha to protect tribal traditions and culture but its implementation is questionable as SEB raids continue unabated.
Koya villagers are often coerced into paying bribes to avoid legal charges, highlighting the tension between law enforcement and tribal rights.
Impact on Collection(Economic Consequences):
Many Koya households have ceased Mahua flower collection due to fear of police raids, significantly affecting their primary source of income.
Destruction of freshly collected flowers during raids further disincentivizes collection, reducing the supply of Mahua flowers to weekly markets (shandies) where they are exchanged for essential goods.
Guardians of Culture (Preservation of Heritage):
The Koya tribe, especially those not displaced by the Polavaram irrigation project, are seen as custodians of their culture. However, displacement and integration with non-tribal communities threaten their cultural identity.
Local leaders and activists argue for the need to empower Koya women with training in producing value-added products from Mahua flowers, rather than undermining their traditional practices and economic activities.
Legal and Policy Measures
Amend the Andhra Pradesh Prohibition Act, 1995: Introduce exemptions or special provisions that recognize and protect the traditional brewing and usage of Mahua liquor for cultural and religious purposes by the Koya tribe.
Strengthen Implementation of PESA Act: Ensure that the Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA), 1996, is fully implemented. Empower Gram Sabhas to have a greater say in protecting tribal traditions, including the brewing of Mahua liquor.
Conclusion: The enforcement actions by the SEB, while aimed at regulating liquor, pose a significant threat to the Koya tribe’s cultural heritage and economic well-being. Balancing legal regulations with respect for tribal traditions and rights is crucial to preserving the Koya way of life.
Mains PYQ:
Q What are the two major legal initiatives by state since Independence, addressing discrimination against Scheduled Tribes (ST) ? (UPSC IAS/2017)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Global Food Policy Report 2024
Mains level: Emerging Trends in India related to the consumption of unhealthy food
Why in the news?
A global report highlights a significant rise in unhealthy food consumption in India, surpassing intake of vegetables, fruits, and other nutritious foods.
Global Food Policy Report 2024: Food Systems for Healthy Diets and Nutrition was released by “theInternational Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI)”.
About CGIAR:
CGIAR (formerly the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research) is a global partnership uniting organizations engaged in research for a food-secure future.
Focus: Its mission focuses on reducing poverty, enhancing food and nutrition security, and improving natural resources and ecosystem services.CGIAR conducts research and partners with other organizations to transform global food systems and ensure equitable access to sustainable, healthy diets.
Emerging Trends in India:
Increase in consumption of unhealthy food: There is a significant increase in the consumption of unhealthy foods such as salty or fried snacks compared to nutritious options like vegetables and fruits. About 38% of the population consumes unhealthy foods, while only 28% consume all five recommended food groups.
The consumption of processed foods and ready-made convenience foods is rising. From 2011 to 2021, malnutrition in India increased from 15.4% to 16.6%.The prevalence of overweight adults rose from 12.9% in 2006 to 16.4% in 2016.
Processed food consumption is on the rise in India
South Asian Highlights
Processed Food Consumption: Increasing intake of processed foods like chocolates, salty snacks, beverages, and ready-made meals in India and other South Asian countries.
Malnutrition Rates: High levels of undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies coexist with rising rates of overweight, obesity, and diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs).
Food Budget Trends: Packaged food spending in India’s household food budgets nearly doubled from 6.5% to 12% between 2015 and 2019.
Issue of Double Malnutrition:
Double malnutrition refers to the coexistence of undernutrition and micronutrient deficiencies with overweight and obesity, or diet-related noncommunicable diseases (NCDs).
High levels of undernutrition (stunting and wasting) and micronutrient deficiencies persist even as overweight and obesity rates increase.
More than two billion people, especially in Africa and South Asia, cannot afford a healthy diet.
Dietary Guidelines by ICMR:
The Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) released 17 dietary guidelines to promote healthy eating.
Guidelines emphasize reading food labels to make informed choices and minimizing the consumption of high-fat, sugar, salt, and ultra-processed foods.
The guidelines highlight the importance of diverse diets over cereal-centric agriculture and food policies.
ICMR advises against the misleading information often presented on packaged foods.
Way forward:
Strengthen Nutritional Policies: Develop and enforce policies that promote the consumption of nutritious foods. Implement taxes on unhealthy foods and subsidies for fruits, vegetables, and other micronutrient-rich foods.
Regulate Processed Foods: Implement strict regulations on the marketing of unhealthy foods, especially targeting children.
Mains PYQ:
Q How far do you agree with the view that the focus on the lack of availability of food as the main cause of hunger takes the attention away from ineffective human development policies in India? (15) (UPSC IAS/2018)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Types of Flight Turbulence and Causes of Flight Turbulence
Mains level: Impact of Climate Change on Flight Turbulence
Why in the news?
On May 21, severe turbulence over Myanmar caused one death and 70 injuries on a Singapore Airlines flight. Qatar Airways had 12 minor injuries on May 26.
What is Turbulence?
Turbulence, unpredictable air motion caused by eddies and vertical currents, ranges from minor bumps to severe disruptions, often associated with fronts and thunderstorms.
Flight Turbulence
Types of Flight Turbulence
Note: Attitude is the angular difference measured between an aeroplane’s axis and the line of the Earth’s horizon.
Light Turbulence: Slight erratic changes in the aircraft’s orientation.
Moderate Turbulence: Notable changes in altitude and attitude, but the aircraft remains under control.
Severe Turbulence: Significant and sudden changes of altitude and attitude, momentarily losing control.
Extreme Turbulence: The aircraft is violently tossed about and is almost impossible to control.
Causes of Flight Turbulence
Mechanical Turbulence: Caused by friction between the air and the ground, especially over irregular terrain and man-made obstacles. Includes ‘mountain waves’ over mountain ranges.
Convective/Thermal Turbulence: Resulting from hot air rising rapidly and cooler air descending, creating convective air currents. Often occurs during the approach.
Frontal Turbulence: Created by the lifting of warm air by a sloping frontal surface and friction between opposing air masses, commonly near thunderstorms.
Wind Shear: Caused by changes in wind direction and/or speed over specific distances, found in temperature inversion areas, troughs, lows, and around jet streams.
Clear Air Turbulence (CAT): Occurs at high altitudes outside of clouds, often near jet streams, and is difficult to predict or see.
Impact of Climate Change on Flight Turbulence
Increased Incidence: Studies indicate a rise in severe turbulence, particularly CAT, with the growth in air traffic and climate change.
Jet Stream Intensification: Climate change strengthens jet streams, increasing the frequency and severity of turbulence.
Mountain Wave and Near-Cloud Turbulence: Predictions suggest these types of turbulence will also intensify with climate change, leading to more frequent and severe occurrences globally.
Way forward:
Safety Measures: Continuous improvement in aircraft design, weather forecasting, and pilot training helps mitigate the risks associated with turbulence.
Passenger Advice: Passengers are advised to keep their seat belts fastened as much as possible to avoid injuries during unexpected turbulence.
Regulatory Recommendations: Aviation authorities recommend better communication, real-time information sharing, and enhanced training to prevent turbulence-related incidents.
Mains PYQ:
Q Most of the unusual climatic happenings are explained as an outcome of the El-Nino effect. Do you agree? (UPSC IAS/2014)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Monsoon Croaks Bioblitz, Species mentioned
Why in the News?
The Centre for Citizen Science and Biodiversity Informatics, Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI), has organised the event “Monsoon Croaks Bioblitz 2024”.
About Monsoon Croaks Bioblitz, 2024:
This program aims to document Kerala’s frog species during the monsoon season.
Objective: Cultivate scientific curiosity among the public and raise awareness about frog conservation through social media platforms, such as posters and articles.
Bioblitz Definition: It’s an intensive survey conducted over time to identify and document as many species as possible within a designated area, a popular participatory survey method globally.
Project Details:
Participation: People of all ages can contribute by uploading frog photographs and sounds via the iNaturalist app.
Data Utilization: Scientific observations collected during the bioblits will contribute to the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF), facilitating biodiversity awareness, habitat conservation, and climate change research.
Need for such an event
Monsoon heralds a festive season for frogs, marking their peak activity and breeding period.
However, the survival of frogs, crucial indicators of ecosystem health, faces threats from climate change, habitat loss, and water pollution.
As a result, 41% of the world’s frog species are on the IUCN Red List of endangered species, including those in Kerala.
Results of 2023:
In 2023, KFRI conducted the Monsoon Croaks project, witnessing enthusiastic participation from citizens across Kerala.
Highlights: Around 200 citizen scientists uploaded 1,223 observations, identifying approximately 80 amphibian species, including those listed on the IUCN Red List.
Notable Species: The top most observed species is the Wayanad Bush Frog (Pseudophilautus wynaadensis).
Following closely is the Asian Common Toad (Duttaphrynus melanostictus).
Other important amphibian species recorded in the bioblitz include:
