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  • Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

    COP29 in Baku, Azerbaijan

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Why in the News?

    COP29 is set to be hosted by Azerbaijan from November 11 to 22. It has a central focus on finalising a agreement on Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF) particularly for the post-2025 period.

    Proposals by Azerbaijan:

    Azerbaijan has included key proposals in the COP29 Action Agenda, such as:

    • Increasing global energy storage capacity by six times by 2030.
    • Promoting a global market for green hydrogen.
    • Ensuring the carbon footprint from digitisation and data centres is kept to a minimum.

    About the Climate Finance Action Fund (CFAF):

    • The CFAF will be capitalised with contributions from fossil fuel producing countries
    • It will be headquartered with its secretariat in Baku, Azerbaijan.
    • It will rely on voluntary contributions from fossil-fuel producing countries and companies.
    • Azerbaijan, a major petroleum economy, will make the first contribution to kickstart the fund.
    • Fossil-fuel producing countries and companies will have the option to make annual contributions, either as a fixed sum or based on production volumes.
    • The funds will be divided equally:
      • 50% will go toward climate projects in developing countries.
      • 50% will support developing nations in implementing national climate action plans.
    • The fund will become operational once it reaches a minimum corpus of $1 billion.
    • At least 10 countries must commit to being shareholders for the fund to start.
    • 20% of the revenues generated from investments will be deposited in a Rapid Response Funding Facility (2R2F) providing highly concessional and grant-based support.

    What did Paris Agreement of 2015 said on Climate Finance?

    • Under the Paris Agreement (2015), developed countries are obligated to raise at least $100 billion annually to aid developing nations in their fight against climate change.
      • This amount is expected to increase after 2025.
    • Negotiations have been slow, and countries are still debating the quantum of finance that industrialised nations should provide.

     

    PYQ:

    [2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

    1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN, and it will go into effect in 2017.
    2. It aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2ºC or even 1.5ºC above pre-industrial levels.
    3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 3 only
    (b) 2 only
    (c) 2 and 3 only
    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Section 2 of the Indian Flag Code (2002)

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    The Bihar Police arrested some miscreants for waving India’s national flag with distorted Ashok Chakra/Dhammachakra.

    Significance of Ashok Chakra:

    • Symbolism: Represents righteousness, justice, and the path of virtue, urging citizens to uphold moral values.
    • Legacy of Dhamma: Reflects Emperor Ashoka’s principles of peace, non-violence, and welfare, after his embrace of Buddhism.
    • Compassion for all: Derived from the Dhammachakra, it represents the Buddhist philosophy of ethical living and compassion.
    • Unity and Progress: The circular design symbolizes unity and continuous development, emphasizing national harmony and forward movement.

    About Flag Code of India, 2002:

    Details
    Objective To regulate the display, usage, and respect for the Indian National Flag by citizens, organizations, and the government.
    Basisi Article 51 ‘A’ contained in Part IV A i.e. Fundamental Duties asks: To abide by the constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem in clause (a).
    Structure The Flag Code is divided into three parts:

    1. Part I: General provisions related to the display of the national flag by all.
    2. Part II: Display of the flag by government bodies.
    3. Part III: Display of the flag by public, private organizations, and educational institutions.
    Material of Flag
    • The national flag should be made of hand-spun and hand-woven wool, cotton, silk, or khadi bunting.
    • However, polyester and machine-made flags were allowed under amendments in 2021.
    Prohibitions (Section 2.2)
    • Not be used as a drapery, costume, or uniform.
    • Not be used for commercial purposes or as a receptacle.
    Display Guidelines (Section 2.1)
    • Must be hoisted respectfully, always ensuring that the saffron band is on top when displayed vertically.
    • Should never touch the ground or be used as decoration.
    Amendments In 2022, rules were amended to allow the national flag to be flown both during the day and night, as long as it is hoisted in a dignified manner.
    Penalties Disrespect or misuse of the national flag is punishable under the Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971.

     

    PYQ:

    [2008] What is the number of spokes in the Dharmachakra in the National Flag of India?

    (a) 16

    (b) 18

    (c) 22

    (d) 24

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    How good are Modern Telescopes?

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    Modern telescopes, both on Earth and in space, expand our understanding of the universe by gathering and focusing light from distant celestial bodies, revealing cosmic secrets.

    Modern Telescopes: Everything you need to know

    Primary Functions and Features
    Purpose  • Telescopes serve as windows into space, revealing distant celestial bodies and helping explore the universe.
    • Their primary function is to gather more light than the human eye can, making faint objects visible.
    Types 1. Reflecting Telescopes:
    • Use mirrors to focus light and create images.
    • Most common in large observatories due to the use of parabolic mirrors, which prevent light scattering and offer clear images.
    2. Refracting Telescopes:
    • Use lenses to bend and focus light (Concave and Convex lenses used)
    • Limited by lens size, with a maximum of about 1 meter (e.g., Yerkes Observatory). Large lenses may sag, distorting the image.
    Primary purpose  • Telescopes are designed to collect more light than the human eye.
    • The light-gathering ability is proportional to the size of the aperture (opening).
    • Example: A small 70mm telescope collects 118 times more light than the human eye.

    Features of Telescopes
    Brightness and Magnitude • Celestial objects’ brightness is measured in apparent magnitude (lower numbers = brighter).
    • Examples: Sun (-26.78), Venus (-4.92), Sirius (-1.46), Andromeda Galaxy (+3.44).
    • Small telescopes can detect objects with magnitudes up to +11.2, which are 100 times fainter than what the human eye can see.
    Resolution and Detail • The resolution of a telescope determines how much detail it can show.
    • A small telescope can resolve details 1.47 arcseconds apart (40 times more detail than the human eye, which resolves details 60 arcseconds apart).

    Why are Telescopes set up on Mountains?
    Mountaintop benefits • High-altitude observatories are set up to reduce atmospheric distortion, which affects image quality (e.g., stars twinkling).
    • Space telescopes, like Hubble, are entirely above the atmosphere and provide clear, undistorted images.
    Adaptive Optics • Ground-based telescopes use adaptive optics to correct atmospheric distortions.
    • Lasers create artificial stars, and the telescope adjusts its mirrors to reduce twinkling.

    About the New Segmented Mirrors
    Overcoming Mirror Limitations • Large mirrors (over 8.5 meters) can sag under their own weight.
    • Segmented mirrors solve this by using smaller sections to create larger, effective mirrors (e.g., Extremely Large Telescope (ELT) with a 39.3-meter aperture).
    Notable Telescopes  • Large Binocular Telescope (LBT): Two 8.4-meter mirrors, combined aperture of 11.9 meters.
    • Extremely Large Telescope (ELT): Under construction in Chile, it will have a 39.3-meter aperture.
    • Subaru Telescope (Hawaii): Captured objects with a magnitude of +27.7, 100 million times fainter than what the human eye can see.

     

    PYQ:

    [2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.

    2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter

    3. It is buried deep in the ice.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

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  • Oil and Gas Sector – HELP, Open Acreage Policy, etc.

    Government scraps Windfall Tax on Crude Oil

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India has scrapped the windfall tax on crude oil, which was previously set at ₹1,850 per tonne.

    What is Windfall Tax?

    Details
    Definition A higher tax levied on companies that earn unexpected and extraordinary profits due to external factors.
    Purpose To capture a portion of excess profits from industries benefiting from global price surges, such as oil.
    Imposition in India Imposed as a Special Additional Excise Duty (SAED) on crude oil production and exports of diesel, petrol, and aviation turbine fuel (ATF).
    Dynamic Tax Rate Revised every 15 days based on international oil prices in the preceding fortnight.
    First Imposed July 1, 2022, during the Russia-Ukraine conflict and post-COVID recovery.
    Application Applies to domestically produced crude oil and exports of diesel, petrol, and ATF.
    Reasons for Imposing
    • Sharp rise in global oil prices due to external factors like the Russia-Ukraine war.
    • Capture supernormal profits of energy companies for public welfare.
    Benefits
    • Generates revenue for public welfare schemes.
    • Ensures fair distribution of profits from market volatility.
    • Stabilizes fuel prices during inflation or supply chain disruptions.

     

    India’s Crude Oil Trade:

    • India is the 3rd largest oil consumer globally, following the US and China.
    • The country relies on imports for 85% of its oil needs, with this dependence expected to increase due to declining domestic production.
    • Russia has become India’s top oil supplier, with imports surging to 1.53 million barrels per day (bpd) in January 2024.
    • Russia (1st) > Iraq (2nd) > Saudi Arabia (3rd)> UAE (4th) – Crude oil export to India 

     

    PYQ:

    [2020] The term ‘West Texas Intermediate’, sometimes found in news, refers to a grade of:

    (a) Crude oil

    (b) Bullion

    (c) Rare earth elements

    (d) Uranium

    [2017] Petroleum refineries are not necessarily located nearer to crude oil producing areas, particularly in many of the developing countries. Explain its implications. (250 words)

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  • Women empowerment issues – Jobs,Reservation and education

    Women-led development in the Rajya Sabha

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    During the historic passage of the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women’s Reservation Bill), 2023, the Vice  President reconstituted the panel to include only women, marking a significant milestone for gender representation in the Upper House.

    What specific measures have been recently taken to promote women’s participation in Rajya Sabha? 

    • Reconstitution of the Vice-Chairpersons Panel: The Chairman of the Rajya Sabha reconstituted the panel to include only women during the historic passage of the Nari Shakti Vandan Adhiniyam (Women’s Reservation Bill), 2023.
    • Increased Representation in the Vice-Chairpersons Panel: The practice of nominating four women members (50% of the panel) was introduced, including significant figures like S. Phangnon Konyak and P.T. Usha.
    • Training of Women Officers for House Duties: Women officers of the Secretariat were trained to perform House duties, breaking the stereotype that these tasks were a male domain. Women now largely manage the Table of the House.
    • Introduction of ‘Vahan’ Application: A system to facilitate safe commutation for women officers working late hours was introduced, ensuring their safety during odd hours.
    • Appointment of Women in Key Roles: Women officers were appointed to key positions in human resources, legislative sections, and parliamentary committees.

    What are the key outcomes from Nari Shakti Adhiniyam (2023)?   

    • 33% Reservation for Women in Legislatures: The Bill reserves 33% of seats for women in the Lok Sabha and State Legislative Assemblies, aiming to increase women’s participation in governance.
    • Long-term Impact on Women’s Representation: The Bill ensures that women are better represented in the political process, potentially reshaping the political landscape by empowering women as decision-makers.
    • Women as Key Participants in Development: By providing more opportunities for women in legislatures, it aligns with the goal of women-led development, where women set the agenda for governance and development policies.

    Empowering women not just as beneficiaries but as leaders of development:

    •  Leadership Development Programs: Implement targeted initiatives to cultivate leadership skills among women, enabling them to take active roles in decision-making processes within their communities and organizations.
    • Access to Resources and Opportunities: Ensure women have equitable access to education, financial resources, and training programs, empowering them to drive sustainable development and entrepreneurship.
    • Advocacy and Representation: Promote women’s representation in governance and policy-making, ensuring their voices and perspectives shape development agendas and priorities at all levels.

    Challenges India Faces in Implementing Women-led Development Initiatives:

    • Economic Disparities: Women face significant challenges in accessing financial resources, property rights, and entrepreneurial opportunities, limiting their ability to lead development initiatives.  As per the 2015-16 Agriculture Census, only 13.9% of landowners were women.
    • Political Representation: Despite progress like the Women’s Reservation Bill, women’s political representation at the local and national levels remains below the desired level. Currently, only 82 women serve in India’s Parliament, constituting about 15.2% of the Lok Sabha and 13% of the Rajya Sabha.
    • Safety and Mobility: Ensuring women’s safety and mobility, particularly in public spaces, remains a major challenge. For instance, according to the NCRB report, India recorded over 405,861 cases of crimes against women in 2021, including 32,033 cases of rape.

    Way forward: 

    • Strengthening Legal Frameworks and Enforcement: Enhancing the implementation of existing laws, along with stricter penalties for gender-based violence, will ensure a safer environment for women.
    • Promoting Economic Empowerment and Education: Expanding access to education, financial resources, and skill-building opportunities for women can bridge economic disparities, empowering them to take leadership roles in governance, business, and community development.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss the desirability of greater representation to women in the higher judiciary to ensure diversity, equity and inclusiveness. (UPSC IAS/2021)

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  • The Crisis In The Middle East

    Indian military export to Israel — aiding genocide

    Explained | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

    Why in the News?

    A Supreme Court Bench, led by the Chief Justice of India, recently dismissed a petition by former civil servants and activists seeking suspension of military export licenses to Israel during the ongoing conflict.

    India’s Ongoing Exports to Israel

    • India exports military equipment and arms to Israel, which includes both public sector and private sector companies supplying defense-related materials.
    • During the ongoing conflict in Gaza, the Indian government has continued to issue licenses for the export of arms and military equipment to Israel, despite international concerns about potential violations of humanitarian law.
    • India has developed a strong defense relationship with Israel, marked by regular arms deals, military cooperation, and technology transfers.

    How does India’s arms exports to Israel violate the law?

    • Complicity in Genocide: By exporting arms to Israel, India risks being complicit in violations of international humanitarian law, including potential war crimes and genocide committed by Israel, as indicated by various international bodies.
      • As a signatory to the Genocide Convention, India is obligated (Article 1) to prevent genocide and avoid providing aid or assistance to any state engaged in such acts.
    • Indian Constitution: Article 21 of the Indian Constitution guarantees the right to life and personal liberty to citizens as well as to foreigners.
    • International Court of Justice (ICJ) Precedents: ICJ rulings have repeatedly warned states against exporting arms to conflict zones where such weapons might be used to violate international law.

    Genocide Convention (1948)

    • Definition and Purpose: The Genocide Convention, adopted by the United Nations in 1948, aims to prevent and punish acts of genocide, which include killings and other acts intended to destroy, in whole or part, a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group.
    • Obligations of Signatory States:
      • States party to the Convention are obligated to prevent and punish acts of genocide, both within their territories and in international contexts.
      • Article III of the Convention makes states’ complicity in genocide a punishable offense, meaning states must refrain from providing material or logistical support to nations engaged in genocide.
    • India’s Commitment: India ratified the Genocide Convention, thereby binding itself to these obligations. Under this Convention, India is required to ensure that it is not complicit in such crimes through its actions, including military exports.

    International Pressure and ICJ Opinions

    • ICJ Provisional Measures (2023): In January 2023, the ICJ ordered provisional measures against Israel for violations of the Genocide Convention in the Gaza Strip, including an immediate halt to killings and destruction.
    • Global Response: Many countries like Canada, Spain, and the UK have suspended arms exports to Israel, in compliance with their obligations under international law to prevent genocide and war crimes.
    • India’s Non-Compliance: Despite these international legal obligations and warnings, India continues to provide military aid to Israel, raising questions about its commitment to international humanitarian law.

    Conclusion: India’s continued arms exports to Israel, despite international legal concerns, highlight the delicate balance between strategic defence relations and adherence to international humanitarian obligations under the Genocide and Geneva Conventions.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q India’s relations with Israel have, of late, acquired a depth and diversity, which cannot be rolled back.” Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • President’s Rule

    How do Emergency Provisions impact Centre-State relations?

    Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Federalism

    Why in the News?

    The recent surge in violence in Manipur has reignited discussions on Centre-State relations and the use of emergency provisions by the Centre.

    What is the federal structure of governance in India?

    • Federal System with Centre-State Powers: India follows a federal structure of governance where powers are divided between the Centre and the States. The Seventh Schedule of the Constitution demarcates subjects under the Union List, State List, and Concurrent List, defining respective jurisdictions.
    • State’s Domain on Law and Order: Maintenance of law and order is primarily the responsibility of State governments, aligning with the decentralized governance model of federalism. States are sovereign in areas assigned to them by the Constitution.
    • Cooperative Federalism: India’s federal structure also emphasises cooperative federalism, where both the Centre and States work together on certain subjects, particularly in the Concurrent List.

    How do Articles 355 and 356 affect Federalism?

    • Article 355 (Duty of the Centre): Article 355 places a constitutional duty on the Union to protect States from external aggression and internal disturbance and to ensure governance as per the Constitution.
    • Article 356 (President’s Rule): Article 356 allows the Centre to impose President’s Rule in a State if there is a failure of the constitutional machinery. This provision can undermine federalism if misused, as it enables the Centre to dismiss a State government and take over its administration.
    • Impact on Federalism:
      • Cooperative Federalism: Article 355 allows the central government for intervention in state matters, which can be seen as a deviation from cooperative federalism.
      • Central Overreach: Historically, Article 356 was often misused to dismiss State governments, leading to concerns over central overreach and the undermining of State autonomy.
    • Judicial Safeguards: The S.R. Bommai case (1994) limited its misuse by subjecting it to judicial review, ensuring it is invoked only in cases of a breakdown of constitutional governance, not merely law and order issues.

    Way forward: 

    • Sarkaria Commission (1987): Suggested that Article 355 grants the Union both the duty and the authority to act to ensure constitutional governance in the States.
    • National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (2002): Reinforced the need for careful use of emergency provisions, emphasizing the role of Article 355 in providing support and corrective measures.
    • Punchhi Commission (2010): Advocated for the use of Article 356 only in the most critical circumstances and stressed the importance of using Article 355 to address issues before considering the President’s Rule.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Under what circumstances can the Financial Emergency be proclaimed by the President of India? What consequences follow when such a declaration remains in force? (UPSC IAS/2018)

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  • Pension Reforms

    NPS Vatsalya Scheme

    Schemes | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Government Scheme/Policies

    Why in the News?

    The Finance Ministry has launched the “NPS Vatsalya scheme” as per the Union Budget 2024-25 announcement.

    About NPS Vatsalya Scheme:

    Details
    Objective To secure children’s financial future by allowing parents to invest in a pension account early on.
    Nodal Agency Managed by Pension Fund Regulatory and Development Authority (PFRDA)
    Eligibility
    • Indian citizens, NRIs (Non-Resident Indians), and OCIs (Overseas Citizens of India) can open accounts for minors.
    • Parents or guardians.
    Contributions ₹500 per month or ₹6,000 annually
    Benefits offered
    • Contributions benefit from compounding, ensuring long-term wealth growth for the child.
    • At 18, Vatsalya account is converted into a regular NPS account for seamless retirement planning.
    • Promotes long-term financial security and retirement planning for future generations.

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] Who among the following can join the National Pension System (NPS)?

    (a) Resident Indian citizens only

    (b) Persons of age from 21 to 55 only

    (c) All State Government employees joining the services after the date of notification by the respective State Governments

    (d) All Central Government employees including those of Armed Forces joining the services on or after 1st April, 2004

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  • BRICS Summits

    Turkey bids to join BRICS

    Prelims Only | International Relations | Mains Paper 2: Bilateral, Regional and Global Groupings and agreements involving India

     

    Why in the News?

    • Turkey has officially applied to join the BRICS group after Russia supported its entry. Russia is set to hold the BRICS Summit in Kazan from October 22 to 24, 2024.
      • Malaysia and Thailand had also expressed their interest in joining the expanded BRICS group of emerging economies.

    Turkey’s Geopolitical Position:

    • Joining BRICS could signify Turkey’s foreign policy shift, possibly distancing the country further from its long-standing ambition to join the European Union (EU).
    • Turkey has faced Western criticism for its purchase of Russian S-400 defence systems, its ties with Russia, and its stance on sanctions.
      • Ankara is positioning itself as a middle power that can balance relationships between the West and the Global South.

    What is BRICS?

    Details
    Members BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa)
    Origin Coined by economist Jim O’Neill in 2001 as BRIC, formalised as BRICS in 2010
    Formation First meeting of BRIC Foreign Ministers in 2006. South Africa was invited to join BRIC in December 2010
    Global share of BRICS
    • Population: 41%
    • GDP: 24%
    • Global trade: 16%
    Chairmanship Rotated annually among members, following sequence B-R-I-C-S
    India’s Hosting Hosted the 2021 BRICS Summit
    Key Initiatives
    • New Development Bank (NDB) established in 2014: Approved 70 infrastructure and sustainable development projects
    • Contingent Reserve Arrangement signed in 2014: Aims to forestall short-term balance of payments pressures and strengthen financial stability
    • Customs agreements signed for trade facilitation
    • BRICS Remote Sensing Satellite Constellation initiated in 2021: Involves six existing satellites developed by members
    Expansion
    • Egypt, Ethiopia, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates joined as new full members on January 1, 2024.
    • Argentina refused to join the BRICS group in 2024
    • Malaysia, Thailand and Turkey have bid for its membership.

     

    PYQ:

    [2014] With reference to a grouping of countries known as BRICS, consider the following statements:

    1. The First Summit of BRICS was held in Rio de Janeiro in 2009.

    2. South Africa was the last to join the BRICS grouping.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) Both 1 and 2

    (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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  • Start-up Ecosystem In India

    [pib] BHASKAR Platform for India’s Startup Ecosystem

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Why in the News?

    The Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), under the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, has launched the BHASKAR platform.

    About BHASKAR Platform

    Details
    Platform Name Bharat Startup Knowledge Access Registry (BHASKAR)
    Launched By Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry
    Objective To strengthen India’s startup ecosystem by centralizing resources and facilitating collaboration
    Target Audience Startups, investors, mentors, service providers, and government bodies
    Key Features
    • Networking and Collaboration: Connects startups, investors, and mentors, enabling interaction across sectors.
    • Centralized Access to Resources: Provides instant access to critical tools, knowledge, and resources for startups, enhancing decision-making and growth.
    • Personalized BHASKAR IDs: Each stakeholder (startup, investor, mentor) receives a unique ID for tailored interactions and services.
    • Enhanced Discoverability: Users can easily search and find relevant resources, collaborators, and opportunities using powerful search features.
    • Access to Funding Opportunities: Facilitates connections between startups and potential investors for funding.
    • Global Outreach: Supports cross-border collaborations and fosters India’s global presence in the innovation ecosystem.
    Impact
    • Promotes innovation, entrepreneurship, and job creation
    • Enhances India’s status as a global leader in startups

    Growth of the Startup Ecosystem

    • As of May 2023, India boasts over 99,000 officially recognized startups, making it the third-largest startup ecosystem globally. This growth reflects an increase from 84,012 startups in 2022 and a notable rise from just 452 in 2016.
    • The ecosystem has also produced 108 unicorns, startups valued at over $1 billion, collectively worth approximately $340.80 billion

    PYQ:

    [2015] “Success of ‘Make in India’ program depends on the success of ‘Skill India’ programme and radical labour reforms.” Discuss with logical arguments.

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