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  • Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

    Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Why in the News?

    The Supreme Court has dismissed the curative petitions filed by major telecom service providers, seeking relief from the 2019 judgment regarding Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR) dues.

    What is Adjusted Gross Revenue (AGR)?

    • AGR is the usage and licensing fee that telecom operators are charged by the Department of Telecommunications (DoT).
    • It forms the basis for calculating telecom companies’ dues to the government, including the license fee and spectrum usage charges (SUC).
    • The AGR is divided into:
    1. Spectrum Usage Charges (SUC): These are pegged at 3-5% of AGR, depending on the telecom company’s spectrum holdings.
    2. License Fees: Telecom operators are required to pay 8% of their AGR as a license fee to the government.

    Contention over AGR Calculation

    • The DoT maintains that AGR should include all revenues earned by telecom companies, including non-telecom sources such as deposit interest, asset sales, and dividends.
    • Telecom operators, on the other hand, insist that AGR should only include revenues generated from core telecom services, excluding income from non-telecom sources like interest and capital gains.

    Legal Disputes on AGR

    1. Beginning of the Dispute (2005): The AGR saga began in 2005 when the Cellular Operators Association of India (COAI) challenged the government’s definition of AGR in court. The dispute centered on whether non-telecom revenue should be included in the AGR calculation.
    2. TDSAT Ruling (2015): In 2015, the Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) ruled in favor of telecom companies. TDSAT held that AGR should include only revenue from core telecom activities and exclude non-core sources such as rent, profit from the sale of assets, dividends, and interest income.
    3. Supreme Court Ruling (2019): Setting aside the TDSAT decision, the SC upheld the DoT’s definition of AGR on October 24, 2019, declaring that AGR must include all revenue sources, including non-telecom activities like interest and capital gains. This ruling significantly increased the financial liabilities of telecom companies, as they had to pay outstanding dues.

    Financial Impact of the AGR Ruling

    The Supreme Court ruling had serious financial implications for telecom companies:

    • Massive Liabilities: Telecom companies, especially Vodafone Idea and Bharti Airtel, faced huge financial liabilities. The ruling resulted in unpaid dues amounting to over ₹1.4 lakh crore, which included penalties and interest.
    • Vodafone Idea’s Crisis: Vodafone Idea, in particular, was hit hard by these liabilities and faced potential insolvency, with its future in the Indian telecom sector hanging in the balance.
    • Sector Consolidation: The financial pressure from the AGR liabilities led to the consolidation of the telecom sector, with smaller players exiting the market.

    PYQ:

    [2019] In India, which of the following review the Independent regulators in sectors like telecommunications, insurance, electricity, etc.?

    1. Ad Hoc Committees set up by the Parliament
    2. Parliamentary Department Related Standing Committees
    3. Finance Commission
    4. Financial Sector Legislative Reforms Commission
    5. NITI Aayog

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    (a) 1 and 2

    (b) 1, 3 and 4

    (c) 3, 4 and 5

    (d) 2 and 5

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  • Promoting Science and Technology – Missions,Policies & Schemes

    Bio-RIDE Scheme

    Schemes | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Union Cabinet has approved the “Biotechnology Research Innovation and Entrepreneurship Development (Bio-RIDE) scheme” to support cutting-edge research and development in biotechnology.

    About Bio-RIDE Scheme

    Details
    Objective To support cutting-edge research, bio-entrepreneurship, and bio-manufacturing in biotechnology.
    Total Outlay ₹9,197 crore for the 15th Finance Commission period (2021-22 to 2025-26).
    Components
    • Merges Biotechnology Research and Development (R&D) and Industrial & Entrepreneurship Development (I&ED).
    • Introduces Bio-manufacturing and Bio-foundry as new components.
    Key Aims
    • Fostering Innovation: Promote bio-entrepreneurship and strengthen India’s position in biotechnology.
    • Bridging Gaps: Accelerate research and product development.
    Implementation Focus
    • Promoting Bio-Entrepreneurship: Seed funding, incubation, mentorship for startups.
    • Advancing Innovation: Grants for research in synthetic biology, bio-pharma, and bio-plastics.
    Focus Areas
    • Extramural Funding for research in agriculture, healthcare, bioenergy, and environmental sustainability.
    • Nurturing human resources in biotechnology.
    Industry-Academia Collaboration Synergies between academic institutions and industry to accelerate commercialization of bio-based products.
    Significance
    • Enhances bio-innovation and supports sustainable development.
    • Contributes to achieving green goals and global leadership in biotechnology.

     

    PYQ:

    [2019] Atal Innovation Mission is set up under the

    (a) Department of Science and Technology

    (b) Ministry of Labour and Employment

    (c) NITI Aayog

    (d) Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship

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  • GI(Geographical Indicator) Tags

    Nagaland’s King Chilli Festival

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Intellectual Property Rights

    Why in the News?

    The village of Seiyhama in Nagaland hosted the 3rd edition of the Naga King Chilli Festival, celebrating the importance of the Naga king chilli, one of the world’s hottest chillies.

    About Naga King Chilli

    • The Naga King Chilli, also known as Raja Mircha or Bhut Jolokia, is one of the world’s hottest chillies, with heat levels exceeding 1 million Scoville Heat Units (SHU).
    • It is primarily grown in the Northeast Indian states of Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, and Arunachal Pradesh.
    • In 2006, it was certified by the Guinness World Records as the hottest chilli in the world, a title it held for several years.
    • In 2008, it received a GI tag, recognizing its unique origin and significance in the global spice market.
    • The chilli has a heat range of 800,000 to 1,041,427 SHU, making it significantly hotter than common chillies like the jalapeño, which has a SHU of 2,500 to 8,000.
    • Benefits offered:
      • Rich in capsaicin, it is known for its pain-relieving properties and potential health benefits, such as boosting metabolism, promoting heart health, and relieving pain and inflammation.
      • Traditionally, the chilli has been used to preserve food in Nagaland’s hot, humid climate, helping to extend the shelf life of food and reduce waste.
    • Cultivation:
      • The chilli is grown in bamboo groves using ancient cultivation methods.
      • Farming begins in December or January, with peak harvests in August and September.
      • Approximately 150 households in Seiyhama village, Nagaland, cultivate the Naga King Chilli, with the annual harvest reaching 14,000 kg, valued at ₹70 lakh.

    PYQ:

    [2015] Which of the following has/have been accorded ‘Geographical Indication’ status?

    1. Banaras Brocades and Sarees

    2. Rajasthani Daal-Bati-Churma

    3. Tirupathi Laddu

    Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 only 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    [pib] Pest-Control Pheromone Dispenser

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    A new sustainable pheromone dispenser has been developed through a collaborative research project by scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR) and ICAR–National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (ICAR–NBAIR).

    What is the Pest-Control Pheromone Dispenser?

    Details
    What is it? A device designed to release pheromones that alter the behaviour of pests, primarily used in agriculture to control infestations and prevent crop damage.
    Developed By A collaborative project by scientists from Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru, and ICAR–National Bureau of Agricultural Insect Resources (ICAR–NBAIR), India.
    How it Works
    • Releases synthetic pheromones that mimic natural insect signals.
    • Attracts pests to traps or disrupts mating cycles, preventing infestations.
    Technology
    • Uses mesoporous silica matrix technology for controlled release.
    • Ensures consistent pheromone release, independent of external factors like temperature.
    Benefits
    • Cost-effective: Fewer replacements of pheromones reduce overall costs.
    • Labor-saving: Longer intervals between replacements lower labor requirements.
    • Environmentally friendly: Reduces chemical pesticide use, promoting sustainable agriculture.
    • Increased efficacy: Stable release rate ensures effective pest control over extended periods.
    Scalability Suitable for both small-scale farms and large industrial agricultural operations, making it highly scalable.

     

    PYQ:

    [2018] With reference to the Genetically Modified mustard (GM mustard) developed in India, consider the following statements:

    1. GM mustard has the genes of a soil bacterium that give the plant the property of pest-resistance to a wide variety of pests.

    2. GM mustard has the genes that allow the plant cross-pollination and hybridization.

    3. GM mustard has been developed jointly by the IARI and Punjab Agricultural University.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 and 3 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 2 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3

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  • International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

    Square Kilometer Array (SKA) becomes partially functional

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    The Square Kilometer Array (SKA), the world’s largest radio telescope, has carried out its first observations, marking a major milestone.

    About Square Kilometer Array (SKA) Project:

    Details
    Project Overview SKA is a global project aimed at building the world’s largest radio telescope network to explore the universe, galaxies, dark matter, and extraterrestrial life.
    Construction Phases Two phases:

    1. SKA-Mid in South Africa operates in higher frequency ranges.
    2. SKA-Low in Australia operates in lower frequency ranges.

    Phase 1 (SKA- Mid) began in December 2022. Full operations expected by 2029.
    Headquarters Jodrell Bank Observatory, UK
    Site Locations Telescope arrays in Australia (low-frequency) and South Africa (mid-frequency).
    Design and Features
    • 197 parabolic radio antennae in South Africa
    • 131,072 low-frequency antennae in Australia

    These are capable of detecting faint radio signals from vast distances.
    Global Consortium 16 member countries, including Australia, South Africa, India, China, Japan, and several European nations.
    India’s Role
    • India’s Giant Metrewave Radio Telescope (NCRA, TIFR) is a key partner
    • SKA India consortium (20+ institutions) involved in software, signal processing, and digital hardware development
    Key Technologies Advanced interferometer system using wave interference for data collection.
    Scientific Objectives
    • Explore galaxies at the edge of the universe
    • Study the ‘Dark Ages’ and phenomena like dark matter and dark energy
    • Search for extraterrestrial life
    Frequency Range Operates between 50 MHz to 15.4 GHz
    Global Collaboration Key collaboration among India, Australia, South Africa, Italy, and other member nations for data generation, analysis, and installation of antennas.

     

    PYQ:

    [2022] Launched on 25th December, 2021, James Webb Space Telescope has been much in the news since then. What are its unique features which make it superior to its predecessor Space Telescopes? What are the key goals of this mission? What potential benefits does it hold for the human race?

    [2015] In the context of modern scientific research, consider the following statements about ‘IceCube’, a particle detector located at South Pole, which was recently in the news:

    1. It is the world’s largest neutrino detector, encompassing a cubic kilometre of ice.

    2. It is a powerful telescope to search for dark matter

    3. It is buried deep in the ice.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    (a) 1 only

    (b) 2 and 3 only

    (c) 1 and 3 only

    (d) 1, 2 and 3 only

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  • Terrorism and Challenges Related To It

    FATF on India: Effective Money Laundering system, low prosecution

    Explained | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Money-Laundering & Its Prevention

    Why in the News?

    The FATF placed India in the “regular follow-up” category for having an “effective” anti-money laundering and counter-terror financing system but highlighted the need for significant improvements in prosecuting such cases.

    Key Highlights of the FATF Mutual Evaluation Report on India:

    • “Regular Follow-up” Category: India has been placed in the “regular follow-up” category, signifying that its system for combating money laundering and terror financing is effective.
      • Financial institutions need better risk profiling of customers, and the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) registry needs improved monitoring for accurate ownership information.
    • Money Laundering Risks: The primary sources of money laundering in India come from fraud, cyber-enabled fraud, corruption, and drug trafficking.
      • Terror threats are mainly linked to Islamic State or al-Qaeda groups in Jammu and Kashmir.
    • Non-Profit Organisations (NPOs): India should strengthen measures to prevent abuse of the NPO sector for terror financing, and enhance outreach to NPOs at risk.
    • Improvements in Sanctions Framework: India needs to improve its targeted financial sanctions framework to ensure the timely freezing of funds and assets related to terror financing.
    • Domestic Politically Exposed Persons (PEPs): The report urged India to define domestic PEPs under its anti-money laundering laws and improve identification and risk-based measures related to them.
    • Delay in prosecution: The report noted delays in prosecution due to review petitions are still pending, which delays the resolution of cases under the PMLA.

    Challenges faced by the Indian Government:

    • Prosecution and Conviction Delays: Despite an increase in investigations, the number of prosecutions and convictions remains low, with significant delays in concluding trials, especially under the PMLA.
    • Constitutionality Issues: Legal challenges to the constitutionality of the PMLA between 2014-2022 disrupted the momentum in terror financing and money laundering prosecutions.
    • Risk Profiling of Financial Customers: There is a need for better risk profiling of customers in financial institutions to address money laundering more effectively.
    • Inaccurate Ownership Information: Ensuring accurate owner information in the Ministry of Corporate Affairs (MCA) registry remains a challenge, especially concerning investments from tax havens.
    • Non-Profit Organisations: Ensuring that non-profits are not abused for terror financing requires better coordination and focused outreach by authorities.
    • Lack of Definition for Domestic PEPs: While India has defined foreign PEPs, the absence of a clear definition for domestic PEPs under PMLA creates a gap in the anti-money laundering framework.
    • Fast-Tracking Trials: The need to fast-track trials in money laundering and terror financing cases is recognized, but progress in addressing this challenge remains slow.

    Way Forward: 

    • Strengthen Legal and Institutional Framework: India should establish clear definitions for domestic Politically Exposed Persons (PEPs) under anti-money laundering laws and enhance targeted financial sanctions to ensure timely asset freezing.
    • Enhance Risk Management and Monitoring: Financial institutions should improve risk profiling and implement stricter Know Your Customer (KYC) processes, while the Ministry of Corporate Affairs should ensure accurate ownership data, especially for investments from tax havens.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Discuss how emerging technologies and globalisation contribute to money laundering. Elaborate measures to tackle the problem of money laundering both at national and international levels. (UPSC IAS/2021)

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  • Banking Sector Reforms

    Why US Fed cut interest rates, how India could be impacted? 

    Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

    Why in the News?

    The United States Federal Reserve, responsible for the country’s monetary policy, announced on Wednesday that it will lower its key interest rate, called the Federal Funds Rate, by 0.5%, or 50 basis points.

    Why did the Fed cut interest rates?

    • The Federal Reserve cut the benchmark interest rate by 50 basis points to address rising unemployment concerns while inflation was stabilizing.
    • After a series of aggressive rate hikes to counter inflation that surged due to post-COVID recovery and the Russia-Ukraine war, inflation began to moderate, nearing the Fed’s target of 2%.
    • Rising unemployment data signaled that the restrictive monetary policy might harm the labor market, prompting the Fed to act.

    Will the US economy achieve a soft landing?

    • Optimistic Projections: Despite earlier predictions that high inflation would lead to a recession, the Fed’s strategy may succeed in achieving a soft landing, reducing inflation without crashing the economy.
    • GDP Growth: The Summary of Economic Projections (SEP) estimates GDP growth to remain around 2% for the next few years, indicating a stable economy.
    • Unemployment: While the unemployment rate has risen slightly to 4.4%, it remains manageable, with expectations of improvement.
    • Risks: Potential policy shifts, especially related to the upcoming presidential election, could disrupt the economic outlook, particularly if trade tariffs are imposed.

    How will India be affected?

    • Increased Foreign Investments: Lower US interest rates could encourage foreign investors to borrow in the US and invest in India through stocks, bonds, or foreign direct investment (FDI), benefiting capital inflow.
    • Rupee Strengthening: With falling US interest rates, the US dollar may weaken against the Indian rupee, potentially strengthening the rupee. This would negatively affect Indian exporters but benefit importers.
    • RBI’s Interest Rate Decisions: While the Fed’s rate cuts influence global markets, India’s central bank, the RBI, may not directly follow suit due to differing inflation targets and mandates. The RBI prioritizes inflation control and GDP growth over unemployment figures.

    Way forward: 

    • Encourage Capital Inflows: India should take advantage of lower US interest rates by attracting foreign investments through improved ease of doing business, fostering growth in key sectors like infrastructure, technology, and manufacturing.
    • Maintain Monetary Stability: The RBI should carefully assess global trends but prioritize domestic conditions when adjusting interest rates, focusing on inflation control, financial stability, and sustained GDP growth.

    Mains PYQ:

    Q Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments. (UPSC IAS/2016)

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  • Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

    White Revolution 2.0

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Economics Of Animal-Rearing

    Why in the News?

    The Ministry of Cooperation unveiled White Revolution 2.0, focusing on empowering women farmers and creating job opportunities in the dairy cooperative sector.

    What is White Revolution 2.0?

    Details
    Objective Transforming India’s dairy sector by empowering women farmers, increasing milk production, and modernizing dairy infrastructure.
    Target  Increase procurement from the current 660 lakh litres per day to 1,000 lakh litres per day.
    Funding • Initial funding of ₹40,000 per Multi-Purpose Primary Agricultural Credit Society (PACS) by National Dairy Development Board.
    • Total outlay of ₹70,125 crore with full government budgetary support.
    Provisions and Features 1. Women Empowerment: Focus on empowering women in the dairy sector and strengthening women’s cooperatives.
    2. Increase in Milk Procurement: Aims to raise procurement by 50% over the next five years.
    3. Cooperative Infrastructure: 100,000 new and existing cooperative societies (district cooperative societies and Primary Agricultural Credit Societies) to be set up or enhanced.
    4. RuPay Kisan Credit Cards: Nationwide rollout for dairy farmers, with micro-ATMs at cooperative societies.
    5. Computerisation of Primary Agricultural Credit Societies: 67,930 Primary Agricultural Credit Societies will be computerised for better management.
    Significance 1. Women Empowerment: Creates leadership opportunities for women in dairy, promoting gender equality.
    2. Boost to Rural Economy: Strengthening cooperatives and milk procurement will improve rural livelihoods.
    3. Improved Infrastructure: Modern technology, micro-ATMs, and computerisation will increase efficiency.
    4. Job Creation: Expanding cooperatives and modern practices will generate jobs for 130 million farmers.
    5. Malnutrition Reduction: Enhances dairy quality to combat malnutrition.
    6. Cooperative Modernisation: Focus on Artificial Intelligence and advanced technologies.
    7. Dairy Exports Boost: Improved production and quality to enhance India’s dairy exports.

     

    PYQ:

    [2017] Explain various types of revolutions, took place in Agriculture after Independence in India. How these revolutions have helped in poverty alleviation and food security in India?

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  • Health Sector – UHC, National Health Policy, Family Planning, Health Insurance, etc.

    Amoebic Meningoencephalitis

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

      • This year, Kerala faced a sudden surge in Amoebic Meningoencephalitis cases, caused by free-living amoebae (FLA) found in freshwater ponds, lakes, and rivers.
    • Kerala also saw a diverse range of amoebic infections, caused by Naegleria fowleri, Vermamoeba vermiforis, and Acanthamoeba.

    What is Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM)?

    • PAM is caused by the Naegleria fowleri, often referred to as the “brain-eating amoeba“. It destroys brain tissue, causing severe swelling and is fatal in most cases.
      • An amoeba is a type of cell or unicellular organism with the ability to alter its shape, primarily by extending and retracting pseudopods.
      • Higher temperatures of up to 115°F (46°C) are conducive to its growth and it can survive for short periods in warm environments.
    • The amoeba enters the body through the nose, typically during activities like swimming, and travels to the brain, causing severe damage.
    • PAM is also non-communicable.
    • Symptoms: Headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, and coma.
      • According to the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), most people with PAM die within 1 to 18 days after symptoms begin. It usually leads to coma and death after 5 days.

    Diagnosis and Treatment:

    • Currently, there are no established effective treatments for PAM.
    • Diagnosis involves PCR tests of cerebrospinal fluid, though detection can be challenging due to the rarity of PAM.
    • Treatment follows CDC guidelines, including miltefosine, Azithromycin, and Amphotericin B, with miltefosine recently procured by the State Health Department from Germany.
      • Medical interventions typically involve a combination of drugs, including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, rifampin, miltefosine, and dexamethasone.

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  • Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

    100 Years of Harappan Civilization

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    It has been 100 years since the discovery of the Harappan Civilization, announced by John Marshall on September 20, 1924.

    Harappa: Remains of a Civilization

    • The Harappan Civilization, also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, flourished between 2600 BCE and 1900 BCE, with earlier settlements dating back to 3200 BCE.
    • The origins of this civilisation are traced back to Mehrgarh in Balochistan, which dates to 7000 BCE.
    • It is considered one of the three earliest civilizations, alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia.
    • The civilization covered over 1.5 million sq. km, stretching across modern-day India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan.
    • Remains of the civilization include:
      • Well-planned cities with a grid layout, intersecting streets, and fortified structures.
      • Advanced drainage systems with underground sewers and covered drains, showing a strong emphasis on hygiene.
      • Granaries, warehouses, and dockyards, indicating the presence of structured trade and food storage mechanisms.
      • The discovery of seals made of steatite, often engraved with animals and an un-deciphered script, suggesting a sophisticated administrative system.
      • Craftsmanship in pottery, bead-making, terracotta figurines, metal artefacts, and weaving.
      • Water management systems such as reservoirs, wells, and baths, indicating an advanced understanding of hydraulic engineering.

    The Discoverers:

    • Two ASI archaeologists were credited with the discovery:
      • Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921-22, discovering seals, pottery, and beads.
      • Rakhal Das Banerji began excavating Mohenjo-daro in 1922, finding similar items such as seals and copper objects.
    • John Marshall noticed the similarity between the objects found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, despite the sites being 640 km apart.

    About the Mohenjo-daro Site:

    • Mohenjo-daro is one of the largest cities of the Harappan Civilization, located in the Sindh province of Pakistan, discovered in 1922 by Rakhal Das Banerji.
    • The city represents one of the finest examples of ancient urban planning:
      • Great Bath: A large, centrally located structure thought to be used for ritual bathing or religious ceremonies. It is considered one of the earliest public water tanks in history.
      • Granaries: Massive storage facilities near the citadel suggest an organized system of storing food for the community.
      • Citadel and Lower Town: The city was divided into a raised citadel for the ruling elite and a lower town for common people. Both areas had well-planned streets and residential complexes.
      • Drainage Systems: Mohenjo-daro featured covered drainage systems with individual toilets connected to the drainage network, showcasing an impressive public sanitation system.
      • Residential Buildings: Homes were built from uniform mud bricks, with courtyards and bathrooms, and were often multi-storied. The use of standardised brick sizes (ratio 1:2:4) and cubic weights showed their high degree of organisation.
    • Artefacts found at Mohenjo-daro include:
      • Seals with animal motifs and the un-deciphered Harappan script, believed to have been used for administrative or trade purposes.
      • Pottery and tools made of bronze and copper.
      • Terracotta figurines, jewellery, and toys that reflect a highly developed artistic culture.
      • Weights and measures based on a uniform standard, indicating the use of a standardized economic system.
    • The city’s streets were aligned north-south and east-west, cutting at right angles, allowing for efficient transportation, including bullock carts.
    • Mohenjo-daro is believed to have had trade links with Mesopotamia, as suggested by artefacts with Mesopotamian connections.

    PYQ:

    [2013] Which of the following characterizes/characterize the people of Indus Valley Civilization?

    1. They possessed great palaces and temples.

    2. They worshipped both male and female deities.

    3. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare.

    Select the correct statement/statements using the codes given below.

    (a) 1 and 2 only

    (b) 2 only

    (c) 1, 2 and 3

    (d) None of the statements given above is correct

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