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Type: Prelims Only

  • Parliament – Sessions, Procedures, Motions, Committees etc

    [pib] Estimates Committee of Parliament

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Parliament & State Legislatures

    Why in the news?

    The Lok Sabha Speaker inaugurated the National Conference of Estimates Committees of Parliament and State/UT Legislative Bodies in Mumbai.

    About the Estimates Committee:

    • Overview: The Estimates Committee is one of the 3 major financial standing committees of Parliament, along with the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) and the Committee on Public Undertakings (COPU).
    • Objective: It examines the budgetary estimates of ministries and departments and works to enhance economy, efficiency, and accountability in public expenditure.
    • Other name: Known as the “Continuous Economy Committee” because of its ongoing scrutiny of how public money is spent.
    • Legal Basis: The committee functions under Rule 310 of the Lok Sabha Rules of Procedure and Conduct of Business.
    • History: It was set up in 1950, based on a suggestion by then Finance Minister John Mathai.
    • Composition and Tenure:
      • Lok Sabha Exclusive: The committee has 30 members, all from the Lok Sabha; there is NO representation from the Rajya Sabha.
      • Election and Chairperson: Members are elected annually through proportional representation using a single transferable vote, and the Speaker appoints the Chairperson, typically from the ruling party.
      • Ministers are NOT eligible: If a member becomes a minister, he/she automatically vacate the seat on the committee.
      • Term Limit: Each member serves for a one-year term.

    Key Functions and Powers:

    • Scrutiny of Estimates: It reviews the budget estimates to suggest ways to reduce expenditure without affecting policy outcomes.
    • Suggesting Reforms: It recommends alternative administrative practices to minimise waste and improve efficiency.
    • Project Review: It undertakes study visits and reviews the implementation status of major public sector projects.
    • Report Submission: The committee submits detailed reports and suggestions to the Lok Sabha, which may lead to policy or format changes.
    • Follow-Up Mechanism: Ministries are required to submit Action Taken Reports (ATRs) on the committee’s recommendations.
    • Jurisdictional Limits: The committee CANNOT examine PSUs, as this role belongs exclusively to the Committee on Public Undertakings.
    [UPSC 2014] Which one of the following is the largest Committee of the Parliament?

    Options: (a) The committee on Public Accounts. (b) The committee on Estimates* (c) The Committee on Public Undertakings (d) The committee on Petition

     

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  • Telecom and Postal Sector – Spectrum Allocation, Call Drops, Predatory Pricing, etc

    Quantum 5G Fixed Wireless Access Broadband

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Why in the News?

    BSNL announced the soft launch of Quantum 5G Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) broadband in Hyderabad.

    About Quantum 5G FWA:

    • Overviews: It is India’s first SIM-less, fixed wireless access broadband service.
    • Development: It delivers fibre-like internet over 5G radio and was developed entirely by Indian vendors under the Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative.
    • How does it work?
      • Customers are provided with a CPE (Customer Premises Equipment) device that connects wirelessly to the nearest BSNL 5G base station.
      • The CPE auto-authenticates without requiring a SIM card, using Direct-to-Device technology.
      • Internet is delivered over the air, eliminating the need for trenching or fibre installation.
      • The service currently reaches 85% of Hyderabad households using BSNL’s existing tower infrastructure.

    Key Features:

    • Indigenous: Includes core network, RAN, and CPE, all developed by Indian vendors.
    • High Performance: Achieves up to 980 Mbps download, 140 Mbps upload, and <10 ms latency—ideal for streaming, gaming, and remote work.
    • Quick Setup: Customers can self-install the device with no need for physical fibre connections.
    • Enterprise Capability: Supports network slicing and Service Level Agreement (SLA)-backed links for MSMEs and industrial clusters.
    • Strategic Vision: Positions BSNL as a leader in next-generation broadband and enhances rural and urban connectivity.
    [UPSC 2019] With reference to communication technologies, what is/are the difference/differences between LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and VoLTE (Voice over Long-Term Evolution)?

    1. LTE ‘is commonly marketed as 3G, and VoLTE is commonly marketed as advanced 3G.

    2. LTE is data-only technology, and VoLTE is voice-only technology.

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*

     

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  • Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

    India’s First Epigraphical reference to Halley’s Comet found in Vijayanagar Period

    Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

    Why in the News?

    The first Indian inscriptional reference to Halley’s Comet has been discovered on a copper plate dated 1456 CE, from the Vijayanagar Period.

    What does the inscription say?

    • The inscription was found on a copper plate dated June 28, 1456 CE, during the Vijayanagar Empire, preserved at the Sri Mallikarjunaswamy temple in Srisailam, Andhra Pradesh.
    • Written in Sanskrit using the Nagari script, it describes the sighting of a comet (dhūmaketu) and a meteor shower, which coincide with the documented appearance of Halley’s Comet that year.
    • The inscription records a village grant made by King Mallikarjuna of Vijayanagar to a Vedic scholar named Limgaṇarya from Kaḍiyalapura (likely present-day Kaḍiyapulanka, Kadapa district).
    • The grant’s purpose is explicitly mentioned: “to mitigate the great calamity believed to arise due to the appearance of a comet and meteor shower”—a reference to traditional beliefs of such celestial events being inauspicious.
    • The Sanskrit phrase “Prakāśyāya mahōtpāta śāntyartham dattavān vibhuḥ” translates to “this grant was made in order to pacify the calamities that may arise due to the illuminating comets and meteor shower upon the king and his kingdom.”
    • Though dhūmaketus (comets) are referenced in ancient Indian astronomical texts, this is the earliest inscriptional record linking a comet to a specific historical date and royal response.

    Tap to read more about the Vijayanagara Empire.

    About Halley’s Comet:

    • Periodicity: It is one of the most famous periodic comets, visible from Earth approximately once every 76 years.
    • Behind its name: It is named after the English astronomer Edmond Halley, who correctly predicted its return in 1758 using Newton’s laws of motion.
    • Early observations: The comet has been recorded by observers around the world for over 2,000 years, including in Babylonian, Chinese, and mediaeval European sources.
    • Latest appearance: Halley’s Comet last appeared in 1986 and is expected to return in 2061.
    • Visibility: It is visible to the naked eye and appears as a bright streak of light with a glowing tail, caused by solar radiation vaporising its icy surface.
    • Significance: Its 1456 CE appearance was especially bright and visible across Europe and Asia, and now, for the first time, it has been identified in an Indian epigraphical record.
    [UPSC 2011] What is the difference between asteroids and comets?

    1. Asteroids are small rocky planetoids, while comets are formed of frozen gases held together by rocky and metallic material.

    2. Asteroids are found mostly between the orbits of Jupiter and Mars, while comets are found mostly between Venus and Mercury.

    3. Comets show a perceptible glowing tail, while asteroids do not.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 1 and 3 only* (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

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  • Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

    IIT-D demonstrates Quantum Communication over 1 Km

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Achievements Of Indians In S&T

    Why in the News?

    The Defence Ministry announced a breakthrough as IIT-Delhi and DRDO scientists successfully demonstrated quantum communication over 1 km in free space.

    What is Quantum Communication?

    • It is a new way of sending messages so safely that no one can secretly listen in.
    • It uses the laws of quantum physics, especially something called quantum entanglement, to make sure that if someone tries to spy on your message, you’ll know immediately.
    • In quantum entanglement, two tiny particles (like photons of light) are connected in a mysterious way—whatever happens to one instantly affects the other, even if they’re far apart.
    • Because of this, if someone tries to distort one particle, it changes, and the system knows the message isn’t safe anymore.
    • This makes quantum communication perfect for defence, banking, and sensitive messages that must stay secret.

    Quantum Key Distribution (QKD) – Explained Simply:

    • Imagine you want to lock a box and send it to your friend, but you also want them to have the key—without anyone else being able to copy it.
    • QKD is a special way to share that key safely, using quantum particles instead of metal keys.
    • Two people use entangled particles to create the same secret key, without anyone else knowing it.
    • If someone tries to intercept the key while it’s being shared, the particles will show signs of disturbance, and the system will know to discard it and try again.
    • Once both people have the same key, they can use it to lock and unlock messages using regular encryption tools.
    • QKD doesn’t send the actual message—it just safely shares the key that keeps messages secret.

    What did the IIT-Delhi team achieve?

    • A team led by IIT-Delhi, in collaboration with DRDO, successfully demonstrated entanglement-based quantum communication over 1 km in free space.
    • This was done within the IIT-Delhi campus and marks a key advancement from previous experiments using only optical fibre.
    • The demonstration achieved a secure key rate of 240 bits per second and maintained a quantum bit error rate (QBER) of under 7%, which is considered acceptable for real-world QKD.
    • This capability is a step toward achieving satellite-to-ground quantum communication, enabling encrypted keys to be distributed across vast regions without physical links.

    India’s Quantum Communication Journey So Far:

    • In 2022, Prof. Kanseri’s team first demonstrated quantum communication between Vindhyachal and Prayagraj.
    • In 2023, they expanded this capability to 380 km using standard telecom fibre, achieving a low QBER of 1.48%.
    • By 2024, the team established a QKD link spanning over 100 km of optical fibre, further pushing the reliability and reach of India’s quantum infrastructure.
    • These achievements are part of India’s larger effort under the National Quantum Mission (2023–2031), which has a budget of ₹6,000 crore to support R&D and deployment in quantum computing, sensing, and communication.
    • India now joins an elite group of nations—alongside China and the US—actively building toward a quantum-secure internet, with potential applications in defence, finance, telecom, and cybersecurity.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    I. It is expected that Majorana 1 chip will enable quantum computing. II. Majorana 1 chip has been introduced by Amazon Web Services (AWS). III. Deep learning is a subset of machine learning.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) I and only I (b) II and III only (c) I and III only* (d) I, II and III

     

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  • Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

    FASTag Annual Pass Scheme

    Prelims OnlySchemes | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Why in the News?

    Union Transport Minister announced a new FASTag-based Annual Pass system for private non-commercial vehicles (cars, jeeps, vans) to ensure smoother travel across National Highways.

    What are FASTags?

    • FASTag is a contactless toll payment system that uses Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) technology to enable automatic toll collection at National Highway toll plazas.
    • Managed by the National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) and National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI), it was launched in 2014 and became mandatory in 2021 for all four-wheeled vehicles.
    • It is a sticker affixed on a vehicle’s windshield, linked to a prepaid wallet or savings account. Toll charges are automatically deducted when the vehicle passes through an electronic toll gate.
    • It enhances convenience, reduces traffic congestion, and promotes digital payments across India’s highway network.
    • As per the Motor Vehicles Rules, FASTags are mandatory for all new four-wheelers and necessary for renewal of fitness certificates and national permits.

    About the FASTag Annual Pass Scheme:

    • Overview: It is a new initiative announced by the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways to provide cost-effective and hassle-free travel for private non-commercial vehicles.
    • Implementation: The pass will be effective from August 15, 2025, and is optional, intended for cars, jeeps, and vans (not for commercial vehicles).
    • Objectives: The scheme is designed to reduce per-trip costs (as low as ₹15/toll) and provide savings of up to ₹7,000 annually for frequent travelers.
    • Benefits: It allows unlimited passage at National Highway (NH) and National Expressway (NE) toll plazas for either:
      • One year, or
      • 200 toll crossings, whichever is earlier.

    Key Features:

    • Eligibility: Applicable only for non-commercial private vehicles with a valid, active FASTag linked to a registered vehicle number.
    • Activation: Can be activated via the Rajmargyatra mobile app or NHAI website with a one-time payment of ₹3,000 for FY 2025–26.
    • Validity: Covers 200 trips or one year and then reverts to regular FASTag mode unless renewed.
    • Trip Count:
      • Point-based plazas: Each pass counts as one trip per crossing.
      • Closed toll systems: Entry and exit combined count as one trip.
    • Transfer Restrictions: The pass is non-transferable and valid only for the vehicle on which the FASTag is registered.
    • Coverage: Valid only at NH and NE toll plazas managed by the Centre. It does not apply to state highway or local toll plazas.
    • Fee Revision: The base fee may be revised annually starting April 1 every year.
    • Existing Users: No need for a new FASTag if one is already affixed and active. The pass can be added on top of the existing tag after eligibility verification.
    [UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements:

    1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.

    2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.

    3. Bangladesh-China -India -Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China. How many of the above statements are correct? Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

     

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  • Indian Navy Updates

    Navy inducts INS Arnala

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Why in the News?

    INS Arnala, the first Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft (ASW-SWC), was officially commissioned into the Eastern Naval Command at the Naval Dockyard, Visakhapatnam.

    About INS Arnala:

    • What is it: INS Arnala is the first Anti-Submarine Warfare Shallow Water Craft (ASW-SWC) commissioned into the Eastern Naval Command on June 18, 2025, at Visakhapatnam.
    • Behind the name: It is named after the historic Arnala Fort near Vasai, Maharashtra.
    • Development: The vessel was designed by Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE) and built in partnership with L&T Shipbuilders under a Public-Private Partnership (PPP) model.
    • Project: It marks the beginning of the induction of 16 ASW-SWC class ships, aimed at enhancing India’s shallow water anti-submarine capabilities.

    Key Features:

    • Propulsion: 77.6 metres long; first Indian Navy warship powered by a Diesel Engine-Waterjet combination.
    • Indigenous Content: Over 80% indigenous systems, with contributions from BEL, L&T, Mahindra Defence, and over 55 MSMEs.
    • Arsenal: Equipped with a single centreline rocket launcher, lightweight torpedoes, anti-torpedo decoys, and mine-laying systems.
    • Sensor Suite: Incorporates Hull-Mounted Sonar (Abhay), Low-Frequency Variable Depth Sonar (LFVDS), and Underwater Acoustic Communication System (UWACS).
    • Multi-role Capability: Designed for ASW operations, Search and Rescue (SAR), low-intensity maritime operations, and subsurface surveillance in shallow coastal waters.

    Significance:

    • Strategic Defence Upgrade: Replaces ageing Abhay-class corvettes and significantly strengthens India’s anti-submarine warfare posture.
    • Enhanced Coastal Security: Ideal for detecting midget submarines and Unmanned Underwater Vehicles (UUVs) in waters less than 30 metres deep, where larger warships struggle to operate.
    • Make-in-India Milestone: Demonstrates India’s growing self-reliance in defence manufacturing and contributes to the Aatmanirbhar Bharat initiative.
    [UPSC 2016] Which one of the following is the best description of ‘INS Astradharini’, that was in the news recently?

    Options: (a) Amphibious warfare ship (b) Nuclear-powered submarine (c) Torpedo launch and recovery vessel* (d) Nuclear-powered aircraft carrier

     

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  • Start-up Ecosystem In India

    What is Reverse-Flipping?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Effects Of Liberalization On The Economy, Changes In Industrial Policy and their effects on Industrial Growth

    Why in the News?

    SEBI has introduced key regulatory relaxations to ease IPO norms and incentivize startups to shift their legal base back to India through reverse-flipping.

    About Reverse-Flipping:

    • Reverse-flipping refers to the process by which Indian startups that were earlier incorporated abroad shift their domicile back to India, making India their legal and operational headquarters.
    • It allows Indian companies to access domestic capital markets, reduce compliance complexity, and align with the evolving global tax and regulatory environment.
    • This shift helps startups tap Indian stock exchanges, reduce reliance on foreign jurisdictions, and benefit from a favorable Indian regulatory ecosystem.

    Types of Reverse-Flipping

    1. Share Swap Arrangement:
      • In this structure, shareholders of the foreign parent company exchange their shares for shares in the Indian subsidiary.
      • This process may trigger capital gains tax under the Income Tax Act, 1961, especially for Indian shareholders.
    1. Inbound Merger (Cross-Border Merger):
      • The foreign parent company merges with its Indian subsidiary, with the Indian entity becoming the surviving legal structure.
      • If all conditions under the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), the Companies Act, 2013, and National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) are met, this merger route can be tax-neutral.

    Key Features:

    • Domestic Listing Access: Startups gain access to Indian IPO markets and valuations.
    • Simplified Compliance: Reduced legal and regulatory complications from operating across jurisdictions.
    • Investor Incentives: SEBI now allows foreign venture funds and AIFs to be counted towards minimum promoter contribution in public issues.
    • ESOP Relaxation: SEBI has allowed promoters/founders to retain Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs) granted one year prior to the filing of the Draft Red Herring Prospectus (DRHP).
    • Capital Market Boost: The move supports India’s goal to become a global startup and financial hub by encouraging reverse-flipping.
    • Tax & Legal Alignment: Shifting domicile can help startups comply better with Indian tax and business laws.

    Note:

    Employee Stock Option Plans (ESOPs) are structured benefit schemes that grant employees the right to purchase shares of their company at a predetermined price—known as the exercise price—after completing a specific period.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:

    Statement I: As regards returns from an investment in a company, generally, bondholders are considered to be relatively at lower risk than stockholders.

    Statement II: Bondholders are lenders to a company whereas stockholders are its owners.

    Statement III: For repayment purpose, bondholders are prioritized over stockholders by a company.

    Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

    (a) Both Statement II and Statement III are correct and both of them explain Statement I *

    (b) Both Statement I and Statement II are correct and Statement I explains Statement II

    (c) Only one of the Statements II and III is correct and that explains Statement I

    (d) Neither Statement II nor Statement III is correct

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Legal mandate for One Nation, One Time 

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Salient Features Of World’S Physical Geography

    Why in the News?

    The Government of India has mandated the use of Indian Standard Time (IST) across all legal, commercial, digital, and administrative sectors.

    About Indian Standard Time (IST):

    • It is the official time zone of India, set at Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) +5:30 and based on the 82.5° E longitude passing through Mirzapur, Uttar Pradesh.
      • Neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka also use the same UTC+5:30 offset.
    • IST meridian passes through 5 Indian states: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Andhra Pradesh.
    • It was established in 1906, replacing older regional time zones like Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras Time.
    • It is maintained by the National Physical Laboratory (CSIR-NPL) using ultra-precise atomic clocks, which lose only one second in millions of years.
    • India does NOT observe daylight saving time; IST remains constant throughout the year.

    Back2Basics:

    Greenwich Mean Time (GMT):

    • GMT is the mean solar time at the Prime Meridian (0° longitude) located at the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, London.
    • It was established in 1884 during the International Meridian Conference as the world’s time standard.
    • It is based on astronomical observations, specifically the mean position of the Sun over time.
    • It does not change with the seasons and does not observe Daylight Saving Time (DST).
    • Although now largely replaced by UTC in scientific and civil contexts, GMT is still used in some regions (e.g., the UK during winter months).

    Coordinated Universal Time (UTC):

    • UTC is the primary time standard by which the world regulates clocks and time.
    • It was established in 1960 and is maintained by a network of high-precision atomic clocks worldwide.
    • UTC is adjusted periodically by leap seconds to compensate for the Earth’s irregular rotation speed.
    • It is used in aviation, computing, space science, and by international organisations like the UN and ITU.
    • Unlike GMT, which is purely solar-based, UTC combines atomic time (TAI) with occasional corrections for Earth’s rotation.

    IST in Context:

    • IST = GMT + 5:30
    • IST = UTC + 5:30

     

    Steps to Implement One Nation, One Time:

    [1] Time Dissemination Project:

    • It is a government initiative to ensure accurate, synchronised, and secure timekeeping across India.
    • It is led by the Department of Consumer Affairs, in collaboration with CSIR-NPL and ISRO.
    • Five Regional Reference Standard Laboratories (RRSLs) are being established in Ahmedabad, Bengaluru, Bhubaneswar, Faridabad, and Guwahati.
    • These labs use atomic clocks and protocols like Network Time Protocol (NTP) and Precision Time Protocol (PTP) to maintain accuracy within microseconds.

    [2] Legal Metrology (IST) Rules, 2025: Key Provisions

    • Mandatory Use of IST: IST, as maintained by CSIR-NPL, becomes the sole legally recognized time standard in India.
    • Prohibition of Foreign Time Sources: Use of foreign systems like GPS time will be banned unless specifically approved by the government.
    • Sync Requirements: All government bodies, financial institutions, power grids, and telecom operators must synchronize their systems with IST.
    • Audit and Compliance: The system will be monitored through periodic audits and penalties will be imposed for violations.
    • Special Exemptions: Activities such as scientific research, astronomy, and national security operations may use alternative time sources after government approval.

     

    [UPSC 2025] Consider the following countries:

    I. United Kingdom II. Denmark III. New Zealand IV. Australia V. Brazil How many of the above countries have more than four time zones?

    (a) All the five (b) Only four * (c) Only three (d) Only two

     

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  • Freedom of Speech – Defamation, Sedition, etc.

    Magna Carta: The ‘blueprint for democracy’

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution – historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

    Why in the News?

    On June 15, 1215, King John of England agreed to a seminal document called the Magna Carta, laying down principles that would help establish the foundations of modern democracies.

    About Magna Carta:

    • Overview: The Magna Carta, meaning “Great Charter” in Latin, was signed on June 15, 1215, at Runnymede near London by King John of England under pressure from rebel barons.
    • Content: The charter originally had 63 clauses, with two of the most important being:
      • Clause 39: Protection against arbitrary arrest and imprisonment.
      • Clause 40: Guarantee of justice without delay or denial.
    • Context: It was created in response to military defeats and excessive taxation, particularly following England’s loss at the Battle of Bouvines (1214).
    • Initial Setback: Though annulled by Pope Innocent III, it was reissued multiple times, especially under King Henry III, and became part of English statutory law.
    • How it dealt with the masses: Magna Carta was initially meant to protect free men—mainly land-owning nobles and barons, excluding women, serfs, and commoners.
    • Radical Impact: Despite its narrow scope, historians regard it as Europe’s most radical early check on monarchical authority.
    • Legal Influence: The charter influenced future legal systems, including the U.S. Constitution, Bill of Rights, and principles like habeas corpus.
    • Modern Relevance: Clauses 39 and 40 remain part of UK law today.
    • Significance: It is considered one of the earliest documents to limit royal power and lay the foundation for the rule of law and constitutional governance.

    Magna Carta of the Indian Constitution: Part III (Fundamental Rights)

    • Part III (Articles 12 to 35) of the Indian Constitution is often called the “Magna Carta of India”.
    • It guarantees justiciable Fundamental Rights, protecting citizens against arbitrary state action and forming the core of Indian democracy.
    • Why it’s called India’s Magna Carta?
      • Historical Parallel: Like the 1215 charter, Part III limits government power and guarantees individual freedoms.
      • Inspired by the U.S. Bill of Rights, it offers one of the most comprehensive rights charters in the world.
      • Legal enforceability empowers courts to uphold citizens’ rights and strike down unconstitutional laws.
    • Six Categories of Fundamental Rights:
      1. Right to Equality (Articles 14–18): Equality before law and prohibition of discrimination.
      2. Right to Freedom (Articles 19–22): Freedom of speech, movement, assembly, etc.
      3. Right against Exploitation (Articles 23–24): Ban on forced labour and child labour.
      4. Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25–28): Freedom to practice and propagate religion.
      5. Cultural and Educational Rights (Articles 29–30): Rights of minorities to preserve culture and run institutions.
      6. Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): Right to move the Supreme Court for enforcement of rights.
    [UPSC 2010] The ‘Instrument of Instructions’ contained in the Government of India Act 1935 have been incorporated in the Constitution of India in the year 1950 as:

    Options: (a) Fundamental rights (b) Directive Principles of State Policy* (c) Extent of executive power of State (d) Conduct of business of the Government of India

     

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  • [pib] Ancient Assam Fossils Link to Western Ghats Biodiversity 

    Prelims Only | Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

    Why in the News?

    In Assam’s Makum Coalfield, BSIP scientists found 24–23 million-year-old fossil leaves resembling today’s Nothopegia, now limited to the Western Ghats.

    [pib] Ancient Assam Fossils Link to Western Ghats Biodiversity 

    About the Nothopegia Fossil Discovery

    • Overview: Palaeo-scientists from Lucknow discovered fossil leaves in the Makum Coalfield of Assam. It dates back 24–23 million years to the late Oligocene epoch.
    • Oldest Known Record: These are the oldest known fossils of the Nothopegia genus, a tropical plant now endemic to the Western Ghats, not found in Northeast India today.
    • Identification Methods: Researchers used morphological analysis, herbarium comparisons, and cluster analysis to identify the fossil leaves.
    • Tropical Legacy: Nothopegia belongs to the Anacardiaceae family and reflects ancient tropical ecosystems that once existed in Northeast India.
    • Climate Reconstruction: Using the Climate Leaf Analysis Multivariate Program (CLAMP), scientists confirmed that the region once had a warm and humid climate, similar to the present-day Western Ghats.

    Why did Nothopegia disappear from the Northeast?

    • Tectonic Disruption: The collision of the Indian and Eurasian plates led to the rise of the Himalayas, drastically altering climate, rainfall, and wind patterns in Northeast India.
    • Habitat Loss: These shifts caused the region to cool and dry, rendering it unsuitable for tropical flora like Nothopegia.
    • Southward Migration: Over time, the plant spread to the Western Ghats, which offered a climatically stable refuge and allowed its survival.

    Significance of the Study:

    • Climate Lessons: The extinction and migration pattern of Nothopegia illustrates a deep-time example of species response to long-term climate change.
    • Scientific Value: Understanding ancient plant resilience aids in predicting survival pathways under current global warming scenarios.
    • Refuge Significance: The study highlights how climate refuges like the Western Ghats help preserve ancient lineages during major environmental changes.
    [UPSC 2025] Which of the following are the evidence of the phenomenon of continental drift?

    I. The belt of ancient rocks from the Brazil coast matches with those from Western Africa. II. The gold deposits of Ghana are derived from the Brazil plateau when the two continents lay side by side. III. The Gondwana system of sediments from India is known to have its counterparts in six different landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere.

    Select the correct answer using the code given below:

    Options: (a) I and III only (b) I and II only (c) I, II and III *(d) II and III only

     

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