Festivals, Dances, Theatre, Literature, Art in News

[pib] Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The International Buddhist Confederation (IBC) recently celebrated Ashadha Purnima, also known as Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas at Mulagandha Kuti Vihara, Sarnath.

About Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas:

First Sermon: It marks the day when Gautama Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment.
Date of Observance: The day is observed annually on the full moon of Ashadha (Ashadha Purnima), usually in July.
Name and Location: The sermon, called Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta, was delivered at Deer Park (Isipatana), Sarnath, near Varanasi.
Core Teachings Introduced: It laid the foundational teachings of Buddhism by introducing the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path.
Formation of Sangha: His five former ascetic companions—Kaundinya, Bhaddiya, Vappa, Mahanama, and Assaji—became the first monks of the Buddhist Sangha.
Symbolic Representation: The Dharma Chakra (Wheel of Dharma) symbolizes this “turning of the wheel of law” and spread of the Buddha’s teachings.
Significance:
- Monastic Practice: It marks the beginning of the Varsha Vassa, a three-month monastic retreat during the rainy season.
- Religious Importance: It is the second most important Buddhist festival after Buddha Purnima.

Modern Day Significance:

Ambedkarite Movement: In India, it is also significant for commemorating Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s conversion to Buddhism with his followers at Deekshabhoomi, Nagpur (14 October 1956).
Social Commitment: On this day, millions reaffirm their commitment to Buddhist values and the 22 vows taken to renounce caste-based discrimination.
Global Observance: The day is celebrated internationally under various names—Esala Poya (Sri Lanka), Asanha Bucha (Thailand), and Asadha Purnima (India).

Tap to read more about philosophical tenets of Buddhism.

Back2Basics: Buddhist Councils

Council	Date & Venue	Patron & President	Objective	Key Outcomes
1st Buddhist Council	483 BCE, Rajagriha (Bihar)	Ajatashatru (Haryanka dynasty), Presided by Mahakasyapa	To preserve the Buddha’s teachings after his Mahaparinirvana	– Vinaya Pitaka compiled by Upali (rules for monks) – Sutta Pitaka compiled by Ananda (discourses of Buddha)
2nd Buddhist Council	383 BCE, Vaishali (Bihar)	Kalasoka (Shishunaga dynasty), Presided by Sabakami	To resolve disputes over lax discipline and the ‘Ten Points’ followed by Vaishali monks	– Split into Sthaviravadins (orthodox) and Mahasamghikas (liberal) – Reaffirmation of stricter Vinaya rules
3rd Buddhist Council	247 BCE, Pataliputra (Patna)	Ashoka (Maurya dynasty), Presided by Moggaliputta Tissa	To eliminate heretical monks and consolidate Buddhist doctrine	– Compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka – Composition of Kathavattu (philosophical debates) – Launch of Buddhist missions to 9 countries
4th Buddhist Council	72 CE, Kashmir	Kanishka (Kushan dynasty), Presided by Vasumitra (with Asvaghosha)	To formalize doctrines and address doctrinal splits	– Formal split into Hinayana and Mahayana schools – Compilation of Vibhasha Sastras (commentaries)
5th Buddhist Council	1871 CE, Mandalay (Burma)	Burmese Monarchy	To preserve Buddhist texts	– 729 stone slabs inscribed with the Pali Canon – Considered a Burmese affair; not internationally recognized
6th Buddhist Council	1954 CE, Yangon (Burma)	Burmese Govt & International Sangha	To commemorate 2500 years of Buddhism and preserve Theravada canon	– Global recitation and review of entire Pali Canon – Participation from monks across Buddhist countries

[UPSC 2008] The concept of Eight-fold path forms the theme of-

Options: (a) Dipavamsa (b) Divyavadana (c) Mahaparinibban Sutta (d) Dharma Chakara Pravartana Sutta*

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Innovations in Sciences, IT, Computers, Robotics and Nanotechnology

What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Why in the News?

Researchers conducted the most precise global comparison of 10 Optical Atomic Clocks to pave the way for redefining the second by 2030, replacing Caesium Clocks with more accurate Optical ones.

Definition of a Second:

The current SI unit of time is based on caesium-133 (Cs) atomic clocks.
In 1967, one second was defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of a Cs-133 atom.
In these clocks, a microwave signal is tuned until Cs atoms react maximally, ensuring the frequency is precisely 9,192,631,770 Hz.
Frequency dividers count this microwave frequency, providing one tick per second, thus realizing the SI second.

About Caesium Atomic Clocks:

Overview: Caesium atomic clocks are devices that define the current SI unit of time (second) using the oscillation frequency of caesium-133 atoms.
SI Second Standard: One second is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 cycles of microwave radiation corresponding to the transition between two energy levels of the caesium-133 atom.
Working Principle: These clocks work by tuning microwave signals to resonate with caesium atoms and then counting the resulting waves to measure time precisely.
Stability and Usage: They are highly stable and have been used since 1967 to set international time standards.
Applications: They are used in GPS systems, telecommunications, scientific research, and by national metrology institutions like India’s National Physical Laboratory (NPL).
Accuracy: A typical caesium atomic clock loses about one second every 300 million years.

What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

Overview: They are advanced timekeeping devices that use optical (visible light) frequency transitions in atoms like Strontium (Sr) or Ytterbium (Yb).
Measurement Basis: These clocks measure time based on the oscillation of light emitted when atoms transition between energy levels at hundreds of trillions of Hz.
Example Frequencies:
- Strontium: ~429 trillion Hz
- Ytterbium ions: over 642 trillion Hz
Precision Tools: They require lasers and optical frequency combs to count these rapid oscillations accurately.
Future Standard: They are being tested worldwide and are expected to replace caesium clocks by 2030 for redefining the SI second.

How Optical Atomic Clocks are Better than Caesium ones?

Higher Frequency Operation: Optical clocks operate at much higher frequencies, allowing division of time into finer intervals.
Improved Precision: By counting 10,000 times more oscillations per second, optical clocks achieve significantly higher precision and stability.
Unmatched Accuracy: An optical atomic clock using strontium reportedly drifts by less than one second in 15 billion years, compared to 300 million years for caesium clocks.
Advanced Applications: Their precision is critical for: Next-gen GPS systems, Gravitational wave detection, Climate monitoring and research etc.
Ultra-High Synchronization: Optical clocks enable cross-continental synchronization at 18 decimal place accuracy, essential for global time coordination.
Noise Resilience: They offer greater resistance to environmental noise and external disturbances, improving long-term reliability.

[UPSC 2023] Which one of the following countries has its own Satellite Navigation System?

Options: (a) Australia (b) Canada (c) Israel (d) Japan*

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)

IOCR Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations are facing a credibility crisis, as years of underperformance, weak accountability, and neglect of developing countries’ concerns have created growing frustration.

About the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

Overview: The UNFCCC is an international treaty adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to address climate change by stabilizing greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations in the atmosphere.
Entry into Force: The Convention entered into force on 21 March 1994 and currently has 197 Parties, including all UN member states.
Governing Body – COP: The Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body under the UNFCCC, which meets annually to assess progress and set new targets.
Consensus-Based Process: The Convention operates on the principle of consensus, meaning all Parties must agree for a decision to be adopted.
Article 2 Objective: The objective of the UNFCCC, as per Article 2, is to stabilize GHG levels at a point that prevents dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.
Key Agreements: The UNFCCC framework led to major global climate agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015).
Institutional Structure: It has three main institutional bodies:

1. SBSTA: Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice
2. SBI: Subsidiary Body for Implementation
3. UNFCCC Secretariat: Headquartered in Bonn, Germany

Party Classifications:
- Annex I: Developed countries (OECD + Economies in Transition); Obligated to reduce GHG emissions and submit regular reports.
- Annex II: Subset of Annex I (OECD members); Required to provide financial and technological support to developing countries.
- Non-Annex I: Developing countries; No binding emission targets but eligible for support and encouraged to act voluntarily.
- LDCs (Least Developed Countries): Low-income, highly vulnerable nations; Receive priority support under UNFCCC for adaptation and capacity building.

India and the UNFCCC:

Ratification: India ratified the UNFCCC in 1993 and has participated actively in all COP meetings since then.
Party Classification: India is classified as a Non- Annex I Party, meaning it has no binding emission reduction targets under the Convention.
Paris Agreement Commitments: Under the Paris Agreement (2015), India submitted Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs), including:
- Reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 45% by 2030 from 2005 levels
- Achieving 50% cumulative electric power capacity from non-fossil fuel sources by 2030
Climate Diplomacy:
- India advocates the principle of Common But Differentiated Responsibilities and Respective Capabilities (CBDR–RC) in all negotiations.
- India co-founded the International Solar Alliance (ISA) and launched the LiFE Movement (Lifestyle for Environment) to promote sustainable lifestyles.
- India has opposed unilateral trade measures such as the EU’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) at multiple climate forums.

Issues with the UNFCCC Process:

Weak Enforcement: The process lacks enforcement mechanisms; countries that fail to meet commitments face no penalties.
Consensus Delays: The consensus-based approach often leads to delays and diluted agreements due to the ability of a few nations to block progress.
Unmet Commitments: Developed countries have not fulfilled the promised $100 billion per year in climate finance, which was due by 2020.
Neglected Developing Country Needs: Critical needs for adaptation finance, capacity building, and technology transfer remain largely unmet for developing nations.
Controversial Host Nations: The selection of host countries (e.g., UAE for COP28 and Azerbaijan for COP29) has drawn criticism due to their fossil fuel dependence.
Demand for Reforms: At the Bonn Climate Conference (2024), developing countries called for reforms such as:
- Shifting to majority-based decision-making
- Imposing limits on fossil fuel industry participation in climate talks

[UPSC 2016] With reference to the Agreement at the UNFCCC Meeting in Paris in 2015, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The Agreement was signed by all the member countries of the UN and it will go into effect in 2017.

2. The Agreement aims to limit the greenhouse gas emissions so that the rise in average global temperature by the end of this century does not exceed 2°C or even 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels.

3. Developed countries acknowledged their historical responsibility in global warming and committed to donate $1000 billion a year from 2020 to help developing countries to cope with climate change.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 and 3 only (b) 2 only (c) 2 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Climate Change Negotiations – UNFCCC, COP, Other Conventions and Protocols

Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanisms (CBAM)

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

BRICS group has condemned and rejected the European Union’s Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM) and other similar climate-linked trade measures.

What Is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

Overview: It is a climate-related import duty imposed by the European Union on goods whose production involves higher carbon emissions than what is permitted in the EU.
Policy Framework: CBAM is part of the EU’s “Fit for 55” climate package, aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 compared to 1990 levels.
Scope of Coverage: The policy requires importers to declare the volume and embedded carbon emissions of certain goods, such as steel, aluminium, cement, fertiliser, hydrogen, and electricity.
Compliance Mechanism: To offset these emissions, EU importers must surrender CBAM certificates, priced based on the EU Emissions Trading System (ETS).
Carbon Price Adjustment: If a non-EU producer has already paid a carbon price in their country, that amount can be deducted from the CBAM charge.
Implementation Timeline: The transitional phase of CBAM is underway from 2023 to 2025, and the definitive regime begins on January 1, 2026.

Issues with CBAM:

Trade Discrimination Concerns: Developing countries, including India and China, argue that CBAM imposes unilateral, punitive, and discriminatory trade restrictions under the guise of environmental protection.
Violation of Climate Agreements: It is viewed as a violation of Paris Agreement, which upholds the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities.
Neglect of Historical Emissions: Countries in the Global South contend that climate-related trade tools like CBAM ignore historical emissions and disproportionately impact countries still reliant on carbon-intensive development.

Implications of CBAM for India:

Impact on Exports: Indian exports, particularly in iron, steel, aluminium, and cement, will face additional scrutiny and carbon charges under CBAM, reducing their competitiveness.
Carbon Taxation Timeline: From January 1, 2026, carbon taxes will be levied on each shipment to the EU in specific sectors, ranging from 19.8% to 52.7% in potential carbon levies.
High Carbon Intensity Risk: India’s high carbon intensity, primarily due to its 75% dependence on coal, makes its products more vulnerable to CBAM tariffs.

[UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

Statement-I: Carbon markets are likely to be one of the most widespread tools in the fight against climate change.

Statement-II: Carbon markets transfer resources from the private sector to the State.

Which one of the following is correct in respect of the above statements?

Options: (a) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is the correct explanation for Statement-I (b) Both Statement-I and Statement-II are correct and Statement-II is not the correct explanation for Statement-I ** (c) Statement-I is correct but Statement-II is incorrect (d) Statement-I is incorrect but Statement-II is correct

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Roads, Highways, Cargo, Air-Cargo and Logistics infrastructure – Bharatmala, LEEP, SetuBharatam, etc.

High Security Registration Plates (HSRPs)

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Governance, Transparency & Accountability, Citizens Charters
Why in the News?

Maharashtra’s transport department has now made HSRP number plate mandatory with a final deadline set for 15 August.

What is a High-Security Registration Plate (HSRP)?
- About: It is a standardised, tamper-proof vehicle number plate mandated for all vehicles in India.
- Launch: It was officially introduced in 2001 under Rule 50 of the Central Motor Vehicle Rules (CMVR), 1989, and later made mandatory by the Supreme Court in 2012.
- Composition: The plate is made of aluminium and includes several embedded security features to prevent counterfeiting and enhance traceability.
- Key Features:
- - Each HSRP is fitted with a non-removable snap lock that prevents tampering or re-use.
  - The plate contains a laser-etched 10-digit unique identification number, linking it to the vehicle’s registration details.
  - A chromium-based hologram of the Ashoka Chakra is embedded to authenticate the plate and prevent duplication.
  - A retro-reflective film improves night-time visibility and supports automated detection systems.
  - A colour-coded third registration sticker is affixed to the vehicle’s windshield displaying key information like engine number, chassis number, and registration number.
  - The plate is embedded with RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) technology, allowing authorities to digitally track the vehicle for enforcement and traffic management purposes.
Compliance and Enforcement in India:
- HSRPs are mandatory for all vehicles registered after April 1, 2019, as per Ministry of Road Transport and Highways (MoRTH) guidelines.
- Vehicles registered before April 1, 2019 must retrofitted with HSRPs by deadlines set by respective state governments.
- The Supreme Court and Ministry of Road Transport have directed states to enforce HSRP installation strictly to enhance road safety and curb vehicle-related crimes.
- In case of non-compliance, vehicle owners are liable for a fine of ₹1,000 under Rule 50 of CMVR and Section 177 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988.
- Transport departments across states, including Maharashtra, are conducting daily enforcement drives, issuing challans and directing retrofitting at authorised centres.
- Several states have authorised zone-wise vendors to streamline installation, and vehicle owners must pre-book appointments online for HSRP fitting.
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Primary and Secondary Education – RTE, Education Policy, SEQI, RMSA, Committee Reports, etc.

PARAKH Survey reveals deficits in Student Learning

DOMR Prelims Only | Indian Society | Mains Paper 2: Health & Education

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Education recently released the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) Report, an extensive nationwide student performance assessment for Grades 3, 6, and 9.

About PARAKH:

Full Form: PARAKH stands for Performance Assessment, Review, and Analysis of Knowledge for Holistic Development.
Establishment: It was established in 2023 as an autonomous institution under the National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT).
Vision and Role: PARAKH functions as India’s national assessment regulator, aiming to standardize school-level assessments across states and boards.
Policy Alignment: The initiative is aligned with the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020, which promotes competency-based, equitable, and inclusive learning.
Core Objective: Its main objective is to develop norms, standards, and guidelines for assessing learning outcomes at the national level.
Key Functions:
- Standardization of Boards: PARAKH seeks to ensure equivalence in academic standards across various state and central school boards.
- Assessment Focus: It designs and implements competency-based assessments, moving away from rote learning.
- Progress Tracking: The unit is responsible for developing Holistic Progress Cards across the Foundational, Preparatory, Middle, and Secondary stages.
- Survey Execution: It conducts Large-Scale Achievement Surveys, such as the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) (formerly known as the National Achievement Survey (NAS) launched in 2021) to track student learning outcomes at scale.

Key Highlights of the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) Report – 2024:

Scale of the Survey: Assessed over 21.15 lakh students from Grades 3, 6, and 9, across 74,229 schools in 781 districts.
Top performers: Punjab, Kerala, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, and Dadra & Nagar Haveli and Daman & Diu; low-performing districts were concentrated in Meghalaya, Jharkhand, and Arunachal Pradesh.
- In Grade 3, around 60–70% of students demonstrated basic reading, vocabulary, and early math skills, though many struggled with geometry and spatial reasoning.
- In Grade 6, fewer than 40% could solve real-life arithmetic problems or understand fractions, indicating gaps in conceptual understanding and application.
- In Grade 9, only 28–31% applied percentages or understood number systems; less than half grasped core civic and scientific concepts such as the Constitution, biodiversity, or electricity.

[UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘National Skills Qualification Framework (NSQF)’, which of the statements given below is/are correct?

1. Under NSQF, a learner can acquire the certification for competency only through formal learning. 2. An outcome expected from the implementation of NSQF is the mobility between vocational and general education.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

Prelims Only Species | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Why in the News?

The Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)—Kerala’s State bird and a symbol of forest biodiversity—was spotted far outside its usual habitat.

Rare Great Hornbill sighted in Kerala

About the Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)

Overview: The Great Hornbill (Buceros bicornis) is the largest hornbill species found in India.
Attributes: It is known for its striking yellow casque on the upper mandible, which is hollow and used in vocalisation and courtship.
Official Recognition: It is the State Bird of Kerala (as well as Arunachal Pradesh) and is revered in many indigenous cultures for its majestic appearance.
Conservation Status: It is listed as Endangered by the IUCN and is protected under Schedule I of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.
Habitat: It primarily inhabit evergreen and moist deciduous forests, especially in the Western Ghats, the Himalayan foothills, and Northeast India.
Prey Behaviour: They are frugivorous, feeding mainly on figs and other forest fruits, but they may occasionally consume small mammals, birds, and insects.
Ecological Significance: They are known as ‘forest engineers’ or ‘farmers of the forest’, they play a key role in seed dispersal of tropical trees, indicating the health and balance of their forest ecosystems.

[UPSC 2016] In which of the following regions of India are you most likely to come across the ‘Great Indian Hornbill’ in its natural habitat? Options: (a) Sand deserts of northwest India (b) Higher Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir (c) Salt marshes of western Gujarat (d) Western Ghats *

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Coal and Mining Sector

RECLAIM Framework for Inclusive Mine Closure

Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

Why in the News?

The Ministry of Coal has launched RECLAIM Framework— A Community Engagement and Development Framework for Mine Closure and Repurposing.

About the RECLAIM Framework:

Launch: The Ministry of Coal has launched the RECLAIM framework to guide inclusive and sustainable coal mine closures in India.
Developed By: The framework was developed by the Coal Controller Organisation in collaboration with the Heartfulness Institute.
Objective: It aims to ensure a just, inclusive, and locally relevant transition for communities affected by mine closures.
Inclusivity Measures: The framework places special emphasis on gender equity, the inclusion of vulnerable groups, and alignment with Panchayati Raj Institutions to enhance accountability and relevance.

Key Features of the Framework:

Guidelines: Mine closure guidelines were introduced in 2009 and revised in 2013 and 2020 to improve environmental safety and social accountability.
Community Engagement: The framework promotes community-centric planning by actively involving local stakeholders in mine closure processes.
Equity and Representation: It prioritizes the inclusion of women and marginalized groups to ensure that benefits are distributed equitably.
Institutional Convergence: RECLAIM aligns mine closure planning with existing institutional structures, especially Panchayati Raj Institutions and local governance systems.
Phased Implementation: The framework follows three phases:
- Pre-Closure: Includes needs assessments and capacity building.
- Closure: Involves participatory execution of closure plans.
- Post-Closure: Focuses on monitoring, livelihood restoration, and asset repurposing.
Support Tools: RECLAIM is backed by field-tested tools, templates, and methodologies tailored to the Indian mining context.
Broader Impact: It supports the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and can be replicated in other resource-intensive sectors and states.

Challenges in Coal Mine Closure in India:

Policy–Practice Gap: Despite guidelines issued in 2009, only three coal mines have been formally closed as of 2024.
Low Compliance: Out of 299 non-operational coal mines, only eight have applied for formal closure, while the rest remain unscientifically abandoned.
Environmental Risks: Abandoned mines lead to methane emissions, ecological degradation, increased accident risks, and illegal mining.
Community Displacement: Unsustainable mining has caused unemployment and migration, reducing community engagement during closure planning.
Land Return Issues: India lacks a clear policy for returning post-mining land to original owners or communities.
Policy Gaps in Draft Bill: The 2024 Draft Coal Bearing Areas (CBA) Amendment Bill proposes land return but lacks clarity on enforcement mechanisms.
Financial Barriers: High escrow fund requirements—₹14 lakh per hectare for opencast mines—discourage mine operators from initiating closure processes.

[UPSC 2019] Consider the following statements:

The coal sector was nationalized by the Government of India under Indira Gandhi.
Now, coal blocks are allocated on lottery basis.
Till recently, India imported coal to meet the shortages of domestic supply, but now India is self-sufficient in coal production.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

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Modern Indian History-Events and Personalities

125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

Prelims Only | History | Mains Paper 1: Post-Independence

Why in the News?

Prime Minister Modi has paid respectful tributes to eminent thinker and educationist Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee on his 125th birth anniversary.

125th Birth Anniversary of Syama Prasad Mookerjee

About Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953):

Early life: He was born on July 6, 1901, in Kolkata, West Bengal.
Academics: He studied at Presidency College and the University of Calcutta, where he excelled academically.
Professional Career: He became a barrister after being called to the English Bar at Lincoln’s Inn, London. At the age of 33, he was appointed Vice-Chancellor of Calcutta University, one of the youngest to hold the post.
Association with Freedom Movement: He began his political journey with the Indian National Congress. Later, he joined the Hindu Mahasabha, becoming its president.
Demise: He died in 1953, while in custody in Jammu and Kashmir, under mysterious circumstances that remain controversial to this day.

His Contributions:

Role in Pre-Independence Politics:

- He served as the Finance Minister of Bengal under British rule.
- He resigned in 1942, protesting British policies during the Quit India Movement.
- He became a strong voice against British repression and for Indian self-rule.

Advocacy for Partition of Bengal:

- He advocated the partition of Bengal to safeguard Hindu interests during the run-up to Partition.
- His efforts contributed to the creation of a separate West Bengal within the Indian Union.

Minister in Nehru’s Cabinet:

- After independence, he served as India’s first Minister for Industry and Supply in Jawaharlal Nehru’s cabinet.
- In 1950, he resigned from the cabinet in protest against the Nehru-Liaquat Pact.
- He believed the pact failed to protect the Hindu minorities in East Bengal (now Bangladesh).

Founding of Bharatiya Jana Sangh (1951):

- In 1951, Mookerjee founded the Bharatiya Jana Sangh with ideological support from the RSS.
- The party aimed to present a nationalist alternative to the Congress Party.

Opposition to Article 370:

- Mookerjee strongly opposed Article 370, which gave special status to Jammu and Kashmir.
- He believed the article promoted separatism and weakened national integration.
- He famously declared that- “One country cannot have two constitutions, two prime ministers, and two flags.”

Legacy:

- Mookerjee’s thoughts continue to influence the ideological foundation and policies of the far right political parties.
- He is remembered as a champion of national unity, constitutional equality, and strong central integration.

[UPSC 2024] Consider the following pairs:

Party: Its Leader

1. Bharatiya Jana Sangh : Dr. Shyama Prasad Mukherjee 2. Socialist Party : C. Rajagopalachari 3. Congress for Democracy : Jagjivan Ram 4. Swatantra Party : Acharya Narendra Dev How many of the above are correctly matched?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

Vera C Rubin Observatory

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields
Why in the News?

The Vera C. Rubin Observatory has recently begun a 10-year project to study dark matter and dark energy using a 3,200-megapixel camera (of the Simonyi Survey Telescope) from its site in the Chilean Andes.

About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:
- Location: The Vera C. Rubin Observatory is situated on Cerro Pachón in the Chilean Andes, at an altitude of 8,684 feet.
- Naming: It is named after Vera C. Rubin, the astronomer who first provided robust observational evidence for the existence of dark matter in the 1970s.
- Survey Duration: The observatory will carry out a 10-year continuous survey of the entire southern sky.
- Data Volume: It is designed to collect approximately 20 terabytes of astronomical data per night.
- Observation System: The telescope operates using an automated scripting system that selects observation targets dynamically, rather than through manual scheduling.
- Objectives: Its key goals include understanding the formation of galaxies, identifying a possible ninth planet, detecting potentially hazardous asteroids, and studying the nature of dark matter and dark energy.
Key Features:
- Telescope Design: The observatory uses the Simonyi Survey Telescope, which features a three-mirror optical system for wide-field imaging.
- How big is it: It has a field of view of 9.6 square degrees (compared to 0.04 sq. deg. for Hubble and 0.11 sq. deg. for James Webb), a 3,200-megapixel camera (vs. Hubble’s ~1.0 MP).
- Field of View: It can capture a field of view equivalent to 40 full Moons in a single exposure — far wider than traditional space telescopes.
- Spectral Filters: The camera includes six optical filters that capture data from across the electromagnetic spectrum, including ultraviolet and infrared light.
- Slewing Speed: The telescope is the fastest-moving large telescope, capable of repositioning and stabilizing in just 5 seconds.
- Imaging Frequency: It can take up to 1,000 images per night, allowing it to scan the entire sky every three nights.
- Change Detection: Its automated software compares new and old images to detect changes, issuing up to 10 million alerts per night for transient astronomical events.
Breakthrough Discoveries:
- First Light: The observatory released its first test images on June 23, 2025.
- Initial Discoveries: Within 10 hours of collecting engineering data, it identified 2,104 new asteroids, including 7 near-Earth objects (NEOs).
- Expected Discoveries: Over the full 10-year mission, it is projected to discover over 5 million asteroids and around 100,000 NEOs.
- Impact on Database: These findings would triple the current global inventory of known asteroids.
- Universe Mapping: The observatory will produce the most detailed map of the large-scale structure of the universe to date.
- Dark Matter Study: The data will support analysis of dark matter, which constitutes 27% of the universe’s composition.
- Dark Energy Study: It will also help scientists understand dark energy, which makes up 68% of the universe and drives cosmic expansion.
- Visible Matter Context: Only 5% of the universe is composed of visible matter, making the observatory’s data essential to studying the remaining 95%.
[UPSC 2002] The world’s highest ground-based telescopic observatory is located in:

Options: (a) Colombia (b) India (c) Nepal (d) Switzerland
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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

About Dhammachakra Pravartana Divas:

Modern Day Significance:

Back2Basics: Buddhist Councils

Why in the News?

Definition of a Second:

About Caesium Atomic Clocks:

What are Optical Atomic Clocks?

How Optical Atomic Clocks are Better than Caesium ones?

Why in the News?

About the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC):

India and the UNFCCC:

Issues with the UNFCCC Process:

Why in the News?

What Is the Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM)?

Issues with CBAM:

Implications of CBAM for India:

Why in the News?

What is a High-Security Registration Plate (HSRP)?

Compliance and Enforcement in India:

Why in the News?

About PARAKH:

Key Highlights of the PARAKH Rashtriya Sarvekshan (RS) Report – 2024:

Why in the News?

About the Great Hornbill (Malamuzhakki Vezhambal)

Why in the News?

About the RECLAIM Framework:

Key Features of the Framework:

Challenges in Coal Mine Closure in India:

Why in the News?

About Syama Prasad Mookerjee (1901-1953):

His Contributions:

Why in the News?

About Vera C. Rubin Observatory:

Key Features:

Breakthrough Discoveries: