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Type: Prelims Only

  • In news: Lipulekh Pass

    Why in the News?

    India has rejected Nepal’s objection to resumption of India–China border trade through the Lipulekh Pass in Uttarakhand.

    About Lipulekh Pass:

    • Location: High-altitude Himalayan pass (~17,000 ft) near the trijunction of India, Nepal, and China (Tibet).
    • Connectivity: Links Uttarakhand’s Kumaon region with Taklakot in Tibet.
    • Cultural Role: Serves as the shortest route for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra.
    • Trade Importance: Historic India–China trade route since 1954; disrupted during COVID-19 but later resumed.
    • Strategic Significance: Crucial for India due to its proximity to the India–China–Nepal border.

    What is Limpiyadhura–Lipulekh–Kalapani Dispute?

    • Origin: Rooted in the 1815 Treaty of Sugauli (Nepal–British East India Company), fixing Nepal’s western boundary at the Kali (Mahakali) River.
    • India’s Position: Claims Kali River originates near Lipulekh, placing Lipulekh and Kalapani within India.
    • Nepal’s Position: Claims Kali River originates at Limpiyadhura, extending Nepal’s boundary east to include Lipulekh and Kalapani.
    • Disputed Area: About 370 sq. km., under Indian administration since the 19th century.
    • Recent Development: In 2020, Nepal issued a new map showing Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani as its territory; India rejected the claim citing lack of historical basis.

    Back2Basics: India–Nepal Border Disputes

    • Border Length: India and Nepal share a 1,770 km long open border across five Indian states – Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, and Sikkim.
    • Key Disputes:
      • Kalapani–Lipulekh–Limpiyadhura (Uttarakhand): Discussed above.
      • Susta (Uttar Pradesh–Nepal border): Caused by Gandak River’s shifting course, leading to encroachments and overlapping claims.
    • Tensions: Despite close ties, disputes often cause diplomatic strains.
    • Positions: India relies on historical treaties and long-standing administration, while Nepal asserts sovereignty and constitutional recognition of disputed territories.

     

    [UPSC 2007] Which one of the following Himalayan passes was reopened around in the middle of the year 2006 to facilitate trade between India and China?

    Options : (a) Chang La (b) Jara La (c) Nathu La* (d) Shipki La

     

  • Gopal Patha and Direct Action Day

    Why in the News?

    A recent movie depicted the 1946 “Great Calcutta Killing” — four days of communal riots on Direct Action Day (August 16, 1946), spotlighting Gopal Patha’s role in mobilising Hindu youth.

    About Direct Action Day:

    • Declaration: Called by the All-India Muslim League to press for Partition and creation of Pakistan.
    • Bengal Role: Muslim League’s H. S. Suhrawardy (then Bengal Premier) declared 16 August a public holiday.
    • Mass Rally: Nearly 1,00,000 gathered at the Maidan, Calcutta; addressed by Suhrawardy and Khwaja Nazimuddin.
    • Violence: Immediate communal clashes broke out, remembered as the Great Calcutta Killing.
    • Casualties: 5,000–10,000 killed; ~15,000 injured.
    • Spread: Violence lasted four days (16–19 August), army intervention required; later spread to Bombay, Noakhali, Bihar, Punjab.

    Who was Gopal Patha (Gopal Mukherjee)?

    • Background: Born 1916 in Bowbazar, Calcutta; nicknamed Patha (goat) since family ran a College Street mutton shop.
    • Gang Leader: Headed a street group of ~800 men; mobilized masses for defense during riots.
    • Approach: Declared aim was to retaliate against rioters but forbade harm to women, children, or ordinary people.
    • Links: Associated with revolutionary groups like Atma Unnati Samiti; influenced by Subhas Chandra Bose.
    [UPSC 2002] The last opportunity to avoid the partition of India was lost with the rejection of:

    Options: (a) Cripps Mission (b) Rajagopalachari Formula (c) Cabinet Mission* (d) Wavell Plan

     

  • Simplified two-rate GST Structure

    Why in the News?

    • The Group of Ministers (GoM) on Rate Rationalisation has accepted the Centre’s proposal to simplify GST into a two-rate structure.
    • The recommendation will now be placed before the GST Council for final approval.

    https://www.thehindu.com/business/Economy/gom-on-rate-rationalisation-approves-centres-two-rate-gst-proposal/article69959558.ece 

    About Goods and Services Tax (GST):

    • Nature: Comprehensive, multi-stage, destination-based indirect tax on goods and services.
    • Introduction: Launched July 1, 2017, via the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2016.
    • Replaced Taxes: Subsumed excise duty, value-added tax (VAT), service tax, etc.
    • Objectives: One Nation–One Tax, reduce cascading taxation, simplify compliance, expand tax base.
    • Structure: Five slabs – 0%, 5%, 12%, 18%, 28%, with cess on luxury/sin goods (tobacco, cars, online gaming).
    • Exemptions: Essential goods (food, medicines, education items) in 0% slab. Petroleum, alcohol, and electricity remain outside GST.

    Proposed Two-Rate GST Structure:

    • Reforms: Removal of 12% and 28% slabs; only 5% and 18% to remain.
    • Reclassification: 99% of 12% items → 5% slab; 90% of 28% items → 18% slab.
    • New Slab: 40% rate for demerit goods (tobacco, luxury cars, real-money gaming).
    • Cess: Compensation cess on 28% items to end.
    • Timeline: Implementation expected October 2025 (Diwali).

    Policy Rationale & Concerns:

    • Simplification: From four slabs to two, easing compliance and transparency.
    • Consumption Boost: Lower rates on daily goods to benefit households and Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs).
    • Compliance Gains: Less scope for disputes, litigation, and evasion.
    • Economic Signal: Projects confidence in domestic consumption as growth driver.
    • State Concerns: States, including Kerala, warn of revenue loss; call for compensation mechanism.
    [UPSC 2018] Consider the following items:

    1. Cereal grains hulled 2. Chicken eggs cooked 3. Fish processed and canned 4. Newspapers containing advertising material

    Which of the above items is/are exempted under GST (Goods and Services Tax)?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 only (c) 1, 2 and 4 only *(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4

     

  • [pib] Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR)

    Why in the News?

    The Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Limited (BHAVINI) 500 MWe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) at Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, is scheduled to achieve criticality in March 2026 and reach full power generation by December 2026.

    What is a Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)?

    • A Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) is a type of nuclear reactor that generates more fuel than it consumes, essentially “breeding” more nuclear material to power itself and future reactors.
    • It does this by using high-energy, or “fast,” neutrons to convert abundant, non-fissile uranium (U-238) into fissile plutonium (Pu-239) for fuel.

    About India’s Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR):

    • Design began: 1980s as prototype for future 600 MWe FBRs.
    • Timeline: Construction began in 2004, faced delays; cost escalated from â‚č3,500 crore to â‚č7,700 crore.
    • Capacity: 500 MWe, sodium-cooled fast breeder reactor.
    • Predecessors: It builds on India’s earlier reactors: KAMINI and Fast Breeder Test Reactor (FBTR).
    • Technology: Completely indigenous, designed by Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR).
    • Fuel: Uranium-Plutonium mixed oxide (MOX); later stages to use Thorium-232 to breed fissile U-233.
    • Burnup: 100 GWd/t, reactor life ~40 years.
    • Coolant: 1,750 tonnes of liquid sodium; pool-type design with high thermal inertia.
    • Construction agencies: Uranium-Plutonium mixed oxide (MOX) fuel fabricated by BARC Tarapur; reactor equipment by BHEL.
    • Site: Kokkilamedu, near Kalpakkam (next to Madras Atomic Power Station).

    Significance in India’s Nuclear Programme:

    • PFBR is the second stage of India’s three-stage programme:
      • Stage 1: Pressurised Heavy Water Reactors (PHWRs) using natural uranium.
      • Stage 2: Fast Breeder Reactors producing plutonium and U-233 from thorium.
      • Stage 3: Thorium-based U-233 fuel cycle.
    • Enables closed fuel cycle: recovery and recycling of fissile and fertile material from spent nuclear fuel (SNF).
    • Enhances energy security by optimally utilising limited uranium and vast thorium reserves.
    • Reduces radioactive waste through recycling.
    [UPSC 2024] With reference to radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs), consider the following statements:

    1. RTGs are miniature fission reactors.

    2. RTGs are used for powering the onboard systems of spacecrafts.

    3. RTGs can use Plutonium-238, which is a by-product of weapons development.

    Which of the statements given above are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 and 2 only (b) 2 and 3 only* (c) 1 and 3 only (d) 1, 2 and 3

     

  • Haryana defines ‘Forest’: Controversy and Implications

    Why in the News?

    Haryana has notified the dictionary meaning of “forest” as per Supreme Court directions.

    Haryana defines ‘Forest’: Controversy and Implications

    Haryana’s definition of Forest:

    • Definition: A patch of land is deemed a forest if:
      • Minimum area: 5 hectares (isolated) or 2 hectares (contiguous with notified forest).
      • Minimum canopy density: 0.4 (40%) or more.
    • Exclusions: Linear/compact/agro-forestry plantations and orchards outside government-notified forests.
    • Aim: Create a uniform standard for identifying forests under the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 (FCA).

    Issues with Haryana’s Definition:

    • High thresholds:
      • 40% canopy cover excludes scrub forests and dry deciduous vegetation like the Aravallis.
      • 2–5 hectare size requirement too high for an arid state with fragmented green cover.
    • Exclusion of Aravallis: Sensitive ridge areas risk exposure to illegal mining, encroachment, and real estate development.
    • Contradiction with Godavarman judgment (1996): SC had ruled that “forest” must be understood in its dictionary meaning, regardless of size, ownership, or canopy density.
    • Dilution of protection under FCA 1980: Narrows the scope of land eligible for forest safeguards.

    Godavarman Case & FCA Background:

    • Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980: Restricted dereservation/diversion of forest land without Centre’s approval.
    • T N Godavarman v Union of India (1996): Court ruled “forest” must be understood in its dictionary meaning, covering all forested lands regardless of ownership or official status.
    • 2023 FCA Amendment: Limited scope to notified forests and recorded forest lands.
      • Amendment challenged by retired IFS officers and NGOs for diluting FCA protections.
    • SC in February 2024 directed States/UTs to continue using Godavarman definition while case is ongoing.

     

    [UPSC 2005] The minimum land area recommended for forest cover to maintain proper ecological balance in India is

    Options: (a) 0.25 (b) 0.33* (c) 0.43 (d) 0.53

     

  • Kalai-II Hydroelectric Project

    Why in the News?

    The Arunachal Pradesh State Pollution Control Board (APSPCB) conducted a public hearing for the proposed 1,200 MW Kalai-II hydroelectric project in Anjaw district.

    About Kalai-II Hydroelectric Project:

    • Location: Anjaw District, Arunachal Pradesh, on the Lohit River (tributary of the Brahmaputra).
    • Capacity: 1,200 MW (six turbines of 190 MW each + one unit of 60 MW).
    • Project Type: Run-of-river with pondage.
    • Key Features: Concrete gravity dam, diversion tunnels, underground powerhouse, surge chamber, and tailrace tunnel.
    • Power Generation: Estimated 4.85 TWh annually; free power worth â‚č318 crore/year for the state.
    • Equity: Arunachal Pradesh holds 26% stake.

    Strategic Importance:

    • Energy Security: Expands India’s renewable energy portfolio and hydropower capacity in the North-East.
    • Geopolitical Context: Strengthens India’s presence in the sensitive Brahmaputra basin bordering China.
    • Economic Boost: Contributes to state revenues through free power and Local Area Development Fund (~â‚č2.2 crore/year).
    • Part of Larger Push: One of 13 stalled hydropower projects in Arunachal Pradesh revived through MoAs with central PSUs, aligning with India’s clean energy targets.
    [UPSC 2008] On which one of the following rivers is the Tehri Hydropower Complex located?

    Options: (a) Alaknanda (b) Bhagirathi *(c) Dhauliganga (d) Mandakini

     

  • NTCA limits definition of Tiger Corridors

    Why in the News?

    The National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA) recently issued a clarification limiting tiger corridors primarily to 32 “least cost pathways” identified in 2014.

    About National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA):

    • Statutory body: Under Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC).
    • Establishment: Created in 2006 under the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972.
    • Functions: Provides legal backing to Project Tiger, ensures Centre–State accountability via MoUs, and enables Parliamentary oversight.
    • Community Role: Addresses livelihood concerns of people around tiger reserves.
    • Composition: Chaired by MoEFCC Minister, Vice-Chairperson MoS, 3 Members of Parliament, MoEFCC Secretary, and others.

    What are Tiger Corridors?

    • Definition: Landscape linkages between tiger habitats that allow safe passage, genetic flow, and survival.
    • Need: Prevent isolation of tiger populations and human–tiger conflicts.
    • Examples of Macro-Corridors:
      • Shivalik–Gangetic Plains: Corbett–Dudhwa, Dudhwa–Kishanpur–Katerniaghat.
      • Central India & Eastern Ghats: Ranthambhore–Kuno–Madhav, Kanha–Pench, Bandhavgarh–Achanakmar.
      • Western Ghats: Sahyadri–Konkan–Radhanagari–Goa–Karnataka.
      • Northeast & Brahmaputra: Kaziranga–Karbi Anglong, Manas–Buxa.
      • Sundarbans Landscape.

    NTCA’s Policy Reversal:

    • July 25 Affidavit: Said corridor identification must use multiple data sources – protected areas, 2014 NTCA pathways, Tiger Conservation Plans (TCPs), Wildlife Institute of India (WII) studies (2016, 2021), and All-India Tiger Estimation (AITE) data.
    • August 21 Clarification: Limited definition only to 2014 least-cost pathways (32 corridors) and TCP corridors.
    • Exclusions: WII studies and AITE data dropped, despite 2014 report itself warning that listed corridors were “minimal requirement.”
    [UPSC 2020] Among the following Tiger Reserves, which one has the largest area under “Critical Tiger Habitat”?

    Options: (a) Corbett (b) Ranthambore (c) Nagarjunsagar-Srisailam* (d) Sunderbans

     

  • African Union (AU) and the Mercator Map Debate

    Why in the News?

    The African Union (AU) has endorsed the Correct the Map campaign to replace the 16th-century Mercator projection with more accurate maps.

    African Union (AU) and the Mercator Map Debate

    About the African Union (AU):

    • Establishment: Formed in 2002, replacing the Organisation of African Unity (1963).
    • Membership: 55 African countries.
    • Headquarters: Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
    • Vision: “An Integrated, Prosperous, and Peaceful Africa, driven by its own citizens.”
    • Agenda 2063: Blueprint for socio-economic growth and continental unity.
    • Main Organs: Assembly, Executive Council, AU Commission, Peace and Security Council.

    What is a Mercator Map?

    • Creation: Designed in 1569 by Gerardus Mercator.
    • Projection: Cylindrical map with straight longitude and latitude lines intersecting at 90°.
    • Purpose: Enabled sailors to plot straight-line courses for compass navigation.
    • Adoption: Became the standard map in schools, atlases, and wall charts by the 19th century.

    Issues with the Mercator Map:

    • Distortion: Enlarges high-latitude regions (Europe, Russia, North America) while shrinking Africa and South America.
    • Example: Greenland appears equal to Africa, though Africa is ~14 times larger.
    • Colonial Bias: Reinforced Western dominance narratives and downplayed Africa’s size and importance.
    • Impact: Supported marginalisation and exploitation during colonialism.
    • Alternatives: Gall-Peters (1970s) and Equal Earth (2018) projections show continents in correct proportion.
    • AU Stand: Advocates replacing Mercator maps to restore Africa’s rightful global image.
    [UPSC 2024] The longest border between any two countries in the world is between:

    Options: (a) Canada and the USA * (b) Chile and Argentina (c) China and India (d) Kazakhstan and Russian Federation

     

  • Xinjiang-Xizang Railway Line

    Why in the News?

    China has launched the Xinjiang–Xizang Railway Line, a strategic, economic, and engineering milestone, connecting Xinjiang with Tibet.

    Xinjiang-Xizang Railway Line

    About the Xinjiang–Xizang Railway Line:

    • Overview: A major high-altitude railway project connecting Hotan in Xinjiang to Shigatse and Lhasa in Tibet (Xizang).
    • Total length planned: ~2,000 km, part of China’s larger 5,000 km rail grid in Tibet by 2035.
    • Construction is phased:
      • Shigatse–Pakhuktso section (by 2025)
      • Pakhuktso–Hotan section (by 2035).
    • Terrain: Himalayas, Karakoram, Kunlun ranges, deserts, glaciers, and permafrost — average altitude above 4,500m.
    • Significance: Seen as one of China’s most advanced and difficult transport projects, comparable to the Qinghai–Tibet Railway (2006).

    Strategic Implications of the Project:

    • Military Mobility: Proximity to Aksai Chin and Line of Actual Control (LAC) enhances Chinese troop deployment and logistics capabilities.
    • Regional Integration: Links Xinjiang (Uyghur region) and Tibet (Buddhist region) with mainland China, supporting Sinicisation and demographic shifts.
    • Economic Role: Opens remote high-altitude areas to trade, energy transport, and tourism, reducing isolation of minority regions.
    • Political Control: Strengthens Beijing’s hold over restive border provinces and suppresses separatist tendencies.
    • India Factor: Raises security concerns as India is also upgrading border infrastructure post-2020 Galwan clash.
    • Part of “Go West Strategy” (2000): Long-term plan to develop western provinces with infrastructure and integrate them into China’s national economy.
    [UPSC 2023] With reference to India’s projects on connectivity, consider the following statements :

    1. East-West Corridor under Golden Quadrilateral Project connects Dibrugarh and Surat.

    2. Trilateral Highway connects Moreh in Manipur and Chiang Mai in Thailand via Myanmar.

    3. Bangladesh-China -India -Myanmar Economic Corridor connects Varanasi in Uttar Pradesh with Kunming in China. How many of the above statements are correct?

    Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None*

     

  • Agni-5 Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile

    Why in the News?

    India has successfully test-fired the Agni-5 Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) from the Integrated Test Range, Chandipur (Odisha).

    Agni-5 Intermediate-Range Ballistic Missile

    What are Ballistic Missiles?

    • Powered by: Solid propellant rocket motors; thrust generated by exhaust gases forces missile upward.
    • Three phases:
      • Boost Phase – missile consumes propellant; trajectory fixed.
      • Midcourse Phase – missile coasts in space on momentum.
      • Terminal Phase – warheads re-enter atmosphere and strike target.

    About Agni-5:

    • Type: Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) developed by DRDO.
    • Range: 5,000–5,500 km (upgrade under development up to 7,500 km).
    • Propulsion: Three-stage, solid-fuel rocket motors.
    • Payload: ~1.5 tonnes, nuclear-capable.
    • Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) Technology: Can carry multiple nuclear warheads that target different locations.
    • Features: Fire-and-forget system, advanced navigation, guidance and propulsion technologies.
    • First Test: 2012 from Wheeler Island (Odisha).
    • Strategic Role: Strengthens India’s nuclear deterrence posture, especially vis-Ă -vis China.

    Back2Basics: Agni Series and its Development

    • Origins: Began in 1983 under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) led by A.P.J. Abdul Kalam.
    • Evolution: Started as technology demonstrators for re-entry vehicles; later developed into full-fledged strategic missiles.
    • Variants:
      • Agni-I: 700–1,200 km range, inducted 2007.
      • Agni-II: 2,000–3,000 km range, inducted 2010.
      • Agni-III: 3,500 km range, highly accurate, tested 2007.
      • Agni-IV: 4,000 km range, advanced avionics, tested 2011.
      • Agni-V: 5,000+ km range, ICBM, MIRV capable.
      • Agni Prime (Agni-P): 1,000–2,000 km, lighter, tested 2021.
      • Agni-VI: Under development, 6,000–10,000 km, MIRV + submarine launch capable.
    • Significance: Backbone of India’s nuclear triad, enhancing deterrence against regional and global adversaries.
    [UPSC 2023] Consider the following statements:

    1. Ballistic missiles are jet-propelled at subsonic speeds throughout their fights, while cruise missiles are rocket-powered only in the initial phase of flight.

    2. Agni-V is a medium-range supersonic cruise missile, while BrahMos is a solid-fuelled intercontinental ballistic missile.

    Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

    Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2*