Horticulture, Floriculture, Commercial crops, Bamboo Production – MIDH, NFSM-CC, etc.

World Spice Organisation (WSO)

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: World Spice Organisation (WSO)

Why in the News?

Despite being the largest producer and exporter of spices in the world, India’s share in the global seasoning market remains only 0.7%, compared to China’s 12% and the USA’s 11%, according to the World Spice Organisation (WSO).

About the World Spice Organisation (WSO)

WSO was established in 2011 in Kochi, Kerala, India’s spice capital.
It is registered as a Not-for-Profit organization under the Travancore Cochin Literary, Scientific, and Charitable Societies Act, 1956.
It works towards food safety, sustainability, and market development for the spice industry.
It engages with farmers, processors, industry leaders, academia, and global spice associations.
It works with organizations like Spices Board India, Rainforest Alliance, GIZ (Germany), and IDH (Netherlands).
Partners with global spice trade bodies like:
- American Spice Trade Association (ASTA)
- European Spice Association (ESA)
- International Pepper Community (IPC)
Participates in national and international food safety regulations, including:
- FSSAI (India’s food safety authority)
- BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards)
- ISO (International Standards Organization)
- Codex Alimentarius (Global food safety standards)
It serves as the technical partner for the All India Spices Exporters Forum (AISEF).

Present Scenario of Spices

India currently exports 1.5 million tonnes of spices worth $4.5 billion, accounting for one-fourth of the $20 billion global spice market. However, only 48% of these exports are value-added products, with the rest being whole spices.
85% of India’s spices are consumed domestically, leaving limited surplus for exports.
Countries like Vietnam, Indonesia, Brazil, and China are emerging as strong competitors in the spice trade.

Production:
- Major producing states: Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Assam, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala.
- During 2022-23, the export of spices from India stood at US$ 3.73 billion, up from US$ 3.46 billion in 2021-22.
- India produces about 75 of the 109 varieties listed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO).
Major Produced and Exported Spices by India:
- Pepper, cardamom, chili, ginger, turmeric, coriander, cumin, celery, fennel, fenugreek, garlic, nutmeg & mace, curry powder, spice oils, and oleoresins.
- Out of these spices, chili, cumin, turmeric, ginger, and coriander make up about 76% of the total production.
- Chilli is the leading export earner, generating $1.1 billion annually.
- Ginger exports have a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 27%.
Export:
- In 2023-24, India’s spice exports totalled $4.25 billion, accounting for a 12% share of the global spice exports (till February 2024 data).
- India exported spices and spice products to 159 destinations worldwide as of 2023-24. The top destinations were China, the USA, Bangladesh, the UAE, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, the UK, and Sri Lanka. These countries accounted for more than 70% of total exports.

PYQ:

[2019] Among the agricultural commodities imported by India, which one of the following accounts for the highest imports in terms of value in the last five years?

(a) Spices

(b) Fresh fruits

(d) Vegetable oils

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Indian Missile Program Updates

‘Brahmastra’ Missile

Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: 'Brahmastra' Missile

Why in the News?

Indian scientists have achieved a breakthrough in hypersonic missile technology, developing a modern-day ‘Brahmastra’ with an astonishing speed of 12,144 km per hour (Mach 10).

'Brahmastra' Missile

About Brahmastra (Long Range Anti-Ship Missile – LRAShM):

Brahmastra is a state-of-the-art hypersonic glide missile developed by the Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
It is designed to neutralize enemy warships and strategic naval targets with extreme speed and precision.
With a speed of Mach 10 (12,144 km/h) and a range of 1,500 km, Brahmastra is one of the fastest and most lethal weapons in India’s defense arsenal.
The missile’s hypersonic glide vehicle technology allows it to evade enemy radar and missile defense systems, ensuring high-precision strikes on naval targets.

Features of Brahmastra:

It can be launched from both land and naval platforms, enhancing India’s maritime strike capabilities.
Due to its hypersonic speed, Brahmastra can destroy an enemy warship within 7 to 8 minutes of launch.
The missile is built with advanced heat-resistant materials, preventing it from disintegrating under extreme temperatures during flight.
Unlike conventional missiles, Brahmastra retains its structural integrity even at hypersonic speeds, ensuring precise impact.
It uses scramjet propulsion and glide vehicle technology for sustained hypersonic flight.
It can adjust its trajectory mid-flight, making it highly maneuverable and difficult to intercept.
Its stealth and radar-evading capabilities ensure low detection probability, reducing the risk of interception.

PYQ:

[2014] Which reference to Agni-IV Missile, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. It is a surface-to-surface missile.

2. It is fuelled by liquid propellant only.

3. It can deliver one-tonne nuclear warheads about 7500 km away.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Climate Change Impact on India and World – International Reports, Key Observations, etc.

Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

Why in the News?

Researchers have found that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is slowing due to melting ice sheets. By 2050, it may weaken by 20%, affecting global climate, ocean circulation, and marine ecosystems.

What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)?

The ACC is the strongest and largest ocean current on Earth.
It flows continuously from west to east around Antarctica, acting as a boundary between the Southern Ocean and the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans.
It flows from west to east, driven by the westerly winds and the Coriolis effect, creating a loop that completely encircles Antarctica.
The ACC interacts with several regional currents, such as the Brazil Current, East Australian Current, and Agulhas Current.
It is influenced by both westerly winds and polar easterlies, which affect its strength and flow patterns.

Key features of the ACC:

- It is five times stronger than the Gulf Stream and transports 130 million cubic meters of water per second.
- It plays a crucial role in global heat and nutrient distribution, influencing climate patterns worldwide.
- It prevents warmer northern waters from reaching Antarctica, helping to preserve the region’s ice sheets.
- The ACC drives the global conveyor belt, regulating deep ocean currents and heat flow.
- Its upwelling of nutrient-rich waters sustains Antarctic marine life, including krill, whales, and penguins.

Why does Antarctic Ice Melt affect ACC?

Freshwater Dilution: Melting ice lowers salinity, weakening ocean density gradients that drive the ACC.
Slower Heat Exchange: Reduced current strength disrupts global heat distribution, leading to stronger storms and rising sea levels.

Key Findings of the New Research

A study by the University of Melbourne and NORCE Norwegian Research Centre, published in Environmental Research Letters, reveals:

ACC could slow by 20% by 2050 due to melting ice sheets.
Disrupted global climate as a weaker ACC reduces heat distribution, carbon absorption, and weather stability.
Antarctic ecosystem at risk, with invasive species threatening penguins, krill, and whales.
Supercomputer simulations confirm that deep ocean circulation is slowing, worsening climate instability.
Reducing carbon emissions is crucial to prevent further ice melting and ACC weakening.

PYQ:

[2012] Consider the following factors:

1. Rotation of the Earth

2. Air pressure and wind

3. Density of ocean water

4. Revolution of the Earth

Which of the above factors influence the ocean currents?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 1, 2 and 3

(d) 2, 3 and 4

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Right To Privacy

Plight of Prisoners with Disabilities needs attention SC

Prelims Only | Governance | Mains Paper 2: Laws, Institutions & Bodies Constituted For The Vulnerable Sections

Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:
Prelims level: Read the attached story
Why in the News?

The Supreme Court has acknowledged a serious issue regarding the lack of disabled-friendly infrastructure in prisons, following a petition citing the trauma and inhumane conditions faced by Professor G. Saibaba and Stan Swamy.

A bench comprising Justices Vikram Nath and Sandeep Mehta noted that even the Persons with Disabilities Act (2016) lacks a legal framework to safeguard the rights of disabled prisoners.

Challenges Faced by Disabled Prisoners:
- Inaccessible Infrastructure: Most prisons lack ramps, handrails, wheelchair-accessible cells, and essential assistive devices.
- Denial of Medical Care: Many disabled prisoners do not receive necessary medical treatment, physiotherapy, or even basic aids like hearing devices or walking supports.
- Psychological Distress: Isolation, lack of facilities, and mistreatment lead to anxiety, depression, and deteriorating mental health among disabled prisoners.
- Data Deficiency: No official records track the number or condition of disabled prisoners, making policy implementation difficult.
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (in Prisons)
- Article 14 guarantees equality before the law, ensuring that prisoners are not discriminated against based on disability.
- Article 21 upholds the right to life and dignity, including humane treatment for prisoners.
- Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 mandates accessible public spaces, medical care, and assistive devices for persons with disabilities, but implementation in prisons remains inadequate.
- Model Prison Manual, 2016 recommends disability-friendly infrastructure such as ramps and medical care provisions, yet many states have not adopted these reforms.
- Supreme Court Judgments:
- - In Upendra Baxi vs. State of U.P. (1983), the Supreme Court reaffirmed that prisoners are entitled to humane treatment.
  - In Rama Murthy vs. State of Karnataka (1996), the Court highlighted the urgent need for prison reform, including facilities for disabled inmates.
  - The Stan Swamy Case (2021) brought attention to the denial of essential assistive tools such as straws and sippers for Parkinson’s patients.
Past Committees on Prison Reform:
- Mulla Committee (1983):
  - Recommended improved prison infrastructure, special provisions for disabled inmates, and measures to reduce overcrowding.
  - Suggested protection against abuse and better training for prison staff.
- Krishna Iyer Committee (1987): Focused on the welfare of women prisoners, recommending separate facilities, healthcare, and special provisions for pregnant inmates.
- Justice A.N. Mulla Committee (1993): Emphasized the need for humane treatment and rehabilitation, along with stricter measures against custodial torture.
- Justice Krishna Iyer Report (2000): Called for legal aid for undertrial prisoners and mandatory inspections to monitor prison conditions.
- Model Prison Manual (2016):
  - Provided guidelines for standardized prison reforms, including healthcare, accessibility, and rehabilitation programs.
  - Despite being issued by the Ministry of Home Affairs, many states have failed to adopt its recommendations.
PYQ:

[2016] Does the Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 ensure effective mechanism for empowerment and inclusion of the intended beneficiaries in the society? Discuss.
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Artificial Intelligence (AI) Breakthrough

‘AI Kosha’ Platform

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Indigenization Of Technology

Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:
Prelims level: ‘AI Kosha’ Platform
Why in the News?

The Union Government has launched AI Kosha, a platform dedicated to non-personal datasets, marking a major step in India’s AI research and development efforts.

What is AI Kosha?
- AI Kosha is a government-backed platform for non-personal datasets to support Artificial Intelligence (AI) R&D in India.
- It serves as a centralized repository of structured datasets aimed at training AI models, particularly for Indian languages.
- The platform is a key part of the IndiaAI Datasets Platform, one of the seven pillars of the ₹10,370 crore IndiaAI Mission, which aims to democratize AI access and innovation.
- At launch, it hosts 316 datasets, with a significant portion focused on language translation tools for Indian languages.
- The government has commissioned 14,000 GPUs for AI research, up from 10,000 earlier this year.
- More computing power will be added quarterly to support advanced AI research and training.
Key Features of AI Kosha:
- AI Kosha aims to support India’s first foundational AI model, similar to China’s DeepSeek.
- Works alongside the Open Governance Data Platform (data.gov.in), which already hosts 12,000 datasets from various government agencies.
- Focuses on Indian languages, ensuring regional language AI development.
- Includes health records, satellite imagery, Census 2011 data, meteorological and pollution data.
- Supports AI development with access to high-performance computing (HPC) resources.
- Equipped with secure API access, data encryption, and real-time filtering for data protection.
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Animal Husbandry, Dairy & Fisheries Sector – Pashudhan Sanjivani, E- Pashudhan Haat, etc

Ongole Cows

Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Economics Of Animal-Rearing

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Ongole Cows

Why in the News?

India’s indigenous cattle breed from Ongole is experiencing a sharp decline domestically, even as it has become one of the most prized and expensive cattle breeds in Brazil.

Ongole Cows

About Ongole Cows

Ongole cattle, also known as Ongolu Gitta, are a native Indian breed originating from Prakasam District, Andhra Pradesh.
This Bos indicus breed is historically renowned for its strength, resilience, and disease resistance.
It has been widely used for draught power, milk production, and breeding programs.
The breed has gained global prominence, especially in Brazil, where it forms the foundation of several superior cattle breeds used for beef production.
Though declining in India, they thrive in Brazil, where they form 80% of the cattle population and are used extensively for beef production.
LAM Farm, Guntur, is using IVF and embryo transfer for preservation.
- Rashtriya Gokul Mission (RGM) supports indigenous cattle breeding.

Distinct Features of Ongole Cattle:

Heat & Disease Resistance: Naturally adapted to high temperatures and immune to foot-and-mouth and mad cow disease.
Strength & Draught Power: Historically used for ploughing, transport, and bull races.
A2 Milk Production: Produces high-quality A2 milk, fetching ₹150+ per litre in premium markets.
Global Demand & Genetic Superiority: Exported to Brazil, USA, Argentina, and Australia. Used to develop breeds like Brahmana (USA) and Santa Gertrudis (USA).
Efficient Feed Conversion: Survives on minimal fodder, ideal for drought-prone regions.
High Fertility & Longevity: Strong reproductive lifespan, producing robust calves.
Cultural & Historical Importance: Revered in Indian scriptures and associated with prosperity.

PYQ:

[2011] What is/are unique about ‘Kharai camel’, a breed found in India?

1. It is capable of swimming up to three kilometres in seawater.

2. It survives by grazing on mangroves.

3. It lives in the wild and cannot be domesticated.

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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ISRO Missions and Discoveries

Successful PHTA Test of ISRO’s Semi-Cryogenic Engine

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Mains level: Successful PHTA Test of ISRO's Semi-Cryogenic Engine

Why in the News?

ISRO successfully conducted a hot test on the semi-cryogenic engine (SE2000), a key step towards finalizing the cryogenic stage for future launch vehicles. This Power Head Test Article (PHTA) is the first hardware test for semi-cryogenic engines.

About the SE2000 Engine

The SE2000 engine is a semi-cryogenic rocket engine developed by ISRO to enhance propulsion for future heavy-lift launch vehicles.
It is designed to power the booster stages of rockets, increasing payload capacity and efficiency.
The engine operates on a Liquid Oxygen (LOX) and Refined Kerosene (RP-1) combination, unlike traditional cryogenic engines that use LOX and Liquid Hydrogen (LH2).
Key features of the SE2000 engine:
- Thrust capability: 2000 kN (kilonewtons), making it one of ISRO’s most powerful engines.
- Higher density impulse: Provides better efficiency than LOX-LH2 combinations.
- Cost-effective: Kerosene is cheaper and easier to handle than liquid hydrogen.
- Storage advantages: Kerosene can be stored at ambient temperatures, unlike liquid hydrogen, which requires -253°C for storage.
The engine is expected to enhance the performance of LVM3 and will be used in ISRO’s Next Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV).
Applications of the SE2000 engine:
- Heavy-lift launch missions with increased payload capacity.
- Future space exploration programs, including human spaceflight missions like Gaganyaan.
- Reusable launch vehicles, contributing to cost-effective and sustainable space travel.

What is the PHTA Test?

The PHTA test is a crucial hardware test conducted as part of the SE2000 semi-cryogenic engine development process.
It is designed to validate key engine subsystems before full-scale integration and testing.
Purpose of the PHTA test:
- Ensure subsystems perform as expected under operational conditions.
- Evaluate pressure, temperature, thrust efficiency, and fuel combustion.
- Identify potential technical issues before moving to full engine testing.
A previous attempt in July 2023 was aborted due to technical issues at ISRO’s Mahendragiri facility.

Back2Basics: Semi-Cryogenic vs. Cryogenic Engines

A semi-cryogenic engine uses liquid oxygen (LOX) and kerosene as propellants, making it easier to handle and store than the cryogenic engine, which uses liquid hydrogen (LH2).
Semi-cryogenic engines are less efficient but more cost-effective and practical for Earth-orbit missions.
Cryogenic engines offer higher performance due to the higher specific impulse of liquid hydrogen but are more complex to store and manage.
Semi-cryogenic engines strike a balance between cost, efficiency, and simplicity.

PYQ:

[2018] With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:

1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.

2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.

3. GSLV Mk III is a four-stage launch l vehicle with the first and third stages l using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3

(d) 3 only

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International Space Agencies – Missions and Discoveries

UN Committee on Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: COPUOS

Why in the News?

In December 2024, a 500 kg metal object crashed in Makueni County, Kenya, highlighting the growing concern over uncontrolled satellite re-entries, for which the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) remains accountable.

It has yet to implement binding regulations on space debris disposal and re-entry control.

About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

The COPUOS was established in 1958 to promote international cooperation in the peaceful use of outer space and address legal issues related to space exploration.
The committee currently has 102 member states (as of 2022) and meets annually in Vienna, Austria.
COPUOS plays a key role in preventing the militarization of space and ensuring responsible space activity.
Historical Context:
- Established following the launch of Sputnik in 1957, COPUOS was instrumental in preventing space from becoming a new conflict zone.
- Resolution 1721 (1961) declared that international law applies in outer space and directed states to report all space launches to the UN public registry.
Subcommittees:
- Scientific and Technical Subcommittee (meets in February).
- Legal Subcommittee (meets in April).

Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:

COPUOS oversees five key UN treaties and agreements related to space activities:

Outer Space Treaty (1967): Establishes principles for space exploration and prohibits national sovereignty over celestial bodies.
Rescue Agreement (1968): Governs the rescue and return of astronauts and space objects.
Liability Convention (1972): Defines responsibility for damage caused by space objects, introducing absolute liability for damages on Earth.
Registration Convention (1976): Requires states to register launched space objects with the UN.
Moon Treaty (1984): Regulates activities on the Moon and other celestial bodies.

Defining Space Debris in Law

Space debris has no universally accepted legal definition in international treaties.
The UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS) defines it as non-functional man-made objects in Earth orbit or re-entering the atmosphere.
Legal disputes arise over whether a piece of debris qualifies as a “space object” under the 1972 Liability Convention.

Liability Under International Space Law

Outer Space Treaty (1967), Article VI: States bear responsibility for national space activities, including those by private companies.
Liability Convention (1972): Introduced “absolute liability”, meaning launching states are automatically responsible for damage caused by space objects.
- However, liability enforcement remains weak, and affected nations often struggle to claim full compensation.

PYQ:

[2014] International civil aviation laws provide all countries complete and exclusive sovereignty over the airspace above their territory. What do you understand by ‘airspace’? What are the implications of these laws on the space above this airspace? Discuss the challenges which this poses and suggest ways to contain the threat.

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Innovations in Biotechnology and Medical Sciences

Wolly Mammoth Traits in Mice using Gene Editing

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

Note4Students

From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

Prelims level: Wolly Mammoth

Why in the News?

Recently, Colossal Biosciences has created a “Woolly Mouse” by editing seven genes in mice embryos to mimic the cold-adaptive traits of woolly mammoths.

What are Woolly Mammoths?

The Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius) was a large, Ice Age herbivore that roamed Eurasia and North America, thriving in cold tundra environments.
It had a thick woolly coat, a fat layer for insulation, and small ears to minimize heat loss.
Mammoths lived in herds and primarily fed on grasses and shrubs.
They went extinct around 4,000 years ago, likely due to climate change, habitat loss, and human hunting.
Scientists believe reviving mammoth-like elephants could help restore Arctic ecosystems and slow permafrost thawing.

Wolly Mammoth Traits in Mice using Gene Editing

About Woolly Mice

The Woolly Mouse is a genetically modified laboratory mouse developed by Colossal Biosciences to test their de-extinction research.
Scientists successfully edited seven genes, resulting in mice with thick, woolly fur, mimicking the coat of a woolly mammoth.

Key Features of Woolly Mice:

- Genetically engineered for cold-resistant traits using DNA modifications.
- Long, thick, wavy fur and curled whiskers, resembling mammoth adaptations.
- Created by combining multiple genetic variants into a single organism.
- Serves as a model organism to test gene-editing techniques before applying them to Asian elephants, the closest living relatives of woolly mammoths.

Technology Used in Woolly Mouse Development:

The CRISPR-Cas9 system was used to precisely modify DNA.
Scientists identified genes responsible for fur texture, length, and body fat metabolism, allowing them to engineer cold-resistant traits.
Scientists edited seven genes simultaneously, an unprecedented feat in genetic engineering.
Key genes modified included:
- FGF5: regulates hair growth, making it longer and thicker.
- MC1R: controls hair color, giving the mice a golden hue similar to mammoth fur.
- Hair follicle structure genes: induced woolly hair texture, wavy coats, and curled whiskers.

PYQ:

[2013] Recombinant DNA technology (Genetic Engineering) allows genes to be transferred:

1. across different species of plants

2. from animals to plants

3. from microorganisms to higher organisms

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:

(a) 1 only

(b) 2 and 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

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Wildlife Conservation Efforts

J&K to promote Bangus Valley near LoC for Ecotourism

India Mapping Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:
Prelims level: Bangus Valley
Why in the News?

The Jammu and Kashmir government has announced new ecotourism policies for Bangus Valley, a scenic yet lesser-known destination near the Line of Control (LoC) in North Kashmir.

About Bangus Valley
- It is situated in Kupwara district, Jammu & Kashmir, about 100 km from Srinagar in the Pir Panjal range, close to the Line of Control (LoC).
- It consists of 2 valleys:
  - Boud Bangus (Big Bangus): ~300 sq km, surrounded by Rajwar, Mawar, and Shamasbury ranges.
  - Lokut Bangus (Small Bangus): A smaller valley northeast of Big Bangus, known for trekking routes.
- Its name is derived from Sanskrit words “Van” (forest) and “Gus” (grass), meaning “Forest of Grass.”
- Connectivity:
  - Handwara via Reshwari Mawer (shortest and most preferred route).
  - Handwara via Rajwar (trekking route).
  - Kupwara via Chowkibal (under development, expected completion by 2025).
  - Road connectivity via Handwara is complete (June 2022).
Ecological Importance of Bangus Valley:
- Biodiversity: Home to 50+ animal species and 10+ bird species.
- Key Mammals: Musk deer, antelope, snow leopard, brown bear, black bear, red fox, monkeys.
- Bird Species: Tragopan, monal pheasant, black partridge, bush quail, wild fowl.
- Flora: Rich in medicinal plants and wildflowers, supporting traditional herbal medicine.
- Water Conservation: 14 tributaries, including Roshan Kul, Tillwan Kul, Douda Kul, feed the Pohru River.
- Climate Sensitivity: Threatened by glacial melt and changing precipitation patterns.
PYQ:

[2019] Siachen Glacier is situated to the:

(a) East of Aksai Chin

(b) East of Leh

(c) North of Gilgit

(d) North of Nubra Valley
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Type: Prelims Only

Why in the News?

About the World Spice Organisation (WSO)

Present Scenario of Spices

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About Brahmastra (Long Range Anti-Ship Missile – LRAShM):

Features of Brahmastra:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)?

Why does Antarctic Ice Melt affect ACC?

Key Findings of the New Research

PYQ:

Why in the News?

Challenges Faced by Disabled Prisoners:

Rights of Persons with Disabilities (in Prisons)

Past Committees on Prison Reform:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What is AI Kosha?

Key Features of AI Kosha:

Why in the News?

About Ongole Cows

Distinct Features of Ongole Cattle:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About the SE2000 Engine

What is the PHTA Test?

Back2Basics: Semi-Cryogenic vs. Cryogenic Engines

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About the UN Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS)

Space Treaties overseen by COPUOS:

Defining Space Debris in Law

Liability Under International Space Law

PYQ:

Why in the News?

What are Woolly Mammoths?

About Woolly Mice

Technology Used in Woolly Mouse Development:

PYQ:

Why in the News?

About Bangus Valley

Ecological Importance of Bangus Valley:

PYQ: