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Type: Prelims Only

  • Coal and Mining Sector

    What is SHAKTI Policy?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Shakti Policy

    Mains level: Not Much

    Ministry of Power has launched a scheme for procurement of aggregate power of 4500 MW for 5 years under SHAKTI Policy to help states that are facing power shortages and help generation plants to increase their capacities.

    SHAKTI Policy

    • SHAKTI is an acronym for Scheme for Harnessing and Allocating Koyala Transparently in India.
    • It was launched in 2018 to provide coal to stressed power units which lack coal supply.
    • It seeks to provide coal linkages to power plants which lack fuel supply agreements (FSAs) through coal auctions.

    Need for such policy

    • SHAKTI is a policy designated by the government for the allocation of coal among thermal power plants in a transparent and objective manner.
    • It aims to transfer the benefits of linkage coal to the end consumers.
    • The scheme is supposed to be beneficial not just for the infrastructure sector, but also for the public sector banks which have huge loans unpaid at the end of the power companies.
    • The companies, which did not have coal linkages before the introduction of the Shakti Scheme, would benefit when they would get domestic fuel supplies through auction at competitive rates.
    • The scheme also aims to reduce the dependence on imported coal and promote domestic industries.
    • With this policy, the government also aims to reduce dependence on imported coal.

    Coal linkage scenario in India

    • Coal linkage to the power sector is governed by provisions of the New Coal Distribution Policy (NCDP), 2007.
    • Under the NCDP, a system of issuance of Letter of Assurance (LoA) was introduced.
    • The requests for Linkage/LoA are forwarded to the Ministry of Power for its recommendations.
    • The coal availability scenario has, now, emerged from scarcity to adequacy.

     

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  • Indian Army Updates

    In news: Exercise Yudh Abhyas

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Various Security Forces, Agencies & Their Mandates

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Exercise Yudh Abhyas

    Mains level: Not Much

    China expressed concern over the India-US joint military exercise Yudh Abhyas being held in Uttarakhand, about 100 km from the LAC.

    Exercise Yudh Abhyas

    • Exercise Yudh Abhyas is the largest running joint military training and defence cooperation endeavour between India and the US.
    • The exercise aims at enhancing understanding, cooperation and interoperability between the two armies.
    • Interestingly, this is the only India-US service exercise continuing in bilateral format.

    Why in news?

    • The disengagement of troops is still under process after several rounds of talks between India and China.
    • Since beginning in May 2020, Chinese and Indian forces faced off in clashes with rocks, batons, and clubs wrapped in barbed wire at multiple locations along the LAC.
    • Differing perceptions of border demarcations along the LAC is the reason behind.
    • Each country seeks the withdrawal of the other’s forces and a return to the pre-stand-off conditions, but neither China nor India agreed to the conditions.

     

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  • Women Safety Issues – Marital Rape, Domestic Violence, Swadhar, Nirbhaya Fund, etc.

    What are in-camera proceedings, when are they conducted?

    Prelims Only | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Executive & Judiciary

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: In-Camera Proceedings

    Mains level: Not Much

    The Supreme Court has rejected a plea by a rape case accused for an in-camera hearing.

    What are in-camera proceedings?

    • In-camera proceedings are private, unlike open court proceedings.
    • It is conducted as per the court’s discretion in sensitive matters to ensure protection and privacy of the parties involved.
    • The proceedings are usually held through video conferencing or in closed chambers, from which the public and press are excluded.
    • In an open court or open justice system, which is the usual course of proceedings, the press is allowed to report on the matter being heard.

    In-camera trial in rape cases

    • Section 327 of the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) has detailed the types of cases that should be recorded on camera, including inquiry into and trial in rape case.
    • The said section states that if the presiding judge or a magistrate thinks fit, she can order at any stage of the proceedings that the public generally, or any particular person, shall not remain present in the courtroom or the court building.
    • The said provision says that the inquiry into and trial be held in camera for various offences punishable under section 376 (rape) of the IPC.
    • The law also prescribes that in such cases, the trial be conducted as far as possible by a woman judge or a magistrate.

    Other cases where in-camera proceedings are held

    • In-camera proceedings are usually conducted at family courts in cases of matrimonial disputes, including judicial separation, divorce proceedings, impotence, and more.
    • In-camera proceedings are also conducted during the deposition of witnesses of terrorist activities as per the court’s discretion, so as to protect them and maintain national security.

    What about publishing of such a hearing?

    • Section 327 of the CrPC states that it shall not be lawful to publish any matter in relation to in-camera proceedings except with the previous permission of the court.
    • It adds that the ban on publishing of trial proceedings for offence of rape may be lifted subject to maintaining confidentiality of name and address of the parties.

     

     

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  • Global Geological And Climatic Events

    Mauna Loa: Hawaii’s biggest Volcano set to erupt

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 1: Geographical Features & Their Location

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Mauna Loa

    Mains level: Not Much

    mauna

    Mauna Loa, the world’s largest active volcano has erupted after 38 years, spewing ash and debris, and covering the sky of Hawaii’s Big Island.

    Where is Mauna Loa?

    mauna

    • Mauna Loa is one of five volcanoes that together make up the Big Island of Hawaii (biggest being the Mauna Kea).
    • It is the southernmost island in the Hawaiian archipelago.
    • It’s not the tallest (that title goes to) but it’s the largest and makes up about half of the island’s land mass.
    • It sits immediately north of Kilauea volcano, which is currently erupting from its summit crater.

    Do you know?

    Any volcano that has erupted within the Holocene period (in the last 11,650 years) is considered to be “active” by scientists. “Dormant” volcanoes are those active volcanoes which are not in the process of erupting currently, but have the potential to do so in the future.

    Why do volcanoes erupt?

    • The deeper one goes under the surface of the Earth towards its core, the hotter it gets.
    • The geothermal gradient, the amount that the Earth’s temperature increases with depth, indicates heat flowing from the Earth’s warm interior to its surface.
    • At a certain depth, the heat is such that it melts rocks and creates what geologists call ‘magma’.
    • Magma is lighter than solid rock and hence it rises, collecting in magma chambers.
    • Chambers that have the potential to cause volcanic eruptions are found at a relatively shallow depth, between six to ten km under the surface.
    • As magma builds up in these chambers, it forces its way up through cracks and fissures in Earth’s crust. This is what we call a volcanic eruption.
    • The magma that surfaces on the Earth’s crust is referred to as lava.

    Why is the eruption of Mauna Loa so explosive?

    • Eruptions vary in intensity and explosiveness, depending on the composition of the magma.
    • In simple terms, runny magma makes for less explosive volcanic eruptions that typically are less dangerous.
    • Since the magma is runny, gasses are able to escape, leading to a steady but relatively gentle flow of lava out of the mouth of the volcano.
    • The eruption at Mauna Loa is of this kind. Since the lava flows out at a slow pace, people typically have enough time to move out of the way
    • . Geologists are also able to predict the flow of the lava depending on the incline and exact consistency it has.

    How is vulcanism measured?

    • The Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) is a scale used to measure the explosivity of a volcano.
    • It has a range of 1 to 8 with a higher VEI indicating more explosivity.
    • While the VEI of the current eruption at Mauna Loa is not known yet, the previous eruption in 1984 was deemed to have a VEI of 0.

     

    Also read about the Pacific Ring of Fire.

     

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  • ISRO Missions and Discoveries

    SARAS 3 Telescope gives clues to first stars, galaxies of universe

    Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: Awareness in various sc and tech fields

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Saras 3

    Mains level: Not Much

    saras

    India’s SARAS radio telescope has helped scientists determine the properties of the earliest radio luminous galaxies formed 200 million years after the Big Bang, a period known as the Cosmic Dawn.

    SARAS 3 Telescope

    • SARAS stands for Shaped Antenna measurement of the background Radio Spectrum 3 (SARAS) telescope.
    • It is an indigenously designed and built at Raman Research Institute and was deployed over Dandiganahalli Lake and Sharavati backwaters, located in Northern Karnataka, in early 2020.

    What have the researchers found?

    • Researchers have been able to determine properties of radio luminous galaxies formed just 200 million years post the Big Bang, a period known as the Cosmic Dawn.
    • These are the masses of the first generation of galaxies that are bright in radio wavelengths.
    • This helps provide an insight into the properties of the earliest radio loud galaxies that are usually powered by supermassive black holes.

    What is Cosmic Dawn?

    • The ignition of the first stars marks the end of the Dark Ages and the beginning of our “Cosmic Dawn,” some 100 million years after the Big Bang.
    • For the first time, our universe began shining with a light other than the afterglow of the Big Bang.
    • SARAS 3 had improved the understanding of astrophysics of Cosmic Dawn by telling astronomers that less than 3% of the gaseous matter within early galaxies was converted into stars.
    • It found that the earliest galaxies that were bright in radio emission were also strong in X-rays, which heated the cosmic gas in and around the early galaxies.

     

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  • Cyber Security – CERTs, Policy, etc

    What is Bluebugging?

    Prelims Only | Security Issues | Mains Paper 3: Cyber Security

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Bluebugging

    Mains level: Cyber security challenges

    Bluebugging

    Cybersecurity experts note that apps that let users connect smartphones or laptops to wireless earplugs can record conversations, and are vulnerable to hacks through a process called Bluebugging.

    What is Bluebugging?

    • It is a form of hacking that lets attackers access a device through its discoverable Bluetooth connection.
    • Once a device or phone is blue-bugged, a hacker can listen to the calls, read and send messages and steal and modify contacts.
    • It started out as a threat for laptops with Bluetooth capability. Later hackers used the technique to target mobile phones and other devices.
    • Independent security researcher Martin Herfurt blogged about the threat of bluebugging as early as 2004.
    • He noted that the bug exploited a loophole in Bluetooth protocol, enabling it to download phone books and call lists from the attacked user’s phone.

    How does bluebugging hack devices?

    • Bluebugging attacks work by exploiting Bluetooth-enabled devices.
    • The device’s Bluetooth must be in discoverable mode, which is the default setting on most devices.
    • The hacker then tries to pair with the device via Bluetooth. Once a connection is established, hackers can use brute force attacks to bypass authentication.
    • They can install malware in the compromised device to gain unauthorised access to it.
    • Bluebugging can happen whenever a Bluetooth enabled device is within a 10-metre radius of the hacker.
    • However, according to a blog by VPN service provider NordVPN, hackers can use booster antennas to widen the attack range.

    Why is it a big threat?

    • Even the most secure smartphones like iPhones are vulnerable to such attacks.
    • Any app with access to Bluetooth can record users’ conversations with Siri and audio from the iOS keyboard dictation feature when using AirPods or Beats headsets, some app developers say.
    • Through Bluebugging, a hacker can gain unauthorised access to these apps and devices and control them as per their wish.

    How can one prevent bluebugging?

    Here are some of the ways to prevent bluebugging-

    1. Turning off Bluetooth and disconnecting paired Bluetooth devices when not in use,
    2. Updating the device’s system software to the latest version,
    3. Limiting the use of public Wi-Fi, and
    4. Using VPN as an additional security measure

     

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  • Civil Aviation Sector – CA Policy 2016, UDAN, Open Skies, etc.

    What is Wet Leasing of Aircraft?

    Prelims Only | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Infrastructure: Energy, Ports, Roads, Airports, Railways Etc.

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Wet and dry leasing

    Mains level: Not Much

    wet

    In efforts to boost international air traffic, the civil aviation ministry has allowed Indian airlines to take wide-body planes on wet lease for up to one year.

    What is Wet Leasing?

    • Wet leasing means taking the plane along with the operating crew and engineers, while dry leasing refers to taking only the aircraft on rent.
    • The technical term for wet leasing is ACMI which stands for aircraft, crew, maintenance and insurance.
    • These are the aspects of the operation that the wet lease airline takes care of, while the airline client will still be responsible for paying for direct operating costs.
    • This includes catering and fuel as well as fees such as airport fees, ground handling charges and navigation fees.
    • Operations of an aircraft on wet lease are more difficult for the Directorate General of Civil Aviation (DGCA) to monitor, which is why it is allowed for shorter durations.

    What are the new rules?

    • The rules had been relaxed, allowing the wet leasing for a year as opposed to the six months permitted so far.
    • Dry leasing was already allowed for up to 12 months, with the option to extend the contract for 12 another year.

    Why has govt extended limit now?

    • The civil aviation ministry’s decision came on a request by the country’s largest airline, IndiGo.
    • It plans for inducting B777 aircraft on wet/damp lease basis during the current winter schedule.
    • The relaxation will be available to all Indian carriers and will be granted based on international destinations they wish to operate to.
    • With Covid-related restrictions lifting, international travel is lifting up, and the wet leasing will allow airlines to fly more routes and rounds.
    • Wide-body planes can accommodate more passengers, thereby boosting revenue.

    Why airlines lease aircraft?

    • About half the planes used by airlines around the world are not owned but leased.
    • Airlines and aircraft operators prefer leasing planes in order to avoid massive lump sum payments that buying them would entail, and to quickly increase capacity, perhaps temporarily, on certain routes or sectors.

     

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  • Genetically Modified (GM) crops – cotton, mustards, etc.

    PR23: A perennial rice variety developed by China

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: PR23

    Mains level: Rice for global food security

    pr23

    Farmers in China are now growing a perennial variety of rice called PR 22 which does not need to be planted every year.

    What is PR23?

    • Researchers at the Yunnan University have developed a variety of perennial rice named PR23 by cross-breeding regular annual rice Oryza sativa with a wild perennial variety from Africa.
    • Unlike regular rice which is planted every season, PR23 can yield eight consecutive harvests across four years (as these plants with stronger roots grow back vigorously after each harvest).
    • PR23 yields, reported at 8 tons per hectare, are comparable to regular irrigated rice.
    • But growing it is much cheaper since it requires less labour, seeds and chemical inputs.

    Benefits of the variety

    • It can result in remarkable environmental benefits such as soils accumulating close to a ton of organic carbon (per hectare per year) along with increases in water available to plants.
    • It is were preferred by farmers since it saved 58% in labour and 49% in other input costs, over each regrowth cycle.
    • The researchers claim it can transform farming by improving livelihoods, enhancing soil quality and by inspiring research on other grains.
    • The invention could transform rice farming by making it climate-friendly, besides using less of labour and other inputs.

    Why is the discovery of the new variety significant?

    • Rice feeds about half of the world, and its farming and consumption are primarily in Asia.
    • Most crops grown today were once perennial, but bred to be annual, short-duration, to make them more productive.
    • Perennial rice could be a transformational innovation if it proves to be economically sustainable.

    Significance for India

    • India is the world’s second largest rice producer, after China, and the largest exporter with a 40% share in global trade.
    • It is grown during both summer and winter crop seasons.
    • Perennial rice can reduce the drudgery of annual trans-plantation, a back-breaking task, and generate savings on seeds and other inputs.
    • China’s early success has another lesson for India: to raise investments in public research and agricultural sciences.
    • This can help counter the impact of climate change on food security and rural incomes.

     

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  • Wildlife Conservation Efforts

    What are Sacred Grooves?

    Prelims Only | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Conservation, Environmental Pollution & Degradation, Eia

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Sacred Grooves

    Mains level: Not Much

    sacred

    This newscard is an excerpt from the original article published in the Sunday edition of TH.

    What are Sacred Grooves?

    • Sacred groves of India are forest fragments of varying sizes, which are communally protected, and which usually have a significant religious connotation for the protecting community.
    • It usually consists of a dense cover of vegetation including climbers, herbs, shrubs and trees, with the presence of a village deity and is mostly situated near a perennial water source.
    • Sacred groves are considered to be symbols of the primitive practice of nature worship and support nature conservation to a great extent.
    • The introduction of the protected area category community reserves under the Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002 has introduced legislation for providing government protection to community-held lands, which could include sacred groves.

    Historical references

    • Indian sacred groves are often associated with temples, monasteries, shrines, pilgrimage sites, or with burial grounds.
    • Historically, sacred groves find their mentions in Hindu, Jain and Buddhist texts, from sacred tree groves in Hinduism to sacred deer parks in Buddhism for example.
    • Sacred groves may be loosely used to refer to natural habitat protected on religious grounds.
    • Other historical references to sacred groves can be obtained in Vrukshayurveda an ancient treatise, ancient classics such as Kalidasa’s Vikramuurvashiiya.
    • There has been a growing interest in creating green patches such as Nakshatravana

    Regulation of activities in Sacred Grooves

    • Hunting and logging are usually strictly prohibited within these patches.
    • Other forms of forest usage like honey collection and deadwood collection are sometimes allowed on a sustainable basis.
    • NGOs work with local villagers to protect such groves.
    • Traditionally, and in some cases even today, members of the community take turns to protect the grove.

    Threats to such grooves

    • Threats to the groves include urbanization, and over-exploitation of resources.
    • While many of the groves are looked upon as abode of Hindu deities, in the recent past a number of them have been partially cleared for construction of shrines and temples.

    Total grooves in India

    • Around 14,000 sacred groves have been reported from all over India, which act as reservoirs of rare fauna, and more often rare flora, amid rural and even urban settings.
    • Experts believe that the total number of sacred groves could be as high as 100,000.
    • They are called by different names in different states:
    1. Sarna in Bihar
    2. Dev Van in Himachal Pradesh
    3. Devarakadu in Karnataka
    4. Kavu in Kerala
    5. Dev in Madhya Pradesh
    6. Devarahati or Devarai in Maharashtra
    7. Lai Umang in Maharashtra
    8. Law Kyntang or Asong Khosi in Meghalaya
    9. Oran in Rajasthan
    10. Kovil Kadu or Sarpa Kavu in Tamil Nadu

    What lies ahead?

    • The groves have great research value in in situ conservation of rare, endangered and threatened plant species.
    • It is high time that public awareness is created about the importance of these sacred groves, developmental activities are banned and the felling of trees or removal of any other vegetation is completely stopped.
    • This is possible only by way of enacting a special law for the protection and management of sacred groves.
    • As the management practices and other rituals vary from state to state, the concerned state governments may promulgate such an act as suitable for the state.
    • The idea should be to protect certain rare, endangered and threatened plant species in the era of global warming and climate change.

     

     

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  • Agricultural Sector and Marketing Reforms – eNAM, Model APMC Act, Eco Survey Reco, etc.

    Darjeeling Tea Industry in Crisis

    Prelims Only | Agriculture | Mains Paper 3: Major Crops & Cropping Patterns

    Note4Students

    From UPSC perspective, the following things are important:

    Prelims level: Darjeeling Tea

    Mains level: Not Much

    tea

    Tea Board officials admitted that Indian tea had not been able to establish itself globally, and that one of its key brands, Darjeeling Tea, was under acute stress.

    About Darjeeling Tea

    • Darjeeling Tea, called the ‘Champagne of Teas’, was the first Indian product to get the GI (Geographical Identification) tag in 2004 for its distinctive aroma and flavour.
    • About 87 gardens in Darjeeling which employ about 55,000 workers produce approximately 7 million kg of tea, most of which is exported.

    Why is it under distress?

    • Garden owners are reeling under higher costs of production and other issues.
    • Inferior quality tea from Nepal is being imported, and then sold and re-exported as premium Darjeeling Tea.
    • Nepal shares similar climatic conditions and terrain, produces tea at a lower price because of less input costs, particularly labour, and fewer quality checks.
    • In 2017, the production of Darjeeling Tea hit a low of 3.21 million kg. Since a substantial market of Darjeeling Tea switched to cheaper varieties of tea, including the imported variety from Nepal.
    • Tea planters and industry experts admit that the tea industry in Darjeeling has not recovered from the damage it incurred in 2017.

    Is climate change impacting production?

    • The decline in production is due to multiple factors, which include climate change, declining yields, and high absenteeism among workers.
    • Because of the hilly terrain of Darjeeling, there is no land left for expansion of tea gardens.
    • The tea bushes are older than other parts of the country.
    • Uprooting and planting them is both time and cost-intensive.

     

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