Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure
Note4Students
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Freedom of Expression; Freedom of Press; World Press Freedom Index
Mains level: Issues with Freedom of Expression in India;
Why in the news?
India’s score in the World Press Freedom Index fell over the last year, from 36.62 to 31.28, according to Reporters Without Borders. In South Asia, India finds itself ranked at 159th, while its neighbor Pakistan stands marginally higher at 152.
Key Highlights of the Report:
Deterioration Since 2014: Press freedom in India has significantly deteriorated since 2014.
Government vs Media Nexus: The government is criticized for maintaining a close relationship with big media families, leading to a lack of independence and critical journalism being labeled as “anti-national and anti-India“.
Self-Censorship: Fear of political backlash has forced journalists to censor themselves, as Modi’s supporters aggressively target critical reporting of the government.
Corporatization of Media: There’s an increasing trend of wealthy businessmen close to Modi owning a majority of mainstream media outlets, which undermines media independence and diversity.
BBC Raids: Recent raids on the BBC offices in India have drawn international criticism and contributed to India’s declining press freedom ranking.
Comparative Analysis: While India’s press freedom declines, neighboring countries like Pakistan and Sri Lanka have improved, although they still lag behind global leaders in press freedom rankings.
India’s Initiative of “Index Monitoring Cell”:
Purpose of the Cell: The Index Monitoring Cell has been set up to work on improving India’s press freedom ranking. It will consist of representatives from various government agencies and credible journalists suggested by the Press Council of India.
Ranking Parameters: The cell will engage with agencies publishing the World Press Freedom Index, like Reporters Without Borders, for a better understanding of the parameters and methodology used for the rankings. This will help formulate an action plan to address the issues identified.
Coordination with State Governments: The cell will coordinate with state governments to appoint nodal officers who can provide regular updates on the state of press freedom and any issues faced by journalists at the local level.
Engagement with Stakeholders: This aims to improve communication and visibility of steps taken to support press freedom and address concerns raised by global media watchdogs.
Reporting Mechanisms: Setting up proper reporting mechanisms is crucial to ensure that the data and information provided to ranking agencies are up-to-date and accurate. This will help in portraying a clearer picture of the press freedom landscape in India.
Conclusion: India needs to enact and strengthen laws to protect the freedom of the Press and ensure journalists’ safety. This includes legislation to prevent harassment, attacks, and threats against journalists, as well as provisions for swift and effective legal recourse in cases of censorship or intimidation.
Mains PYQ
Q What do understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. (UPSC IAS/2014)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: The India Employment Report 2024
Mains level: Employment Issues in India;
Why in the News?
The India Employment Report (IER) 2024, brought out by the Institute for Human Development (IHD) and the International Labour Organisation (ILO), has attracted widespread attention.
The analysis compares four years — 2000, 2012, 2019, and 2022 — which capture the changes over the past 22 years.
Positives in the IER Report, 2024:
Employment Quality Improvement: The report highlights a robust improvement in employment conditions as indicated by the Employment Condition Index, with an increase in non-farm employment and a decline in agriculture employment, suggesting structural transformation in the economy.
Female Workforce Participation: There has been a significant increase in the female workforce participation rate, albeit mainly in the agricultural sector and in own-account and unpaid family work. The Female workforce participation (FWFP) rate from 24.5% in 2019 to 37.0% in 2023.
Labour Market Resilience Amidst COVID: Despite the global slowdown induced by the pandemic, the labor market in India bounced back well, with wages of casual workers increasing, leading to a reduction in extreme poverty and deprivation.
Unemployment Trends: Unemployment and underemployment rates increased until 2018 but have declined thereafter. The unemployment rate has declined from 6 percent in 2018 to 3.2 percent in 2023.
Challenges as per the IER Report, 2024:
Emerging Employment Challenges: Challenges include a skewed employment pattern towards agriculture, increasing capital and skill-intensive production processes, low women’s participation, and rising educated youth unemployment.
Youth Unemployment Focus: The report emphasizes youth unemployment as a principal challenge, especially among educated youth, who account for a significant portion of total unemployment.
Informal Employment: Despite improvements, the majority of jobs remain informal and of lower productivity, with over 90% of employment being informal and 83% in the informal sector.
Way Forward
Policy Recommendations: Policy measures suggested include making production more employment-intensive, improving job quality, addressing labor market inequalities, enhancing skills training, and generating reliable statistics to better understand labor market dynamics.
Demographic Advantage: India is likely to have a demographic advantage for the next decade, and policy measures are recommended to leverage this advantage for robust economic growth.
Mains PYQ:
Q Besides the welfare schemes, India needs deft management of inflation and unemployment to serve the poor and the underprivileged sections of the society. Discuss.(UPSC IAS/2022)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Major Global happenings; USA and European countries;
Mains level: Sustainable Development; Issues with the Petroleum Industry in the Global Market;
Why in the news?
The war in the Middle East, Russia, and Ukraine, and sanctions by the US have eventually resulted into a fragmented market in the petroleum industry.
Causes of Fragmentation in the Petroleum Industry:
Impact of Sanctions: The sanctions imposed by the US on countries like Venezuela, Iran, and Russia have led to a fragmentation of the petroleum market, with trading relations becoming more regional than global. This fragmentation has reshaped the dynamics of oil supply and demand, with different regions relying on specific suppliers based on geopolitical circumstances and sanctions
Regional Trading Patterns: Trading relations in the petroleum industry have shifted regionally, with the US emerging as a major supplier of LNG and products in Europe, Russia becoming the largest supplier of crude to India, and Iran focusing on exports to China despite Western sanctions. This regionalization of trade has altered traditional market dynamics and diversified supply chains.
Challenges Faced by Oil Companies: International petroleum majors are experiencing solid profits due to higher production and prices of oil and gas. However, they are confronted with the need to reconcile their investment strategies with net zero carbon emission targets. This balancing act poses a significant challenge for oil companies as they navigate between profitability and sustainability goals
Geopolitical Uncertainties: The ongoing conflicts in the Middle East, particularly between Israel and Iran, have added to the complexities of the petroleum market. The region, which holds a significant portion of the world’s petroleum reserves, is facing a mix of warfare, racism, and radicalism, contributing to heightened tensions and uncertainties in the oil industry
AI Industry’s Energy Demand: Increasing energy demand from the artificial intelligence (AI) industry for data centers, cloud storage facilities, and crypto mining. This growing demand for electricity poses a challenge as renewables may not be able to meet the requirements, leading to a dilemma for industry leaders committed to achieving net zero carbon emissions.
What needs to be done?
Diversification of Energy Sources: To mitigate the impact of geopolitical uncertainties and sanctions-induced market fragmentation, there is a need for countries to diversify their energy sources.
Strengthening Regional Cooperation: Regional cooperation agreements and partnerships can help stabilize petroleum markets and ensure energy security.
Promotion of Energy Efficiency: Improving energy efficiency across various sectors, including transportation, manufacturing, and residential buildings, can reduce overall energy consumption and lessen dependence on petroleum products.
Mains PYQ:
Q Discuss the multi-dimensional implications of uneven distribution of mineral oil in the world. (UPSC IAS/2021)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Carbon Farming;
Mains level: Significance and challenges of Carbon farming;
Why in the News?
The goal of carbon farming is to mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
BACK2BASICS:
What is meant by Carbon Farming?
Carbon farming is a holistic approach to agriculture that focuses on sequestering atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) into the soil and vegetation, thereby mitigating climate change while simultaneously enhancing soil health and agricultural productivity.
It involves implementing regenerative agricultural practices that promote carbon sequestration, such as agroforestry, cover cropping, rotational grazing, conservation tillage, composting, and diverse crop rotations.
Significance of Carbon Farming:
Mitigation of Climate Change: Carbon farming practices such as rotational grazing, agroforestry, conservation agriculture, and integrated nutrient management help sequester atmospheric carbon dioxide into the soil and vegetation, thereby mitigating climate change by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and enhancing carbon storage.
Soil Health Improvement: Carbon farming enhances soil health by increasing soil organic carbon levels, improving soil structure, fertility, water retention, and resilience to drought and extreme weather events. Practices like zero tillage, cover cropping, and crop residue management minimize soil disturbance and enhance organic content.
Biodiversity Conservation: Agroforestry, agroecology, and land restoration practices promote biodiversity conservation by diversifying plant and animal species, providing habitat for wildlife, and restoring degraded ecosystems.
Sustainable Agriculture: Carbon farming promotes sustainable agricultural practices by minimizing environmental impacts, conserving natural resources, and enhancing the long-term productivity and resilience of agricultural systems.
Challenges in Carbon farming:
Water Availability: Carbon farming can be challenging in hot and dry areas. Limited water availability can hinder plant growth and restrict the potential for carbon sequestration through photosynthesis, affecting practices like cover cropping.
Plant Selection: The selection of plant species is crucial, as not all species trap and store carbon in the same amounts or equally effectively. Fast-growing trees and deep-rooted perennial grasses are generally better at carbon sequestration, but may not be suitable for arid environments.
Financial Resources: Small-scale farmers in developing countries may particularly lack the resources to invest in sustainable land management practices and environmental services.
Policy Support: Sufficient policy support is essential for the widespread adoption of carbon farming practices. This includes incentives, subsidies, regulations, and technical assistance to encourage and facilitate the implementation of carbon farming at the local, national, and international levels.
What are some carbon farming schemes worldwide?
Voluntary Carbon Markets: Carbon trading in the agriculture sector has gained importance globally, especially in countries like the U.S., Australia, New Zealand, and Canada. Voluntary carbon markets, such as the Chicago Climate Exchange, provide platforms for incentivizing carbon mitigation activities in agriculture.
Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project: Supported by the World Bank, Kenya’s Agricultural Carbon Project exemplifies efforts to address climate mitigation, adaptation, and food security challenges in economically developing countries through carbon farming initiatives.
‘4 per 1000’ Initiative: Launched during the COP21 climate talks in 2015 in Paris, the ‘4 per 1000’ initiative emphasizes the role of carbon sinks, including those created through carbon farming practices, in mitigating greenhouse gas emissions. It underscores the importance of managing the remaining global carbon budget wisely.
The Silver Line for the Indian Government:
Viability of Organic Farming: Grassroots initiatives and agrarian research in India demonstrate the viability of organic farming to sequester carbon. Agroecological practices have the potential to generate significant economic benefits, estimated at $63 billion in value from approximately 170 million hectares of arable land.
Economic Benefits for Farmers: Adoption of sustainable agricultural practices could lead to economic benefits for farmers, including an estimated annual payment of around ₹5,000-6,000 per acre for providing climate services through carbon farming.
Suitability of Agricultural Regions: Regions with extensive agricultural land, such as the Indo-Gangetic plains and the Deccan Plateau, are well-suited to adopt carbon farming practices. These regions have the potential to contribute significantly to carbon sequestration and climate mitigation efforts.
Way forward:
Research and Development: Invest in research and development to identify and promote plant species that are well-suited for carbon sequestration. Develop drought-resistant crops and agroforestry species to enhance carbon farming viability.
Financial Support: Provide Financial assistance and incentives to small-scale farmers in developing countries to invest in sustainable land management practices and adopt carbon farming techniques.
Policy Framework: Develop and implement supportive policy frameworks at local, national, and international levels to encourage the adoption of carbon farming practices. For example setting carbon pricing mechanisms, establishing regulatory standards, and providing technical assistance to farmers.
Mains PYQ
Q Should the pursuit of carbon credits and clean development mechanisms set up under UNFCCC be maintained even though there has been a massive slide in the value of a carbon credit? Discuss with respect to India’s energy needs for economic growth.(UPSC IAS/2014)
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Forest Fires as per FSI report
Mains level: NA
Why in the News?
Last week, three instances of forest fire were reported from the major forest belts in Uttarakhand.
The severity of the situation has prompted the deployment of Indian Air Force personnel and Mi-17 choppers, engaged in the critical operation of dousing the flames using the Bambi Bucket Method.
Causes of Wildfire:
Firstly, the general major causes of forest fires in Uttarakhand are continued dry weather and lack of moisture in the forests.
Secondly, according to the Forest Research Institute (FRI, 2019), 95% of forest fires are attributed to human activities.
The common human-induced causes include – Grazers setting fire to dry grass, Slash-and-burn agriculture, Unattended campfires, and Intentional arson.
Uttarakhand’s Forest Vulnerability:
As per the latest report from the Forest Survey of India (FSI), the Recorded Forest Area (RFA) in the State is 38,000 sq km of which 26,547 sq km is Reserved Forest, 9,885 sq km is Protected Forest, and 1,568 sq km is Unclassed Forests.
Highly flammable Chir Pine trees, covering extensive areas, increase the fire risk.
This risk is compounded by prolongeddry spells and excess biomass accumulation.
Additionally, the proximity of villages facilitates anthropogenic activities such as forest clearance and grazing.
Forest Fires in India: Recent Statistics
Odisha recorded 4,237 forest fires as compared to 1,499 between April 20 and 27 in 2023. Similarly, Chhattisgarh recorded 757 fires last year as compared to 2,116 this year, Jharkhand 633 as against 1,926 and Andhra Pradesh 527 as compared to 1,126 in 2023.
However, Uttarakhand has recorded the highest number of large forest fires in the country in the last seven days since April 28, according to the Forest Survey of India (FSI) data.
Mitigation Strategies
Localized Initiatives:
Effective measures to mitigate forest fire risks include controlled burning, biomass removal, prescribed burns, and enhanced surveillance using drones.
Community engagement and proactive involvement, as demonstrated in Kerala, provide valuable insights for forest fire management.
Government Initiatives:
The government has introduced measures such as a satellite-based fire alert system by the Forest Survey of India, aiding in early detection and response efforts.
Forest staff utilize various techniques, including counter-fires and fire beaters, to contain and manage forest fires effectively.
Wildfires Mitigating Strategies:
The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) outlines four strategies to prevent and manage forest fires:
Erecting watch towers for early detection,
Deploying fire watchers,
Engaging local communities, and
Establishing and maintaining fire lines.
The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) website distinguishes between two types of fire lines:
Kachha fire lines involve clearing undergrowth and shrubs while preserving trees to decrease the amount of available fuel.
Pucca fire lines are clear-cut areas that create a barrier between forest compartments or blocks to contain potential fire spread.
PYQ:
[2020] Examine the status of forest resources of India and its resultant impact on climate change.
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Catatumbo Lightning
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Catatumbo lightning is a natural event seen over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela, where lightning strikes almost nonstop.
What is Catatumbo Lightning?
Catatumbo Lightning is an atmospheric phenomenon that occurs over the Catatumbo River in Venezuela.
It specifically occurs at the Catatumbo Delta, where the river meets Lake Maracaibo.
It is known as one of the world’s largest lightning displays.
This natural spectacle involves frequent and nearly continuous lightning strikes that illuminate the night sky, creating a mesmerizing light show.
Catatumbo Lightning is most prevalent during the wet season, typically from April to November.
The consistent and abundant lightning activity has earned the region the moniker “the lightning capital of the world.”
Factors behind Catatumbo Lightning
Weather Dynamics
Warm, moisture-laden air from the Caribbean Sea clashes with cooler air descending from the Andes mountains, creating a dynamic interplay of atmospheric forces.
This collision, accentuated by the local landscape, triggers rapid upward movement of warm air, leading to the formation of towering cumulonimbus clouds.
Electrical Charge Generation
Strong winds and temperature differentials within these clouds generate electrical charges.
Cumulonimbus clouds, towering over 5 km high, accumulate vast amounts of static electricity.
Lightning Discharge: When the electrical potential within the clouds reaches a critical level, it discharges in the form of lightning strikes.
Characteristics of Catatumbo Lightning
Catatumbo lightning occurs on approximately 160 nights annually, exhibiting a remarkable longevity.
At its peak, the phenomenon generates an astonishing average of 28 lightning strikes per minute.
PYQ:
[2013] During a thunderstorm, the thunder in the skies is produced by the
1. Meeting of cumulonimbus clouds in the sky
2. Lightning that separates the nimbus clouds
3. Violent upward movement of air and water particles
Select the correct answer using the codes given below:
From UPSC perspective, the following things are important :
Prelims level: Geukensia demissa
Mains level: NA
Why in the news?
Shellfish aquaculture using Geukensia demissa is emerging as a viable solution for mitigating excess nutrients and contaminants in coastal and estuarine waters.
About Geukensia demissa
Geukensia demissa is a species of mussel commonly known as the ribbed mussel or Atlantic ribbed mussel.
It is native to the Atlantic coast of North America, ranging from Nova Scotia in Canada to the Gulf of Mexico.
They inhabit intertidal and shallow subtidal areas, typically found in estuaries, salt marshes, and tidal flats.
They prefer areas with muddy or sandy substrates where they can burrow and anchor themselves.
Ecological Importance
Ribbed mussels play a vital role in estuarine ecosystems.
Water Filtration: They filter large volumes of water, helping to improve water quality by removing suspended particles and excess nutrients.
Key species of Food Chain: Additionally, their presence provides habitat and food for various other organisms, including small invertebrates and fish.
Organisms Filter: These mussels thrive in diverse habitats and possess the ability to filter bacteria, microalgae, and detritus laden with nutrients and contaminants.
Geukensia demissa:Experimental Deployment and Results
To assess the efficacy of G. demissa in purifying urban waters, a raft stocked with local ribbed mussels was deployed in an estuary near New York City.
Subsequent analysis revealed that the mussels exhibited robust health and accumulated significant amounts of local nitrogen isotopes, indicative of nitrogen removal from the water.
Based on the findings, it is estimated that a fully stocked raft could purify an average of 11,356 m3 of water daily and remove approximately 159 kg of particulate matter on a daily basis.
Moreover, upon harvesting, the mussels sequestered 62.6 kg of nitrogen in their tissues and shells, further enhancing the water quality.
PYQ:
[2011] Recently, “oil-zapper” was in the news. What is it?
(a) It is an eco-friendly technology for the remediation of oily sludge and oil spills
(b) It is the latest technology developed for under-sea oil exploration
(c) It is a genetically engineered high biofuel-yielding maize variety
(d) It is the latest technology to control the accidentally caused flames from oil wells
Every year on May 5, pulmonary hypertension organizations and groups around the world participate in World Pulmonary Hypertension Day.
What is Pulmonary Hypertension?
Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a condition characterized by high blood pressure in the pulmonary arteries, which are the blood vessels that carry blood from the heart to the lungs.
This elevated pressure in the pulmonary arteries can lead to various symptoms and complications, affecting the heart’s ability to pump blood effectivelyto the lungs and the rest of the body.
Here are some key aspects of pulmonary hypertension:
Causes:
Idiopathic Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension (IPAH): In many cases, the exact cause of pulmonary hypertension is unknown, and it is referred to as idiopathic. IPAH is a subtype of PH without an identifiable cause.
Secondary Pulmonary Hypertension: PH can also develop secondary to other underlying conditions, including:
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
Interstitial lung disease
Sleep apnea
Connective tissue diseases such as scleroderma and lupus
Congenital heart diseases
HIV infection
Liver disease (cirrhosis)
Genetic Factors: Some forms of PH may have a genetic component, with mutations in certain genes predisposing individuals to the condition.
Features:
Symptoms: Symptoms of pulmonary hypertension may include:
Shortness of breath, especially during physical activity
Fatigue
Chest pain or pressure
Dizziness or fainting spells
Swelling in the ankles and legs (edema)
Bluish lips or skin (cyanosis)
Diagnostic Tests: Diagnosis of pulmonary hypertension typically involves a combination of medical history review, physical examination, and diagnostic tests, including:
Echocardiogram (ECG)
Right heart catheterization
Pulmonary function tests
Chest X-ray
CT scan or MRI of the chest
Blood tests
Treatment: Treatment for pulmonary hypertension aims to relieve symptoms, improve quality of life, and slow disease progression. Treatment options may include:
Medications such as vasodilators, endothelin receptor antagonists, and prostacyclin analogs
Oxygen therapy
Pulmonary rehabilitation
Surgery or a lung transplant in severe cases
Hypertension Control Initiatives in India:
India Hypertension Control Initiative (IHCI) (2017): It was launched to strengthen the hypertension component of National Programme for Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases (NP-NCD) in primary care public sector facilities in India
75/25 initiative (2023): Union Health Ministry announced the initiative- 75 million people with hypertension and diabetes to be put on Standard Care by 2025, through the Primary Health Centres (PHCs).
PYQ:
[2021] In the context of hereditary diseases, consider the following statements :
1. Passing on mitochondrial diseases from parent to child can be prevented by mitochondrial replacement therapy either before or after in vitro fertilization of egg.
2. A child inherits mitochondrial diseases entirely from mother and not from father.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
