PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2024] Explain the role of millets for ensuring health and nutritional security in India.
Linkage: In this article, discuss how millets, classified as Neglected and Underutilized Species (NUS) and now as “opportunity crops,” are nutritionally dense and climate-resilient. This question directly aligns with the core components of ‘biohappiness’ that emphasize “nutrition security” and bringing “forgotten foods back to the table”. |
Mentor’s Comment: India’s traditional food habits, especially in tribal and rural areas like Arunachal Pradesh, are at risk because many local plants and crops are disappearing. This loss is not just about rare plants but also about losing foods that are nutritious, climate-resilient, and hold cultural importance, along with the traditional knowledge that supports them.
Today’s editorial will talk about the quick loss of biodiversity and traditional food knowledge in India. It will help with GS Paper II (Policy Making) and GS Paper III (Agriculture & Environment).
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Let’s learn!
Why in the News?
The fast loss of biodiversity and food knowledge, caused by cash crops, global diets, and weak policies, urges India to use new science and revive orphan crops (Neglected and Underutilized Species) like millets for better food and environment.
What are Neglected and Underutilized Species (NUS)?
- NUS are traditional crops like millets, legumes, tubers, and wild fruits that have been largely ignored or underused in modern agriculture and food systems.
- These species are nutritionally rich, climate-resilient, and well-adapted to local environments, offering potential to improve food security and support sustainable farming.
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Why are they now referred to as “opportunity crops”?
- Nutritionally Dense: These crops are rich in essential nutrients, vitamins, and minerals, making them excellent for improving health. Eg: Small millets are high in fiber and micronutrients compared to rice and wheat.
- Climate-Resilient: They can withstand harsh environmental conditions like drought and poor soils, helping farmers adapt to climate change. Eg: Finger millet (ragi) grows well in dry and marginal lands.
- Locally Adapted: These crops are naturally suited to local soils and climates, reducing the need for chemical fertilizers and irrigation. Eg: Buckwheat thrives in the hilly regions of Northeast India without intensive inputs.
- Support Biodiversity: Cultivating these crops preserves agrobiodiversity and traditional farming knowledge, maintaining ecological balance. Eg: Indigenous legumes help fix nitrogen in soil, improving fertility naturally.
- Economic Potential: Reviving these crops can create new market opportunities, increase farmers’ incomes, and diversify food production. Eg: Millet-based products are gaining popularity in urban markets for their health benefits.
Why is agrobiodiversity declining in Northeast India?
- Rapid Disappearance of Traditional Plants: Many native plant species are disappearing quickly due to changing land use and environmental pressures. Eg: Traditional greens and wild fruits once common in Arunachal Pradesh are becoming rare.
- Loss of Traditional Knowledge: Indigenous knowledge about the nutritional and medicinal properties of local plants is being lost as younger generations move away from traditional lifestyles. Eg: Nyishi and Apatani tribes’ understanding of forest plants is fading.
- Shift to Commercial Crops: Farmers are moving from diverse local crops to cash crops for better income, reducing crop variety. Eg: In Kolli Hills, many farmers switched from millets to coffee and pepper.
- Environmental Changes and Species Extinction: Habitat loss and climate change are causing a rise in species extinction, mirroring a global trend. Eg: Forest degradation in Northeast India is threatening native biodiversity.
- Lack of Awareness and Support: There is limited awareness and institutional support for conserving local agrobiodiversity, leading to neglect. Eg: Many minor millets remain neglected in government schemes despite their benefits.
Where has millet revival been successfully implemented?
- Kolli Hills, Tamil Nadu: The M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation (MSSRF) has worked with local farmers for over 20 years to prevent millet diversity loss. Efforts include documenting traditional knowledge, improving soil health, diversifying crops, and enhancing income, especially among women farmers. Eg: Farmers shifted back from cash crops to locally adapted millets.
- Koraput District, Odisha: Collaboration with the Odisha Millet Mission has supported a community-led millet revival, focusing on seed conservation to consumption, expanding the range of millets beyond the commonly promoted ragi, jowar, and bajra. Eg: Minor millets are being reintroduced into local diets and markets.
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How does a few crops’ dominance affect global nutrition?
- Over-Reliance on Few Crops: Global food systems mainly depend on rice, wheat, and maize, which provide over 50% of plant-based calories. This limits dietary diversity. Eg: Many populations rely heavily on rice, leading to monotonous diets.
- Loss of Biodiversity: Dominance of a few crops causes a decline in agricultural biodiversity, reducing availability of diverse nutrients. Eg: Traditional millets and legumes are neglected, despite being nutrient-rich.
- Nutritional Imbalances: Diets based on a limited number of staple crops can cause deficiencies in vitamins, minerals, and proteins. Eg: Populations depending mainly on wheat may face iron and zinc deficiencies.
- Vulnerability to Climate Shocks: Dependence on few crops makes food systems more susceptible to climate change impacts, threatening food security. Eg: Droughts affecting maize crops can lead to widespread shortages.
- Rise in Non-Communicable Diseases: Limited crop diversity correlates with an increase in diseases like diabetes and obesity, due to poor diet quality. Eg: High consumption of refined wheat and maize products contributes to obesity trends.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- International Year of Millets & Shree Anna Yojana: Launched focused strategies to enhance millet production, productivity, consumption, and export, while raising awareness about health benefits.
- State Millet Missions: Several states have started their own Millet Missions to support local cultivation, value chain strengthening, and branding of millets.
- Inclusion in Public Distribution System (PDS): Efforts are underway to include minor millets in the PDS to promote wider access and consumption among the population.
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Way forward:
- Expand Millet Coverage and Integration: Broaden the focus beyond major millets (ragi, jowar, bajra) to include minor millets and other neglected crops in state missions and the Public Distribution System (PDS) for greater reach and impact.
- Strengthen Farmer Empowerment and Research: Support community-led conservation, improve value addition technologies, and invest in interdisciplinary researchto enhance crop resilience, nutritional value, and market opportunities.
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Why in the News?
India is one of the world’s top textile exporters and a major manufacturing center, but its textile industry is now at a critical stage.
What challenges affect India’s textile industry globally?
- Geopolitical Tensions: Rising global conflicts and trade restrictions disrupt export routes and reduce India’s textile market access. Eg: The U.S.-China trade war shifted demand to countries like Vietnam, affecting Indian exporters’ global share.
- Fragmented Supply Chains: Lack of coordination between suppliers, weavers, and exporters leads to production delays and higher costs. Eg: During the COVID-19 pandemic, uncoordinated lockdowns at different supply chain points delayed delivery timelines.
- Price Volatility: Unpredictable fluctuations in raw material prices reduce planning efficiency and shrink profit margins. Eg: In 2022, cotton prices spiked globally, affecting the cost structure of Indian textile firms and making exports less competitive.
- Sustainability Compliance: Global markets demand eco-friendly and traceable textile products, which Indian firms may struggle to provide without investing in green technology. Eg: The EU’s push for traceability and environmental standards may restrict access for non-compliant Indian products.
- Changing Consumer Preferences: International buyers now prioritize ethically sourced, durable, and sustainably certified products. Eg: Brands like H&M and Levi’s require sustainability certifications, posing challenges for uncertified Indian manufacturers.
What is Regenerative Farming?
Regenerative farming is an agricultural practice focused on restoring and enhancing soil health, increasing biodiversity, and improving ecosystem resilience. It goes beyond sustainable farming by actively repairing environmental damage caused by conventional agriculture. |
Why is regenerative farming vital for textiles?
- Sustainable Raw Material Sourcing: Regenerative farming ensures a steady and eco-friendly supply of natural fibres like cotton, reducing environmental impact. Eg: In Aurangabad, Maharashtra, over 6,000 farmers under the Regenerative Cotton Program reported higher yields and soil health improvement.
- Climate Resilience: It improves soil health and enhances resistance to climate shocks, ensuring consistent fibre quality. Eg: Regen farms showed better crop survival during erratic rainfall and drought periods, supporting uninterrupted textile production.
- Cost-Effective Production: Reduced dependence on chemical inputs lowers input costs, making raw materials more affordable for textile producers. Eg: Farmers using regen methods observed less fertilizer usage, lowering their overall production cost.
- Enhanced Traceability: Regen farming enables real-time data and certification, ensuring supply chain transparency demanded by global brands. Eg: Cotton grown under traceable regenerative systems is preferred by brands like Patagonia for its verified originand sustainability.
- Rural Livelihood and Inclusion: It creates inclusive rural economies by empowering smallholders, supporting gender equity, and connecting farmers with global markets. Eg: Regen cotton initiatives have led to higher incomes and women participation in farming across India’s cotton belts.
Where is regenerative cotton farming showing success?
Aurangabad, Maharashtra: A notable hub for regenerative cotton farming, where farmers have adopted climate-friendly agricultural practices. Eg: Over 6,000 farmers are part of the Regenerative Cotton Program, resulting in higher yields, reduced use of chemical fertilisers, and more stable incomes. |
How does traceability boost textile exports?
- Product Authenticity: Traceability ensures transparency from raw material to final product, building consumer trust in international markets. Eg: Kasturi Cotton branding enhances India’s image by assuring authentic, high-quality cotton to global buyers.
- Sustainability Compliance: Export destinations demand eco-conscious sourcing. Traceable supply chains show alignment with sustainability standards. Eg: The EU and U.K. emphasize environmentally responsible production under FTAs and Digital Product Passports (DPPs).
- Market Access & Expansion: Traceability helps Indian textiles meet foreign regulatory standards, easing entry into eco-sensitive markets. Eg: India-U.K. Free Trade Agreement (FTA) can boost exports by leveraging traceability credentials.
- Brand Accountability: It shifts perception from just a supplier to a responsible brand, enhancing global brand equity. Eg: Tech-based tracking systems help Indian brands share sustainability stories, increasing appeal in premium markets.
- Competitive Differentiation: Traceable products stand out in global markets with rising demand for ethical fashion. Eg: As per the 2023 Consumer Circularity Survey, over 37% consumers consider traceability a key purchase factor.
| Note: Traceability refers to the ability to track the origin, movement, and history of a product through every stage of the supply chain — from raw material sourcing to manufacturing, distribution, and final sale. |
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- PM MITRA Scheme: Establishes Mega Integrated Textile Regions and Apparel Parks to integrate the entire textile value chain, reduce logistics costs, boost competitiveness, and create jobs.
- Promotion of Regenerative Cotton Farming: Supports sustainable farming practices to improve soil health, reduce chemical use, and enhance cotton qualitythrough collaborative platforms.
- Support for Technical Textiles and Innovation: Launches initiatives like the National Technical Textiles Mission to promote R&D and commercialization of high-value technical textiles for sectors like healthcare and defense.
Way forward:
- Adopt Sustainable Practices: Promote widespread use of regenerative farming, traceability technologies, and product circularity to enhance environmental responsibility and global competitiveness.
- Strengthen Innovation and Collaboration: Invest in R&D, encourage public-private partnerships, and leverage trade agreements to boost technological advancement and expand export markets.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023] Faster economic growth requires increased share of the manufacturing sector in GDP, particularly of MSMEs. Comment on the present policies of the Government in this regard.
Linkage: Indian textile industry is “one of the world’s largest manufacturing hubs” and projects its growth to $350 billion by 2030, with the potential to add 35 million new jobs. This PYQ directly addresses the importance of the manufacturing sector for economic growth and government policies supporting it, which are crucial for the textile industry to realize its leadership vision and achieve an “economic competitive edge”.
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Why in the News?
India has announced a major cut in import duty — 15% off on fully built electric cars — but only if the makers promise to invest locally and add value within the country. This is part of a new plan called the Scheme to Promote Manufacturing of Electric Passenger Cars in India (SPMEPCI).
What is the SPMEPCI scheme?
The SPMEPCI scheme (Scheme to Promote Manufacturing of Electric Passenger Cars in India) launched in 2024 offers a 15% concessional import duty on electric cars. It requires manufacturers to invest ₹4,150 crore and achieve 25–50% domestic value addition within five years, promoting local EV production and reducing imports. |
How does it aim to promote EV manufacturing in India?
- Investment-Linked Incentives: Offers a 15% concessional import duty on completely built-up (CBU) EVs. Manufacturers must invest at least ₹4,150 crore over 3 years. Eg: A global EV company like Tesla or BYD can benefit from lower import taxes if it sets up a manufacturing plant or R&D unit in India.
- Mandatory Localisation of Production: Companies must achieve 25% Domestic Value Addition (DVA) within 3 years, increasing to 50% in 5 years. Encourages use of local auto components, reduces import dependency, and builds domestic manufacturing capacity. Eg: EV makers could partner with Indian auto component suppliers like Motherson Sumi or Bosch India to meet DVA targets.
- Cap on Imports to Push Local Production: Only 8,000 CBUs annually per manufacturer are allowed under concessional duty for 5 years. Companies must move quickly to set up local production to scale beyond this limit. Eg: After hitting the import cap, a company like Volkswagen may be compelled to start local assembly to meet rising demand and avoid higher duties.
Why is technology transfer critical for India’s EV transition?
- Late Start Requires Catching Up Quickly: India began its EV journey in 2015, about 5 years later than major players like China and the U.S. Without technology transfer, India risks falling behind in innovation and manufacturing capabilities. Eg: China’s early joint ventures helped it quickly develop advanced EV technology, something India needs to replicate.
- Lack of Indigenous Battery Technology: Batteries are the core component of EVs, and India currently lacks the technology to produce advanced batteriesdomestically. Technology transfer will help India build expertise in battery design, manufacturing, and supply chain integration. Eg: China’s vertical integration from mining to battery assembly gave it a competitive edge in pricing and scale.
- Building a Localised EV Ecosystem: Transferring technology via partnerships or joint ventures helps develop local suppliers and skilled workforce. This reduces dependency on imports and supports long-term sustainability of the EV industry. Eg: India’s success in ICE vehicles came through mandated joint ventures which facilitated tech and skill transfer; the same model can be applied to EVs.
How has China’s strategy helped it lead in global EV adoption?
- Early and Ambitious Subsidy Program: Launched the New Energy Vehicle subsidy programme in 2009, much earlier than many countries. This long-term financial support boosted EV production and adoption. Eg: Subsidies encouraged companies like BYD and NIO to rapidly scale EV manufacturing.
- Mandatory Joint Ventures for Technology Transfer: Required foreign EV manufacturers to form joint ventures with Chinese firms until 2022. This ensured technology transfer and domestic capability building. Eg: Tesla initially partnered with local companies to set up manufacturing in China.
- Massive Financial Incentives: China invested around $230 billion over 15 years on EV subsidies, infrastructure, and research—the largest globally. This comprehensive support accelerated industry growth. Eg: Government funding helped develop a vast EV charging network nationwide.
- Gradual Reduction of Import Duties: Reduced import duties on EVs from 25% in 2010 to 15% in 2018. Lower duties made EVs more affordable, increasing domestic demand. Eg: More affordable imports boosted consumer adoption alongside local manufacturing.
- Vertical Integration of Battery Manufacturing: Controls entire battery value chain: mining, processing, manufacturing, and assembly. This integration reduced costs and improved competitiveness against conventional vehicles. Eg: Chinese battery giants like CATL dominate global markets due to this vertical setup.
What are the steps taken by the Indian government?
- Expansion of FAME Scheme: The Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of (Hybrid &) Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme initially launched in 2015 with ₹895 crore outlay, expanded to ₹10,000 crore in 2019. Supports EV adoption through subsidies and incentives for manufacturers and buyers.
- Encouraging Localisation and Investment: Caps on imported EVs to encourage domestic production (maximum 8,000 completely built units annually per manufacturer under SPMEPCI). Push for localisation of components and assembly to build a robust domestic EV ecosystem.
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Way forward:
- Promote Strategic Partnerships for Technology Transfer: Encourage and mandate joint ventures between foreign EV firms and Indian manufacturers to ensure effective technology sharing and skill development.
- Build a Comprehensive Domestic Battery Ecosystem: Invest in creating end-to-end battery manufacturing capabilities, including raw material sourcing, processing, and cell production, to reduce import reliance and lower costs.
Mains PYQ:
[UPSC 2023} How do electric vehicles contribute to reducing carbon emissions and what are the key benefits they offer compared to traditional combustion engine vehicles?
Linkage: India’s journey to decarbonize and transform mobility, which includes the adoption of EVs, is currently hampered because policies “fall short of addressing a pressing issue… technology transfer”. This question directly addresses the core subject of electric vehicles (EVs) and their benefits, particularly in reducing carbon emissions.
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Why in the News?
Mount Etna, Europe’s largest active volcano, has erupted sending ash, smoke, and rock fragments several kilometres into the sky.
Why do Volcanoes Erupt?
- Magma Formation: Deep within Earth, high temperature and pressure melt rocks into magma.
- Gas Expansion: Magma contains gases like water vapor, CO₂, and SO₂. As magma rises, the pressure drops, allowing these gases to form bubbles, increasing internal pressure.
- Crustal Weaknesses: At tectonic boundaries or mantle plumes, cracks and faults in Earth’s crust provide pathways for magma to escape.
- Eruption Mechanism:
- As pressure builds, magma is pushed upwards.
- If blocked, the gas expansion can explode through the crust, ejecting lava, ash, and gases.
- Signals: If magma flow is suddenly stopped by solid rock, it may create low-frequency seismic waves (pre-eruption tremors).
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About Mount Etna:
- Location: Situated on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, near the city of Catania.
- Type: Mount Etna is a stratovolcano (also called a composite volcano), which is formed from layers of hardened lava, volcanic ash, and rocks.
- Height: It stands at approximately 3,300 meters, making it the tallest volcano in Europe south of the Alps.
- Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2013, with documented volcanic activity for at least 2,700 years.
- Eruption Record: Etna is almost constantly active. Notable eruptions have occurred in 1400 B.C., 1669, 2001, 2018, 2021, 2024, and 2025.
- Volcanic Activity Style: Known for Strombolian and effusive eruptions, with occasional Plinian eruptions (rare and more explosive).
Reasons Behind the June 2025 Eruption:
- Nature of Eruption: The eruption is classified as either Strombolian or possibly Plinian, depending on interpretation:
- Strombolian Eruption: Characterized by moderate explosive bursts, caused by gas bubbles in magma suddenly bursting at the surface.
- Plinian Eruption: Some volcanologists suggest this classification due to the large ash column that may have reached the stratosphere.
- Eruption Trigger: The eruption likely began due to pressure buildup from gas within the magma chamber, leading to collapse of the southeast crater and lava flows.
| [UPSC 2024] Consider the following:
1. Pyroclastic debris
2. Ash and dust
3. Nitrogen compounds
4. Sulphur compounds
How many of the above are products of volcanic eruptions?
Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two (c) Only three (d) Only four* |
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Why in the News?
A recent study by the think-tank Climate Trends has revealed that levels of black carbon in the Himalayas have been rising steadily over the past two decades.
About Black Carbon (BC):
- What is it: Black carbon is a fine particulate pollutant formed from the incomplete combustion of biomass and fossil fuels.
- Impact: It is a short-lived climate pollutant and the second-largest contributor to global warming after carbon dioxide.
- Lifespan: Unlike CO₂, black carbon stays in the atmosphere for short periods and can be quickly reduced if emissions stop.
- Warming Mechanism: As an aerosol, it absorbs sunlight, heats the atmosphere, and reduces albedo when deposited on snow and ice, leading to faster melting.
- Health Effects: Exposure increases the risk of heart disease, birth complications, and premature death.
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- Residential Biomass Burning: Accounts for 47% of BC emissions, including cow dung and straw burning.
- Industries and Vehicles: Industries contribute 22%, while diesel vehicles add 17%.
- Other Sources: Open burning contributes 12%, and other minor sources 2%.
- High-Emission States: Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra are major emitters due to agricultural and forest fires.
- Biofuel Usage: Alone contributes nearly 42% of India’s total BC emissions.
Key Findings from the Study (2000–2023):
- Snow Temperature Rise: Himalayan snow surface temperature rose from -11.27°C to -7.13°C over two decades.
- Regional Trends: The Eastern Himalayas were warmest, followed by the Central and Western regions.
- BC Influence: Deposits of black carbon lower snow reflectivity, increase heat absorption, and accelerate glacier melt.
- Population Risk: Glacier loss threatens the freshwater supply for nearly 2 billion people downstream.
- Increase in Snow Depth: Despite warming, average snow depth rose from 0.059 m to 0.117 m.
- Reasons: This is due to more snowfall, changing precipitation, and wind redistribution.
- Regional Comparison: The Western Himalayas showed highest snow depth, linked to elevation and winter storms, while the Eastern and Central Himalayas had less snow due to proximity to BC sources.
| [UPSC 2017] Consider the following statements:
1. Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) to Reduce Short-Lived Climate Pollutants is a unique initiative of G20 group of countries;
2. The CCAC focuses on methane, black carbon and hydrofluorocarbons.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
India has strongly objected to the Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) decision to provide an $800 million loan to Pakistan under its Resource Mobilisation Reform Programme.
About the Asian Development Bank (ADB):
- Established: 1966, following a UN-led conference on Asian Economic Cooperation.
- Headquarters: Manila, Philippines
- Status: Official Observer at the United Nations
- Objectives:
- To reduce poverty in Asia and the Pacific.
- To promote inclusive and environmentally sustainable growth and regional economic integration.
- Functions:
- Provides loans (hard and soft), grants, and technical assistance.
- Offers direct funding to private sector projects with social benefits.
- Supports countries through policy dialogues, co-financing, and advisory services.
- Funding Sources:
- Issues bonds on global capital markets.
- Receives member contributions, loan repayments, and retained earnings.
- Membership and Shareholding:
- 67 members: 48 from Asia-Pacific.
- Major shareholders: Japan and USA (each 15.607%), China (6.444%), India (6.331%), Australia (5.786%).
- Climate Goals:
- Aims to mobilize $100 billion for climate finance between 2019 and 2030.
- Promotes sustainable development initiatives such as green fuel projects, including one in Pakistan funded partly by ADB.
India’s concerns over ADB Funding:
- India emphasized that Pakistan’s defense spending has risen significantly even as its tax-to-GDP ratio fell from 13% in 2017-18 to 9.2% in 2022-23.
- This tax ratio is significantly below the Asia-Pacific average of 19%, suggesting poor revenue collection and financial mismanagement.
- India stressed to ADB that it expects strict oversight mechanisms to be implemented to avoid diversion of funds.
- India has previously opposed financial aid to Pakistan at other fora like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and is reportedly preparing a dossier to request Pakistan’s re-entry into the FATF grey list.
| [UPSC 2024] Which one of the following launched the ‘Nature Solutions Finance Hub for Asia and the Pacific’?
(a) The Asian Development Bank (ADB) * (b) The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) (c) The New Development Bank (NDB) (d) The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) |
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Why in the News?
The Government of India will conduct its next population census by March 1, 2027, after an unprecedented 16-year gap.
About the Census of India:
- Definition: The Census of India is a nationwide decadal exercise that gathers demographic, social, economic, and cultural data from every resident, regardless of citizenship.
- Authority: It is conducted by the Office of the Registrar General (Ministry of Home Affairs) and Census Commissioner under the Census Act, 1948.
- Utility: Data from the census is used to formulate policies, redraw electoral boundaries, and implement welfare schemes.
Significance of the Upcoming Census:
- Reference Dates: Most of India will use March 1, 2027, while Ladakh, J&K, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand will use October 1, 2026.
- Two-Phase Format: It will be conducted in two stages — House Listing and Housing Schedule, followed by Population Enumeration, which will include caste data.
- Digital Firsts: This will be India’s first digital census, using a mobile app and offering self-enumeration via an online portal (for NPR-updated households).
- Preparation: The 24 lakh enumeration blocks identified for the 2021 census will be reused.
- Delimitation Link: The 84th Constitutional Amendment (2001) mandates that delimitation of constituencies be based on the first census after 2026.
- Women’s Reservation: The 33% women’s reservation law (128th Amendment) also depends on data from this census.
- New Inclusion: The upcoming census will include caste enumeration, likely as a plain list, without grouping under OBC.
- NPR Update: No official announcement has been made regarding an update to the National Population Register (NPR), though it holds data for 119 crore residents.
History of Census in India:
- Ancient Mentions: Rig Veda (800–600 BCE) and Arthashastra (321–296 BCE) mentioned population counting for taxation and governance.
- Early Colonial Efforts:
- Partial censuses conducted in Allahabad (1824), Banaras (1827–28), and Dacca (1830).
- Fort St. George conducted returns in 1836–37; quinquennial returns started in Madras (1851–67).
- First Attempted Pan-India Census:
- 1872: Non-synchronous census; not all British territories covered.
- 17 questions were asked via a house register.
- First Modern Census:
- 1881: Conducted under W.C. Plowden; considered the first synchronous and scientific census of India.
- Covered most of British India except Kashmir, French & Portuguese territories.
- Subsequent Censuses (1891–1941):
- Held every 10 years: 1891, 1901, 1911, 1921, 1931, and 1941.
- Introduced and refined questions on caste, religion, language, literacy, occupation, disability, etc.
- 1941 Census:
- Conducted during World War II under difficult conditions.
- Introduced sampling, and used individual slips for detailed data.
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Caste Enumeration to Begin:
- Caste data was last collected in 1931, excluding SC/ST information.
- Post-1951 Trend: From 1951 to 2011, only Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes data were recorded.
- SECC 2011: The 2011 Socio-Economic and Caste Census included caste data, but it was never released.
- Data Entry Field: A new drop box for caste will be added beside the existing SC/ST section.
| [UPSC 2009] Consider the following statements:
1. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the density of the population of India has increased more than three times.
2. Between Census 1951 and Census 2001, the annual growth rate (exponential) of the population of India has doubled.
Which of the above statements is/are correct?
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 * |
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Why in the News?
India has added two new wetlands—Khichan in Phalodi and Menar in Udaipur, both located in Rajasthan—to the Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance. With these additions, India’s total number of Ramsar sites has reached 91.
Khichan and Menar Wetlands:
- Khichan (Phalodi District):
- It is internationally famous for hosting thousands of migratory Demoiselle cranes, making it a major birdwatching destination.
- The wetland supports biodiversity, acting as a crucial habitat for migratory birds and maintaining ecological balance.
- Menar (near Udaipur):
- It is known as Rajasthan’s “Bird Village”, celebrated for its community-led conservation efforts.
- It hosts rare birds like the cinereous vulture, Himalayan griffon, Dalmatian pelican, and black-tailed godwit.
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About the Ramsar Convention:
- It is an international treaty for the conservation and sustainable use of wetlands.
- It was established on February 2, 1971, in the city of Ramsar, Iran.
- The convention focuses on:
- Identifying and designating wetlands of global importance.
- Ensuring effective management of these wetlands.
- Promoting international cooperation for wetland protection.
- India and the Ramsar Convention:
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- India became a signatory in 1982.
- The first Site in India was Chilika Lake in Odisha, designated in 1981.
- As of now, India has 91 Ramsar sites, covering around 13.58 lakh hectares.
- Wetlands listed under Ramsar make up about 10% of India’s total wetland area.
- Tamil Nadu has the highest number of Ramsar sites (20), followed by Uttar Pradesh (10).
9 Criteria for Declaring Ramsar Sites:
A wetland can be declared a Ramsar Site by a signatory country if it meets one or more of the following criteria:
- It has unique, rare, or representative wetland types.
- It supports vulnerable, endangered, or endemic species.
- It is a habitat for waterfowl, especially during migration.
- It holds significant ecological, botanical, zoological, limnological, or hydrological features.
- It supports scientific research and promotes biodiversity conservation.
- It provides ecosystem services like flood control, water purification, and groundwater recharge.
- It has cultural, spiritual, or recreational value.
- It supports sustainable livelihoods for local communities.
- It faces threats requiring international cooperation for conservation.
Other Key Facts:
- 171 countries are currently part of the Ramsar Convention.
- The United Kingdom has the highest number of Ramsar sites (175); Mexico follows with 142 sites.
- Bolivia has the largest wetland area under protection, covering 148,000 sq. km.
- World Wetlands Day is celebrated every year on February 2, to commemorate the signing of the Ramsar Convention and raise awareness about the importance of wetlands.
- The Montreux Record is a list of Ramsar sites that require urgent conservation attention due to human-induced threats.
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| [UPSC 2022] Consider the following pairs:
Wetland/Lake Location
1. Hokera Wetland — Punjab
2. Renuka Wetland — Himachal Pradesh
3. Rudrasagar Lake — Tripura
4. Sasthamkotta Lake — Tamil Nadu
How many pairs given above are correctly matched?
Options: (a) Only one pair (b) Only two pairs* (c) Only three pairs (d) All four pairs. |
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