PYQ Relevance:
[UPSC 2013] Left Wing Extremism (LWE) is showing a downward trend, but still affects many parts of the country. Briefly explain the socio-economic issues that contribute to LWE, and the measures taken by the government to address them.
Linkage: The question resonates with the article’s focus on the downward curve of Naxalism while stressing that socio-economic deprivations among tribals and the rural poor have historically sustained the movement. It also connects with the state’s twin approach of security operations and development interventions that are gradually weakening Left Wing Extremism. |
Mentor’s Comment: The narrative of militancy in India is shifting. While the world warns of AI-fuelled terrorism and increasingly sophisticated threats, India is witnessing a rare counter-trend, a decline in ideologically-driven insurgencies such as Naxalism. This moment is not just a statistic; it’s a significant turning point in the country’s internal security landscape, marking the potential closure of a decades-long chapter that once defined violent dissent in India.
Introduction
At a time when global terrorism persists ranging from lone-wolf attacks to fears of AI-enabled bio-terrorism India is witnessing an unprecedented success story. Naxalism, an ideologically-driven insurgency that once gripped large parts of the country, is in clear decline. For the first time, the Union Home Minister has set a timeline, predicting its “final demise” by mid-2026.
The Changing Global and Indian Terrorism Landscape
How does global terrorism contrast with India’s current experience?
- Persistent global threat: A quarter-century after 9/11, jihadist violence remains potent, with incidents such as IS-inspired vehicle rammings in Europe and the U.S.
- Emerging AI-driven dangers: Concerns over terrorists accessing bio-weapons or misaligned AI pose new challenges.
- India’s divergence: While global trends show intensification, India is experiencing a declining curve in ideologically-oriented militancy, particularly Naxalism.
From ‘Spring Thunder’ to a Fading Echo — The Rise and Decline of Naxalism
- Revolutionary origins: Inspired by Mao, Ho Chi Minh, and Che Guevara, the late 1960s Naxalite movement attracted students, intellectuals, and marginalized groups.
- Loss of ideological cohesion: Splits into regional factions eroded the all-India character of the movement.
- Degeneration into violence: From targeted political action, it shifted to indiscriminate killings, losing public sympathy.
Why is Naxalism Declining?
- Sustained Offensive (2024 onwards): Coordinated security operations across states have eliminated thousands of cadres.
- Major Losses: Even the banned CPI (Maoist) admitted 357 cadres killed in one year, over one-third of them women.
- Leadership & Territorial Shrinkage: The removal of top leaders like Ganapathi and confinement of the insurgency to the Dandakaranya region reflect its weakening base.
- Weakening: Infighting and loss of ideological cohesion have eroded its strength.
India’s Approach vs. U.S. ‘War on Terror’
- U.S. model: Heavy reliance on brute force in places like Somalia and Yemen.
- India’s model: A calibrated strategy with checks on use of force, mindful of the Naxalites’ local roots. The SAMADHAN Doctrine—Smart leadership, Aggressive strategy, Motivation, Intelligence, Technology use, Local action plans, and choking finances—has guided the campaign.
India’s Approach vs U.S. ‘War on Terror’
- Ideological vs non-ideological targets: U.S. campaigns focused on jihadists abroad; India’s on militants embedded in local communities.
- Checks and balances: India traditionally limited brute force, using it selectively.
- Community linkage: Naxalites often lived among villagers, complicating security responses.
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Original Naxalites vs. “Urban Naxals”
- Original movement: The 1960s “Spring Thunder Over India” drew inspiration from Mao and Che Guevara, but degenerated into fragmented violence.
- Contemporary misuse: Today’s “urban naxals” are loosely-knit intellectual critics of government policy, lacking the ideological foundation of the original movement. Misclassification of the two risks policy errors.
The ‘Urban Naxal’ Misclassification Problem
- Original movement’s structure: Marxist-Leninist framework with defined goals and ideology.
- Today’s ‘urban naxals’: Loosely connected intellectuals critical of government policies, lacking direct insurgent links.
- Policy risk: Mislabeling can distort understanding, leading to inappropriate responses and latent security risks.
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Conclusion
The decline of Naxalism marks an inflection point in India’s internal security narrative. Yet, premature declarations of victory must be avoided, as history shows insurgencies can mutate or re-emerge. Accurate threat classification, addressing root grievances, and avoiding cognitive blind spots will be key to ensuring that the “end of Naxalism” is indeed a lasting reality.
Value Addition
- Decline of the “Red Corridor”: Once widespread, Naxal influence is now confined to limited forest belts.
- Development & Governance: Infrastructure, education, healthcare, and tribal rights reforms have severed the Naxal-village link.
- Internal Security Gains: Security forces are freed for other challenges; development projects can now expand into previously inaccessible regions.
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Practice Mains Question
Discuss the factors contributing to the decline of Naxalism in India and examine the implications for the country’s internal security architecture.
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The Election Commission of India’s (ECI) Special Intensive Revision (SIR) of electoral rolls has become a focal point of debate, extending beyond a routine update. The ECI’s insistence on specific identity and citizenship proofs, most notably the birth certificate, has sparked a critical discussion. The core issue is the potential for widespread voter exclusion, which stands in stark contrast to the foundational democratic principle of ensuring the broadest possible inclusion of all eligible citizens. A recent Lokniti-CSDS survey, conducted across five states and one Union Territory, provides compelling data that challenges the feasibility and inclusivity of the SIR exercise as it is currently designed.
The Paradox of Electoral Reforms: Inclusion vs. Exclusion
The Unintended Consequences of the Special Intensive Revision
- Documentation Burden: Over half of all respondents lack a birth certificate. A similar proportion lacks a domicile or caste certificate, while at least two-thirds don’t have their parents’ birth certificates.
- Widespread Lack of Awareness: Only 36% of respondents were aware of the SIR exercise or its document requirements, indicating a massive information gap.
- Socio-Economic Disparities: The lack of necessary documents disproportionately affects vulnerable groups. Roughly 5% of respondents had none of the 11 documents required by the EC. This group of “No Document Citizens” had a higher percentage of women, and were predominantly from the lower economic half, with over one-fourth being SC and over 40% OBC.
Which groups are most vulnerable to exclusion?
- No-document citizens: 5% of respondents had none of the 11 documents.
- Marginalized impact: Majority of these were women, ¾ from lower economic strata, ¼ SC, and 40% OBC.
- Parental records: Absence of parental birth certificates was as high as 87% in Madhya Pradesh and 72% mothers in Uttar Pradesh.
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Impact of the SIR on Indian democracy
- Core democratic risk: Exclusion of eligible voters undermines the principle of universal adult suffrage.
- State capacity challenge: Weak record-keeping and low administrative accessibility deepen inequalities.
- Policy dilemma: While cleansing electoral rolls is important, the current framework risks mass deletion of legitimate voters.
Administrative challenges contributing to this problem
- Inconsistent Birth Certificate Possession: The possession of birth certificates varies sharply across states, revealing significant administrative and historical disparities. In Madhya Pradesh only 11% of respondents had a birth certificate and in West Bengal, with a 49% possession rate. Even in states with higher rates like West Bengal and Delhi, at least half the population still lacks this document.
- Difficulty in Obtaining Documents: The process is perceived as “very difficult” by a substantial portion of the population in major states, including 46% in Delhi, 41% in Kerala, 40% in Madhya Pradesh, and 41% in West Bengal.
- Parental Documents as a Major Hurdle: The requirement for parental documents for those born after 1987 (and for both parents for those born after 2003) is a near-impossible condition for many.
- State Capacity Gaps: The survey highlights the varying capacity of different states to provide and maintain official records, which is a major factor in the documentation gaps.
- Exclusion of Aadhaar: The EC’s decision to exclude Aadhaar creates an unnecessary barrier for voters, especially in states where other documents are rare.
The findings of the Lokniti-CSDS survey underscore that while cleansing electoral rolls is a valid goal, the current SIR framework is not inclusive. The reliance on documents that many citizens lack, coupled with significant state-wise and socio-economic disparities in document possession, creates a high risk of voter exclusion. The data show that the exercise, as it stands, is more likely to disenfranchise legitimate voters than to simply remove errors, highlighting the need for a more pragmatic and flexible approach that accounts for the ground realities of India’s diverse population.
Value Addition
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The SIR’s Challenge to Inclusive Democracy
The Election Commission’s Special Intensive Revision (SIR) aims to update voter lists but risks excluding many citizens. This is a problem because it goes against the core democratic principle of including all eligible voters.
- Cleansing vs. Exclusion: While cleaning up the voter list is a good goal, the SIR’s strict rules about documents could lead to the removal of many people who have a legal right to vote. The survey showed that 5% of people lack any of the required documents, with this problem hitting women and people from lower economic backgrounds the hardest.
- State Variation: The SIR’s uniform rules are problematic because the ability to get official documents varies greatly across India. For example, possession of a birth certificate is very low in Madhya Pradesh (11%) compared to West Bengal (49%).
- Democratic Principle: Democracy depends on everyone having the right to vote. By creating new barriers, the SIR exercise weakens the foundation of free and fair elections.
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Mapping Micro Themes:
- GS1: Social exclusion, regional disparities in documentation.
- GS2: Electoral reforms, governance capacity, rights of citizens.
- GS3: Use of technology (Aadhaar vs exclusions), administrative bottlenecks
- GS4: Ethical governance, fairness, justice in democracy.
PYQ Relevance:
| [UPSC 2017] To enhance the quality of democracy in India the Election Commission of India has proposed electoral reforms in 2016. What are the suggested reforms and how far are they significant to make democracy successful?
Linkage: The 2016 ECI reforms aimed at enhancing transparency and accountability (e.g., NOTA, state funding, criminal disqualification), while the SIR focuses on electoral roll accuracy. Both highlight the tension between integrity and inclusivity in democracy. The linkage shows that reforms must balance systemic credibility with citizens’ access, else democracy risks exclusion. |
Practice Mains Question:
Critically analyze the challenges posed by the Election Commission of India’s Special Intensive Revision of electoral rolls in the context of voter inclusion and democratic participation. Based on the findings of the Lokniti-CSDS survey, suggest measures to make the revision process more inclusive and equitable.
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India–U.K. Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA), especially its Chapter 12 on Digital Trade, marks a shift from cautious digital policy to strategic global engagement. It brings major trade gains, but also sparks debate on data sovereignty and oversight. Chapter 12 of India–U.K. CETA exchanges some regulatory control for greater digital market access. Gains include mutual recognition of e-signatures, duty-free digital exports, and innovation-friendly provisions, while concerns focus on limited source-code checks and voluntary data sharing.
Digital Gains from the Agreement
- Recognition of Electronic Signatures and Contracts: Both nations commit to mutual recognition, reducing paperwork for SaaS firms and lowering entry barriers for SMEs.
- Paperless Trade & E-Invoicing: Eases cross-border documentation and payments, enhancing trade efficiency.
- Zero Customs Duties on Electronic Transmissions: Preserves a Commerce Ministry–estimated $30 billion software export pipeline.
- Regulatory Sandboxes for Data Innovation: Encourages pilot projects that allow payments and data-driven firms to test tools under supervision, boosting credibility abroad.
- Duty-Free Access for Indian Merchandise: Nearly 99% of exports could enter the U.K. duty-free; textile tariffs dropping from 12% to zero will aid hubs like Tiruppur and Ludhiana.
- Openings in British Public Procurement: Expands market opportunities for Indian IT suppliers.
- Social Security Waivers: Reduces payroll costs for short-term assignments abroad by about 20%.
Digital Costs and Concerns
- Source-Code Inspection Restrictions: Ban on routine checks; regulators can only demand access in investigations or court cases.
- Voluntary Government Data Sharing: No binding obligation; India decides what data to release, and in what format.
- No Automatic MFN for Data Flows: Only a forward review mechanism exists if stricter data rules appear in other agreements.
- Review Timelines: First formal review in 5 years; critics suggest 3-year reviews to match rapid AI developments.
- Domestic Readiness Gap: Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 rules are pending notification; absence of clear internal processes could weaken negotiation leverage.
Balancing Sovereignty and Openness
- Security Exceptions Preserved: National supervision over critical infrastructure like power grids and payment systems remains intact.
- Good Governance Safeguards: Prevents disguised restrictions on trade under the guise of regulation.
- Trusted Labs Proposal: Accrediting secure labs to review sensitive code could bridge the trust gap.
- Audit Trails for Cross-Border Data Flows: Ensures accountability follows the data.
- Institutionalised Consultations: Open, pre-negotiation dialogue to anticipate and address stakeholder concerns.
Steps for Future Digital Treaties
- Integrate market openness with regulatory oversight
- Set three-year review cycles to adapt to technological change
- Develop domestic readiness before external commitments
- Maintain a balance between security and trade facilitation
Conclusion
The India–U.K. digital trade compact is both a leap and a litmus test. It affirms India’s readiness to engage strategically in global digital commerce while underscoring the necessity of robust domestic regulation. The real challenge is not in signing such pacts but in ensuring that sovereignty, security, and innovation move forward together.
Value Addition
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Reports / Data
- Commerce Ministry (2024): India’s software exports via electronic transmissions valued at $30 billion annually.
- UNCTAD Report on Digital Economy (2023): India among top 5 global economies in digital services exports.
- NASSCOM 2023: Digital public infrastructure (UPI, Aadhaar, DigiLocker) key enablers of India’s digital leap.
Case Studies / Examples
- UPI in G20 (2023): India pushing UPI internationalisation – similar to how digital trade pacts expand India’s reach.
- Singapore & Australia FTAs: Precedent for including digital trade rules, but U.K. CETA is India’s first binding digital chapter.
- Textile exports from Tiruppur/Ludhiana: Example of how tariff elimination + digital facilitation = trade gains.
Concepts & Theories
- WTO-plus Agreements: Regional/bilateral pacts that go beyond WTO commitments (like CETA’s Chapter 12).
- Data Sovereignty vs Digital Openness: Core tension between national control over data and global free flows.
- Regulatory Sandboxes: Innovation-friendly regulatory spaces balancing innovation & oversight.
Quotes for Enrichment
- Nandan Nilekani: “India has built digital public goods at population scale, something no other democracy has attempted.”
- UNCTAD: “The digital economy is now the fastest growing trade frontier, but also the most contested.”
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PYQ Relevance
| Though there is no direct PYQ, the digital trade compact can be used in many questions like
[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian Economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvement.
Linkage: The India–U.K. CETA’s digital trade provisions—like e-signatures, paperless trade, and zero customs duty—highlight India’s progress in integrating digitalization into global commerce. At the same time, issues like restricted source-code access, weak data protection readiness, and voluntary data sharing mirror the broader problems of digitalization in India. Thus, the pact underlines both India’s digital gains and the urgent need for domestic reforms and safeguards to fully leverage such agreements. |
Mapping Micro Themes
- GS-2: Trade diplomacy, sovereignty.
- GS-3: Digital trade, AI regulation, cybersecurity.
- GS-4: Transparency, public trust.
Practice Mains Question:
Critically analyse the opportunities and risks from the digital trade provisions in India–U.K. CETA.
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Why in the News?
In August 2025, the Supreme Court intervened twice to prevent the misuse of criminal proceedings in essentially civil disputes.
About Civil and Criminal Cases:
- Civil cases involve disputes between individuals or organisations and are mostly governed by Code of Civil Procedure, 1908 (CPC). The aim is to resolve rights and duties, usually through compensation (damages) or injunctions. Examples: property disputes, contract breaches, divorce, custody, money recovery.
- Criminal cases involve offences against the state or society. The objective is punishment and deterrence. Initiated by the state prosecutor. Examples: theft, cheating, assault, murder.
- Burden of proof:
- Civil cases: Decided on a preponderance of probabilities (more likely than not).
- Criminal cases: Guilt must be proven beyond reasonable doubt.
- Dual Cases: Some acts can give rise to both civil and criminal liability. For dual proceedings, there must be proof of criminal intent before entering the commercial or personal relationship.
- Timelines: Data from the National Judicial Data Grid (2025) shows civil cases are slower (avg. 4.91 years) compared to many criminal cases (70% disposed within a year).
Recent Supreme Court Actions:
- Rajasthan plywood dispute case (Aug 13, 2025): SC held there was no criminal breach of trust in a simple sale transaction. Denial of pre-arrest bail by the High Court was overturned.
- Allahabad HC case (Aug 4, 2025): SC criticised a judge for allowing criminal proceedings in a business transaction dispute, calling it a “mockery of justice”. The judge was temporarily barred from handling criminal cases, later reinstated after CJI intervention.
- The SC clarified that civil disputes cannot be turned into criminal prosecutions unless fraud or criminal intent is clearly shown.
| [UPSC 2016] With reference to the ‘Gram Nyayalaya Act’, which of the following statements is/are correct?
1. As per the Act, Gram Nyayalayas can hear only civil cases and not criminal cases.
2. The Act allows local social activists as mediators/reconciliators.
Options: (a) 1 only (b) 2 only* (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 |
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Why in the News?
The British conquest of Sindh in the 1840s was a key step in colonial expansion, reminding us that regions like Sindh, Punjab, and Bengal came under British rule long before the 1947 partition of India and Pakistan.
British Conquest of Sindh:
- Sindh was annexed by the British in 1843 after the battles of Miani and Dubbo.
- The resistance was led by Hosh Muhammad Sheedi, a general of the Talpur army and member of the African-origin Siddi community.
- His defiance symbolised the first major armed resistance to British expansion in northwest India.
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Political Background in Sindh:
- Kalhora Dynasty (1701–1779): Founded by Mian Yar Muhammad Kalhoro, recognised by Mughals; ruled northern and central Sindh. Prosperous period but weakened by internal disputes.
- Talpur Dynasty (1779–1843): Baloch Talpurs overthrew Kalhoras; consolidated Sindh under clan rule at Hyderabad and Khairpur.
- Geopolitical Context: Sindh lay at the crossroads of British–French–Russian rivalry (The Great Game). Britain feared Russian advances through Iran and Afghanistan.
- British Entry: East India Company forced treaties on Talpurs; captured Karachi (1839) after bombarding Manora fort.
British Advance and the Fall of Sindh:
- Battle of Miani (17 Feb 1843): British under Sir Charles Napier defeated Mir Nasir Khan Talpur near Hyderabad.
- Battle of Dubbo (24 Mar 1843): Hosh Muhammad Sheedi allied with Mir Sher Muhammad Talpur of Mirpur Khas. Sheedi raised the war cry “Marvesoon par Sindh na desoon” (I may die but will not give up Sindh). He was killed in action.
- British Annexation: After Dubbo, Sindh was annexed into the Bombay Presidency. Talpur rule ended.
- Aftermath: Within a decade, Punjab too was annexed (1849), bringing all of northwest India under British rule.
Legacy of Hosh Muhammad Sheedi:
- Born into the household of Talpur rulers; of African-Siddi descent.
- Valour acknowledged by both Indian and British chroniclers.
- Became a folk hero of Sindh, remembered by Hindus and Muslims alike.
- His legacy is central to the cultural memory of Sindh and highlights the role of the Siddi community in resisting colonialism.
| [UPSC 2007] The ruler of which one of the following States was removed from power by the British on the pretext of misgovernance?
Options: (a) Awadh* (b) Jhansi (c) French (d) Satara |
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Why in the News?
The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (Amendment) Bill, 2025 was introduced in the Lok Sabha by Finance Minister to streamline insolvency, cut tribunal delays, and add new tools like creditor-led resolution and cross-border insolvency.
About the Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code (IBC), 2016:
- IBC is India’s bankruptcy law, covering corporate persons, partnership firms, and individuals.
- Insolvency: Liabilities exceed assets; entity cannot meet obligations.
- Bankruptcy: Legal declaration of inability to pay debts.
- Objective: Time-bound, creditor-driven resolution to improve recovery and business confidence.
- Regulating Authority: Insolvency and Bankruptcy Board of India (IBBI), a statutory body with members from Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Corporate Affairs, and Reserve Bank of India.
- Adjudicating Authority:
- National Company Law Tribunal (NCLT) for companies/LLPs.
- Debt Recovery Tribunal (DRT) for individuals and partnership firms.
Key Amendments Proposed in IBC (2025):
- Creditor-Initiated Insolvency Resolution Process (CIIRP): Out-of-court creditor resolutions with NCLT approval; faster timelines and promoter involvement.
- Group Insolvency: Joint proceedings for related companies to preserve asset value and cut costs (e.g., Videocon Group case).
- Cross-Border Insolvency: Framework to handle overseas assets and debts, allowing Indian lenders access to foreign assets.
- Pre-Packaged Insolvency (PPIRP): Faster, affordable restructuring route for Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) while operations continue.
- Other Reforms: Segregated asset sales, more NCLT benches (now 16), extended claim timelines, sector-specific provisions, and debtor audits.
Achievements of IBC:
- Debt Resolution: Resolved ₹3.16 lakh crore in 808 cases since 2016 (CRISIL data).
- Recovery Rate: Average recovery of 32% of admitted claims, 169% of liquidation value.
- Comparison: Outperformed earlier mechanisms (DRT, SARFAESI Act, Lok Adalat) which achieved only 5–20% recovery.
- Deterrence: Borrowers pre-settled ₹9 lakh crore debt to avoid IBC proceedings.
- Large NPAs: Addressed RBI’s “Dirty Dozen” cases like Bhushan Steel, Essar Steel, Jaypee Infratech.
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| [UPSC 2017] Which of the following statements best describes the term ‘Scheme for Sustainable Structuring of Stressed Assets (S4A)’, recently seen in the news?
Options: (a) It is a procedure for considering ecological costs of developmental schemes formulated by the Government.
(b) It is a scheme of RBI for reworking the financial structure of big corporate entities facing genuine difficulties.
(c) It is a disinvestment plan of the Government regarding Central Public Sector Undertakings.
(d) It is an important provision in ‘The Insolvency and Bankruptcy Code’ recently implemented by the Government. * |
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Why in the News?
On August 15, 2025, Prime Minister delivered the longest Independence Day speech (103 minutes) from the Red Fort, continuing a tradition started by Jawaharlal Nehru in 1947.
The fort’s choice as the venue reflects its historic role as Delhi’s seat of power and symbol of sovereignty.
About the Red Fort:
- Construction: Built in 1648 by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan as the palace fort of Shahjahanabad, his new capital.
- Material: Enclosed by massive red sandstone walls with royal pavilions and apartments.
- Water Feature: Contained the Nahr-i-Behisht (“Stream of Paradise”), a continuous water channel.
- Architectural Value: Prime example of Mughal architecture, blending Islamic traditions with Indian craftsmanship.
- Recognition: Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2007.
Historical Significance of Delhi and Red Fort:
- Delhi’s Role: Seat of power for nearly a thousand years, regarded as “capital of all Hindustan” by Babur.
- Shahjahanabad: Inaugurated in 1648 with the Red Fort at its centre.
- Symbol of Sovereignty: Even after Mughal decline, Delhi remained central; East India Company minted coins in the emperor’s name.
1857 Revolt and British Authority:
- Revolt Centre: Bahadur Shah Zafar was declared leader by sepoys in Delhi.
- Aftermath: Fall of Delhi ended Mughal rule; Zafar was exiled.
- Fort Damage: British converted Red Fort into a military garrison, destroying ~80% of interiors.
- Imperial Authority: Delhi Durbars (1877, 1903, 1911) asserted British control before capital shifted from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911.
Significance of Red Fort for Independence Day:
- INA Trials: Held in Red Fort in 1946, igniting nationalist fervour.
- 1947 Ceremony: Jawaharlal Nehru hoisted the national flag on 15 August 1947 and gave the first Independence Day address.
- Tradition: Since then, every Prime Minister hoists the flag and addresses the nation from its ramparts.
- Symbolism: Site once stamped with colonial dominance, now reclaimed as a symbol of India’s sovereignty.
| [UPSC 2021] What was the exact constitutional status of India on 26th January, 1950?
Options: (a) A democratic Republic (b) A Sovereign Democratic Republic* (c) A Sovereign Secular Democratic Republic (d) A Sovereign Socialist Secular Democratic Republic |
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Why in the News?
United States President Donald Trump and his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin are set to meet in Anchorage, Alaska to discuss how to end the war in Ukraine.
About Alaska:
- Acquisition: Largest U.S. state; Purchased from Russia in 1867 for $7.2 million.
- Mountains: Includes Alaska Range with Mount Denali (20,310 ft), the highest peak in North America.
- Geography: Brooks Range separates central Alaska from the Arctic far north.
- Tundra: Northern regions feature vast tundra, permafrost, and Arctic coastal plains.
- Glaciers: Hosts 100,000+ glaciers, including Bering Glacier, the largest in North America.
- Forests: About 5% glacier ice, with extensive boreal and temperate rainforests in the south.
- Volcanoes: More than 70 active volcanoes in Aleutians and Alaska Peninsula.
- Seismic Activity: Located on the circum-Pacific seismic belt, prone to powerful quakes (e.g., 1964 Alaska earthquake).
- Water Resources: Contains 3 million+ lakes and 3,000+ rivers, among the most water-rich regions globally.
- Peninsulas: Includes Alaska Peninsula, Kenai Peninsula, and Seward Peninsula (linked to ancient Bering land bridge).
Why did Russia sell Alaska to the US?
- After the Crimean War (1853–56), Russia was financially strained and needed funds.
- Alaska was seen as a remote, unprofitable liability with declining fur trade.
- Russia feared Britain might seize Alaska easily from nearby Canada in a future war.
- Selling it to the United States ensured goodwill and balanced British power.
- The $7.2 million sale (1867) turned a weakly defended outpost into cash for reforms.
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Geopolitical Significance of Alaska:
- Natural Resources: Rich in oil, gas (e.g., Prudhoe Bay discovery, 1968), fisheries, and minerals vital for U.S. energy security.
- Shipping Routes: Offers access to Arctic Sea routes, increasingly navigable due to climate change.
- Strategic Gateway: Provides access to the Arctic and Pacific, enhancing U.S. naval and air capabilities.
- Defense Value: Proximity to Russia made it critical in the Cold War and remains vital in Arctic competition.
- Military Presence: Hosts major U.S. bases and radar systems for missile defense and surveillance.
- Arctic Council Role: Strengthens U.S. claims in polar governance and Arctic Council negotiations.
- Scientific Hub: Serves as a center for climate, seismic, and polar ecosystem research.
| [UPSC 2025] Consider the following statements:
I. Anadyr in Siberia and Nome in Alaska are a few kilometers from each other, but when people are waking up and getting set for breakfast in these cities, it would be different days.
II. When it is Monday in Anadyr, it is Tuesday in Nome.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) I only * (b) II only (c) Both I and II (d) Neither I nor II |
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