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Urban Floods

[25th September 2025] The Hindu Op-ed: Follow the rains, not the calendar to fight floods

op-ed snap | Enviro & Biodiversity | Mains Paper 3: Disaster Management

PYQ Relevance

[UPSC 2016] The frequency of urban floods due to high-intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing the reasons for urban floods, highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such events.

Linkage: This PYQ is directly linked to the article as both focus on increasing urban floods due to high-intensity, untimely rainfall and the need for better preparedness. It is important for UPSC as it tests understanding of climate change impacts, urban governance, and disaster management, all of which the article highlights through outdated drainage design, rainfall compression, and the need to “follow the rains, not the calendar.

Mentor’s Comment

Urban floods are no longer seasonal accidents; they are recurring crises that expose the mismatch between traditional planning calendars and the realities of a changing climate. This article unpacks the failures of outdated urban flood management and suggests a roadmap for building resilient cities. Aspirants must note its direct relevance to GS 1 (urbanisation), GS 2 (governance), GS 3 (disaster management, environment), and GS 4 (ethics in governance).

Introduction

Every monsoon, India’s cities brace for floods with desilting of drains, deploying contractors, and activating emergency protocols. Yet, reality unfolds differently, roads submerge, homes flood, and transport grinds to a halt. The core problem lies not only in the intensity and unpredictability of rainfall but also in city systems designed for a climate that no longer exists. Urban resilience now demands shifting from “seasonal schedules” to real-time rainfall preparedness.

Why in the News?

This year, northern states like Punjab (all 23 districts), Delhi, and Gurugram witnessed severe floods in September, well beyond the traditional monsoon period. Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh saw frequent cloudbursts, while Kolkata faced torrential rains. Such untimely, intense, and regionally widespread flooding marks a sharp departure from past rainfall behaviour. With single floods now causing damages worth ₹8,700 crore, the urgency to rethink urban flood management cannot be overstated.

Understanding Changing Rainfall Patterns

  1. Shift in Timing: Mumbai recorded 135.4 mm rainfall in May (normally a pre-monsoon month), followed by 161.9 mm the next day. Delhi saw 81 mm fall in a few hours, overwhelming drains.
  2. Rise in Frequency: CEEW analysis shows 64% of tehsils across states like Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and Karnataka have seen heavy rainfall days increase by 1–15 days.
  3. Compression of Rainfall: Rainfall that earlier spanned a day is now compressed into hours, intensifying floods.

Why are Indian Cities Flooding so Frequently?

  1. Outdated Drainage Design: Systems still rely on seasonal averages rather than short-duration, high-intensity rain data.
  2. Unmanaged Waste: Plastic and debris block drains; even after desilting, poor waste collection leads to quick clogging.
  3. Poor Coordination: Storm water, sanitation, and municipal waste departments work in silos, creating gaps in preparedness.
  4. Static Planning: Drainage infrastructure often relies on rainfall data decades old, ignoring evolving IDF (Intensity-Duration-Frequency) curves.

What Solutions are Proposed?

  1. Sub-daily Rainfall Analysis: Municipalities must adopt rainfall data in smaller time frames (1–3 hours) to plan drainage.
  2. Drainage-Waste Synchronisation: Waste collection and drain cleaning must be coordinated; rainfall alerts should trigger joint drives.
  3. Updating IDF Curves: Curves must be revised every 5–10 years; new drainage should factor in topography and micro-catchments.
  4. Infrastructure Upgradation: Example – BMC’s plan to widen drains to handle 120 mm/hour rainfall and prepare a new drainage master plan.
  5. Separate Sewerage and Stormwater Networks: To prevent overload and improve efficiency.

Broader Implications for Urban Planning

  1. Disaster Management: Floods are now the leading cause of life and property loss among natural disasters in India.
  2. Economic Impact: Each major flood inflicts damages of nearly ₹8,700 crore.
  3. Climate Resilience: Cities must adapt to “rain already falling” instead of waiting for calendar-based monsoon onset.

Conclusion

India is not losing to rain, but to outdated assumptions about rain. The fight against urban floods requires breaking the illusion of a uniform monsoon season. By following the rain, not the calendar, cities can design adaptive infrastructure, improve inter-departmental coordination, and protect citizens’ lives and livelihoods.

Value Addition

Case Study: Vijayawada’s Monsoon Response Teams

  • Integrated approach: The city administration created special monsoon response teams that brought together officials from the sanitation, engineering, and planning departments to work in coordination during high-risk rainy periods.
  • Real-time action: Instead of relying on rigid seasonal schedules, these teams responded dynamically to rainfall alerts and forecasts, immediately conducting joint sanitation drives and drain inspections.
  • Drainage & waste sync: Garbage clearance and storm water drain cleaning were aligned, preventing freshly desilted drains from being blocked again by unmanaged waste.
  • Impact: This reduced waterlogging and urban flooding, improved road accessibility, and lessened health risks for residents during monsoons.
  • Learning: Vijayawada shows how inter-departmental coordination, proactive planning, and rainfall-triggered response systems can make cities more resilient to changing monsoon patterns.

Global Context in Urban Flood Management

Rotterdam, Netherlands – “Room for the River” approach

  • Idea: Instead of resisting water, the city creates water plazas that double as playgrounds during dry weather and hold excess rainwater during storms.
  • Infrastructure: Underground reservoirs, widened canals, and lowered floodplains to absorb water.
  • Learning: Shows the importance of adaptive urban design that accommodates rainfall variability.

Copenhagen, Denmark – Cloudburst Management Plan

  • Trigger: After a massive cloudburst in 2011 caused $1 billion in damages.
  • Action: Developed over 300 projects including green roofs, permeable pavements, detention basins, and blue-green corridors that store and channel stormwater.
  • Learning: Proactive planning with a mix of nature-based and engineered solutions.

New York City, USA – Green Infrastructure Plan

  • Focus: Reduce stormwater runoff that overwhelms combined sewer systems.
  • Measures: Rain gardens, bioswales, green roofs, permeable streets to capture rainfall locally.
  • Learning: Urban flooding is not just a drainage issue but requires land-use and design-based solutions.

Singapore – ABC Waters Programme (Active, Beautiful, Clean)

  • Approach: Transforms canals, rivers, and drains into multifunctional spaces.
  • Measures: Retention ponds, vegetated swales, rain gardens integrated with urban landscapes.
  • Learning: Integrates aesthetics, ecology, and flood management, showing flood resilience can coexist with urban beauty.

Tokyo, Japan – Underground Flood Tunnels (G-Cans Project)

  • Infrastructure: World’s largest underground floodwater diversion facility with 6.5 km tunnels and giant silos to store stormwater.
  • Impact: Protects Tokyo’s dense urban areas from typhoon rains and river overflow.
  • Learning: Mega-engineering projects can be effective in high-density megacities with extreme rainfall.

 

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Differentiated Banks – Payment Banks, Small Finance Banks, etc.

Swipe, Tap, Spend: How UPI is a decisive step towards formalization of Indian Economy

Explained | Economics | Mains Paper 3: Indian Economy

Introduction

India’s journey towards a cash-lite economy has been marked by a staggering rise in UPI transactions, reflecting a decisive shift in household and business payment patterns. From groceries to loans, from investments to utility bills, UPI has emerged as the backbone of everyday economic life. This transformation is not merely technological but a structural change towards the formalisation of the economy, reducing cash-dependency while boosting transparency and traceability in transactions.

Why is UPI making news now?

  1. Staggering growth: In April–June 2025, 34.9 billion person-to-merchant transactions occurred through UPI, worth ₹20.4 lakh crore, equal to 40% of private final consumption expenditure, up from 24% two years ago.
  2. Shift from ATMs: Cash withdrawals, once dominant, have halved despite the economy doubling in size—falling from ₹2.6 lakh crore (2018) to ₹2.3 lakh crore (2025).
  3. Wider impact: UPI is now used not only for routine consumption but also for debt repayments, investments, and financial services, signalling a major step in economic formalisation.

How has household spending been transformed?

  1. Digital dominance: Household payments, earlier cash-heavy, are increasingly routed through UPI across income classes.
  2. Food & beverages: In April–June 2025, households spent ₹3.4 lakh crore on food and beverages via UPI—17% of all UPI transactions and 21% of household expenditure.
  3. Non-food items: Payments include utilities, medicines, petrol, taxi rides, and electronics, accounting for two-thirds of person-to-merchant transfers.

What about precautionary savings and cash usage?

  1. Decline in cash holdings: Household currency holdings fell from 12.5% of gross savings (2020–21) to just 3.4% in 2023–24.
  2. Changing behaviour: While cash remains important for land, gold, and election financing, its share in household savings has been on a consistent decline.

How is UPI impacting financial formalisation?

  1. Formalisation of firms and workers: Increased traceable transactions complement reforms like GST registrations and EPFO contributions, enhancing formalisation.
  2. Beyond consumption: UPI in July 2025 facilitated ₹93,857 crore debt repayments and ₹61,080 crore investments into securities—indicating a structural integration of households into formal financial markets.

What are the larger implications for the economy?

  1. Scaling up formal economy: Digital payments extend across small, medium, and big-ticket transactions, shrinking the space for the informal sector.
  2. Global context: Countries like Germany also have high cash usage despite digitisation—India’s transformation is striking in scale.
  3. Policy question: With the public currency-to-GDP ratio falling from 12.9% (2022) to 10.9% (2025), the debate is whether India has reached an inflection point towards becoming a sustained cash-lite economy.

Conclusion

UPI’s ascendancy reflects not just a technological success but a social and economic restructuring of India. By shifting transactions from cash to traceable platforms, it has enhanced formalisation, reduced leakages, and encouraged financial inclusion. The challenge ahead lies in ensuring this transformation is sustainable while safeguarding against risks like digital divides, cybersecurity threats, and over-dependence on electronic infrastructure.

PYQ Relevance:

[UPSC 2023] What is the status of digitalization in the Indian economy? Examine the problems faced in this regard and suggest improvements.

Linkage: This PYQ is important as UPSC often tests themes of digitalisation, financial inclusion, and formalisation of the economy under GS3. The article helps answer it by showing UPI’s role in reducing cash reliance and formalising payments, while also pointing to persisting challenges like cash use in land, gold, and elections.

Value Addition

Benefits of UPI

  • Digitalisation of the Economy: 
    1. UPI has made India the world’s largest real-time digital payments ecosystem (over 50% of global real-time transactions, as per the ACI Worldwide 2023 report).
    2. Strengthens transparency, traceability, and reduces black money circulation.
  • Financial Inclusion:
    1. UPI transactions span urban malls to rural kirana stores, enabling low-cost access for the unbanked.
    2. Integration with Aadhaar, Jan Dhan, and mobile numbers creates a seamless financial ecosystem.
  • Globalisation × Formal & Informal Economy:
    1. Shifts large segments from cash-heavy informal sector to traceable, formal payments.
    2. Helps MSMEs and street vendors gain access to credit as digital history substitutes collateral.
  • Economic Growth and Development:
    1. Boosts consumption visibility, enabling better policy targeting.
    2. Encourages formal lending and investments—e.g., ₹93,857 crore in debt repayments via UPI (article data).

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Right To Privacy

How are courts protecting personality rights?

Explained | Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Introduction

Personality rights, the right to control one’s name, image, likeness, and voice, have become a critical issue in India’s courts. With AI enabling deepfakes, voice cloning, and digital impersonation, Bollywood celebrities like Aishwarya Rai Bachchan, Abhishek Bachchan, Anil Kapoor, and Jackie Shroff have approached courts to restrain unauthorised commercial exploitation of their persona. While these judicial interventions protect individual dignity and brand equity, they also raise complex questions about the balance between Article 21 (privacy and autonomy) and Article 19(1)(a) (freedom of speech and expression).

Why is this in the news?

The Delhi High Court recently issued orders protecting Aishwarya Rai Bachchan and Abhishek Bachchan from AI-generated misuse of their images and voices. This is significant because:

  1. Novel threat: It highlights how AI deepfakes and voice cloning are creating unprecedented risks for identity and privacy.
  2. Judicial trend: Courts are extending personality rights protections to celebrities such as Karan Johar, Amitabh Bachchan, Anil Kapoor, Jackie Shroff, and Arijit Singh.
  3. Big problem: Without regulation, AI-driven impersonation undermines trust, dilutes brand equity, and strips individuals of control over their identity.
  4. Turning point: Courts are now explicitly linking personality rights to Article 21 of the Constitution, signalling a constitutional recognition of digital dignity.

How are personality rights defined in India?

  1. Safeguards: Personality rights protect name, likeness, image, voice, signature, and other unique traits.
  2. Legal foundation: Rooted in common law doctrines of privacy, publicity, and defamation, supported by judicial precedents.

Statutory framework:

  1. Copyright Act, 1957: Sections 38A & 38B grant performers exclusive and moral rights over their performances.
  2. Trade Marks Act, 1999: Allows registration of names/signatures as trademarks (e.g., Shah Rukh Khan, Priyanka Chopra).
  3. Tort of Passing Off: Prevents misrepresentation of a celebrity’s persona as endorsement.

How have courts shaped personality rights?

  1. R. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu (1994): Supreme Court recognised the right to control one’s identity, grounding it in privacy under Article 21.
  2. Rajinikanth case (2015): Madras HC restrained unauthorised use of the actor’s persona in a film.
  3. Anil Kapoor case (2023): Delhi HC granted wide-ranging protection, clarifying that free speech covers parody/satire but not commercial misuse.
  4. Jackie Shroff case (2024): Court restrained misuse of his persona on e-commerce and AI platforms.
  5. Arijit Singh case (2024): Bombay HC recognised risks of voice cloning through AI.

Do personality rights restrict free expression?

Free speech scope: Article 19(1)(a) allows criticism, parody, satire, and lampooning of public figures.

Judicial caution:

  1. DM Entertainment v. Baby Gift House (2010): Caricatures and parodies do not usually infringe publicity rights.
  2. Digital Collectibles v. Galactus Funware (2023): Material already in the public domain may be used without implying endorsement.
  3. Balancing test: Courts strike a balance between creative freedom and protection of dignity/brand equity.

Why is regulation urgently needed?

  1. Fragmented protections: Enforcement is currently piecemeal, relying on case law.
  2. Digital threats: Generative AI expands risks of impersonation and deepfakes.
  3. Disproportionate impact: Ordinary citizens, especially women targeted through revenge porn, face greater harm.
  4. Policy need: Experts call for a comprehensive legislative framework to clearly define exceptions and ensure free speech is not chilled.

Conclusion

The judiciary is laying down crucial guardrails for personality rights in the digital age, particularly against AI-driven impersonation. However, without a clear legislative framework, judicial interventions remain reactive. The challenge lies in balancing dignity and privacy with freedom of speech, ensuring that protections do not turn into censorship while still safeguarding individuals, from Bollywood celebrities to ordinary citizens, against misuse of their identity.

[UPSC 2024] Right to privacy is intrinsic to life and personal liberty and is inherently protected under Article 21 of the constitution. Explain. In this reference discuss the law relating to D.N.A. testing of child in the womb to establish its paternity.

Linkage: The PYQ on Right to Privacy under Article 21 examines autonomy over personal identity, like in DNA testing. This article is relevant as it shows courts extending privacy into personality rights against AI misuse, with case laws and statutes providing examples to balance privacy and free speech in UPSC answers.

Value Addition

Global Context & Reports

  1. WIPO Intellectual Property Report (2022): Notes rapid rise of personality/IP litigation due to digital commerce.
  2. UNESCO Report on AI & Ethics (2021): Warns against deepfakes undermining democratic discourse and human dignity.
  3. US “Right of Publicity” Laws: Celebrities can sue for unauthorised commercial use of their persona, providing comparative perspective.
  4. EU GDPR (2018): Protects personal data, extending indirectly to digital identity misuse.

 

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Monsoon Updates

South-west Monsoon: Its Onset and Retreat

| Geography | Mains Paper 1: Important Geophysical Phenomena

Why in the News?

According to the India Meteorological Department (IMD), the southwest monsoon began its earliest withdrawal in a decade on September 14 from western Rajasthan, three days before the usual date of September 17.

What is Monsoon? 

  • Overview: A seasonal reversal of winds, southwest winds (wet) in summer and northeast winds (dry) in winter.
  • Onset Date: Officially begins June 1 over Kerala, advances northwards, covering entire India by mid-July.
  • Importance: Accounts for ~75% of India’s annual rainfall, critical for Kharif crops, water storage, and ecosystems.

Mechanism of Monsoon Onset:

  • Differential Heating: Indian landmass heats faster than the Indian Ocean, creating low pressure over NW India that pulls in moist winds.
  • Mascarene Highs:
    • Located near Mascarene Islands (east of Madagascar).
    • Strengthen during May–June winter in Southern Hemisphere.
    • Push strong cross-equatorial winds from the SE Indian Ocean towards India.
  • Cross-Equatorial Flow:
    • Southeast trades from Mascarene High cross the equator.
    • Deflected by Coriolis, they become southwest monsoon winds, feeding both Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch.
  • ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) Shift: Moves northwards over Ganga plains, anchoring the monsoon trough.
  • Tibetan Plateau Heating: Acts as an elevated heat source, deepening low pressure.
  • Jet Stream Influence:
    • Subtropical Westerly Jet (STWJ) shifts north of Himalayas, allowing the monsoon trough.
    • Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ) develops, enhancing moisture flow.
  • Local Triggers: Orographic uplift along Western Ghats, NE Hills, and Indo-Gangetic plains causes heavy rains.

What is Retreat/Withdrawal of Monsoon?

  • Earliest Withdrawal (2025): Began Sept 14 from western Rajasthan — earliest in a decade (normal = Sept 17).
  • Withdrawal Process: Gradual, completes by mid-October.
  • IMD Withdrawal Criteria:
    1. Development of anti-cyclonic circulation at lower troposphere.
    2. No rainfall for 5 consecutive days over the region.
    3. Prevalence of dry weather conditions.
  • Seasonal Marker: IMD fixes Sept 30 as the official end of SW monsoon.
  • Agricultural Role: Retreat moisture crucial for Rabi crop sowing.

Influencing Factors for Monsoon Retreat:

  • Seasonal Cooling: Reduced solar heating over land in September weakens low pressure.
  • Pressure Gradient Reversal: High pressure redevelops over NW India, collapsing SW winds.
  • ITCZ Shift: Moves back southwards towards the equator, reversing wind patterns.
  • Jet Stream Role: TEJ weakens, westerlies return, pushing out moist winds.
  • Topography & Seas: Coastal and mountainous regions (e.g., SE peninsula, Bay of Bengal) may still receive residual/post-monsoon showers.
  • Mascarene Highs: As SH winter ends, Mascarene highs weaken, cross-equatorial inflow diminishes, aiding withdrawal.

Climatic Phenomena affecting the Indian Monsoon:

1. ENSO (El Niño–Southern Oscillation):

  • ENSO originates in the equatorial Pacific Ocean and strongly influences the Pacific Walker Circulation (PWC).
    1. El Niño years: The eastern and central Pacific waters warm up. This weakens the Walker circulation and reduces the flow of moisture-laden winds from the Mascarene Highs towards India. As a result, the monsoon becomes weak or deficient, often leading to droughts.
    2. La Niña years: The opposite happens; Pacific waters cool, the Walker circulation strengthens, and strong cross-equatorial winds from the Mascarene Highs bring more moisture into India. Monsoon rainfall is usually above normal, sometimes leading to floods.
  • Key point: ENSO acts like a “remote controller” sitting in the Pacific but directly influencing the strength of the Indian monsoon winds.

2. Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD):

  • The Indian Ocean itself has its own seesaw pattern of sea surface temperatures.
    • Positive IOD: Western Indian Ocean (near Africa) is warmer, and eastern Indian Ocean (near Indonesia) is cooler. This strengthens cross-equatorial winds from the Mascarene Highs, feeding more moisture into India. Result: Good rainfall, strong monsoon, even if El Niño is present.
    • Negative IOD: Western Indian Ocean is cooler, eastern side is warmer. This pulls away monsoon winds from India and weakens the rainfall.
  • Key point: IOD is a “local driver” sitting in the Indian Ocean, which can either amplify or cancel out ENSO’s effect.

3. ENSO–IOD Interaction:

  • Monsoon outcome is not decided by ENSO or IOD alone, but by how they combine:
    • El Niño + Positive IOD: IOD can cancel El Niño’s bad effect (1997 monsoon was near normal).
    • El Niño + Negative IOD: Worst-case combo, often brings severe droughts.
    • La Niña + Positive IOD: Both reinforce each other, leading to very heavy rainfall and flood risk.
    • ENSO Neutral + Positive/Negative IOD: IOD becomes the deciding factor.

The Big Picture:

  • Pacific Walker Circulation is the “conveyor belt” moving rising and sinking air across the Pacific and Indian Oceans.
    • When it shifts east (El Niño): India gets less rain.
    • When it strengthens west (La Niña): India gets more rain.
  • IOD modifies this system locally in the Indian Ocean-  it can either buffer or worsen ENSO’s impact.
  • The Mascarene Highs act as the main “engine room” for cross-equatorial winds, but the Walker circulation and IOD decide how strong that engine runs.
  • Madden–Julian Oscillation (MJO): An eastward-moving pulse of cloud and rainfall that travels around the equator every 30–60 days.
    • MJO decides the intra-seasonal variability: when it rains heavily (active phase) and when dry breaks occur.

 

[UPSC 2012] Consider the following statements:

1. The duration of the monsoon decreases from southern India to northern India.

2. The amount of annual rainfall in the northern plains of India decreases from east to west.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

Options: (a) 1 Only (b) 2 Only (c) Both 1 and 2* (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

[UPSC 2017] With reference to ‘Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)’ sometimes mentioned in the news while forecasting Indian monsoon, which of the following statements is/are correct?

1. The IOD phenomenon is characterized by a difference in sea surface temperature between tropical Western Indian Ocean and tropical Eastern Pacific Ocean.

2. An IOD phenomenon can influence an El Nino’s impact on the monsoon.

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only  (b) 2 only * (c) Both 1 and 2  (d) Neither 1 nor 2

 

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Historical and Archaeological Findings in News

Konkan Geoglyphs may be 24,000 years old

Prelims Only | Art and Culture | Mains Paper 1: Arts & Culture

Why in the News?

The prehistoric geoglyphs of the Konkan coast may date back as far as 24,000 years, based on new stratigraphic evidence from Koloshi caves in Maharashtra.

Konkan Geoglyphs may be 24,000 years old

About Konkan Geoglyphs:

  • Overview: Prehistoric rock engravings (geoglyphs/petroglyphs) carved on laterite plateaus of the Konkan coast (Maharashtra, Goa, southern Karnataka).
  • Depictions: Humans, animals (elephants, tigers, rhinos, stingrays, turtles, peacocks), and abstract motifs.
  • Technique: Created by scooping, etching, pecking into laterite; grooves 3–5 cm deep, 3–4 cm wide.
  • Unique Feature: Unlike painted caves (e.g., Bhimbetka), these are open-air geoglyphs, rare in India.
  • Cultural Value: Provide insights into prehistoric ecology, rituals, and transition from hunter-gatherer to agrarian societies.

Important Sites:

  • Maharashtra (Ratnagiri–Sindhudurg): Ratnagiri alone hosts 1,500+ carvings across 210 sq. km.
    • Kasheli: Giant elephant (13×18 m), 125+ carvings of sharks, stingrays, rhinos (though locally absent), tigers.
    • Barsu: Human figure flanked by two tigers, resembling Harappan seals. Local are protesting a proposed oil refinery which might demolish this site.
    • Rundhye Tali: Concentric circles, abstract motifs, jellyfish/tiger outlines.
    • Devache Gothane: Standing human figure; linked to magnetic deflection anomaly.
    • Devi Hasol: Snake-like square design (8 m); still part of Aryadurga temple rituals.
    • Jambharun, Ukshi, Kudopi: Faunal + abstract petroglyphs.
  • Goa:
    • Usgalimal (Phansaymal): Bulls, deer, spirals, cup marks, grinding grooves.

History and Antiquity:

  • Dating: Traditionally ~10,000 years old; new excavations at Koloshi caves push age back to 24,000 years (cultural layers ~38,000 years).
  • Continuity: Geoglyph-making persisted till the early historic period, showing ritual and symbolic evolution.
  • Ecological Record: Depict species long extinct in Konkan (rhinoceros, hippopotamus), indicating Pleistocene fauna.
  • World Context: Compared with Nazca Lines (Peru), Atacama Giant (Chile), and Blythe Intaglios (US) — Konkan geoglyphs are smaller but more intricate and ecologically detailed.
  • UNESCO Status: On India’s Tentative List (2022); nomination under preparation for 2027–28 cycle.
[UPSC 2024] Consider the following properties included in the World Heritage List released by UNESCO:

1. Shantiniketan 2. Rani-ki-Vav 3. Sacred Ensembles of the Hoysalas 4. Mahabodhi Temple Complex at Bodhgaya

How many of the above properties were included in 2023?

Options: (a) Only one (b) Only two* (c) Only three (d) All four  

 

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J&K – The issues around the state

Sixth Schedule demand for Ladakh

| Polity | Mains Paper 2: Indian Constitution - historical underpinnings, evolution, features, amendments, significant provisions and basic structure

Why in the News?

The recent protests in Ladakh led by activist Sonam Wangchuk, which turned violent, have been driven by demands for inclusion under the Sixth Schedule of the Indian Constitution and a call for statehood.

Background: Ladakh’s Governance Post Article 370 Repeal

  • Union Territory Recognition: After the 2019 repeal of Article 370, Ladakh became a Union Territory without legislature, unlike Jammu & Kashmir.
  • Local Demands: The Apex Body Leh (ABL) and Kargil Democratic Alliance (KDA) have consistently demanded Sixth Schedule inclusion for autonomy and protection of tribal interests.

Centre’s earlier offer:  

  • Article 371-like Protections: Ministry of Home Affairs proposed safeguards similar to NE states, addressing land, jobs, and cultural protection.
  • Exclusion from Sixth Schedule: Centre ruled out Sixth Schedule inclusion, preferring alternative mechanisms for autonomy.

What is the Sixth Schedule?

  • Constitutional Basis: Mentioned under Article 244 in Part X of the Constitution.
  • Coverage: Applies only to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram (ATM²).
  • Relation to Fifth Schedule: The Fifth Schedule covers scheduled areas in other states except these four.

Salient Features of the Sixth Schedule:

  • Autonomous Districts: Tribal areas are designated as autonomous districts; Governor empowered to create, reorganize, or alter boundaries.
  • District & Regional Councils:
    • Each district council has 30 members (26 elected, 4 nominated).
    • Councils can legislate on land, forest management, shifting cultivation, village administration, inheritance of property, marriage/divorce, and social customs.
    • They run schools, healthcare, markets, and village courts, and can levy certain taxes.
  • Law Application: Acts of Parliament/State may not apply directly or apply with Governor/President’s modifications.
  • Governor’s Authority: Can appoint commissions, examine issues of districts, and dissolve councils based on recommendations.
  • Areas under the Sixth Schedule:
    • Assam: Karbi Anglong, North Cachar Hills, Bodoland Territorial Areas District.
    • Meghalaya: Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, Garo Hills.
    • Tripura: Tripura Tribal Areas District.
    • Mizoram: Chakma, Mara, Lai districts.
[UPSC 2023] With reference to ‘Scheduled Areas’ in India, consider the following statements :

1. Within a State, the notification of an area as Scheduled Area takes place through an Order of the President.

2. The largest administrative unit forming the Scheduled Area is the District and the lowest is the cluster of villages in the Block.

3. The Chief Ministers of the concerned States are required to submit annual reports to the Union Home Ministry on the administration of Scheduled Areas in the States.

How many of the above statements are correct?

Options: (a) Only one * (b) Only two (c) All three (d) None

 

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Air Pollution

Delhi to witness Artificial Rain through Cloud Seeding

Prelims Only | Science Tech | Mains Paper 3: S&T - Applications In Everyday Life

Why in the News?

The Delhi government is planning to trial cloud-seeding to trigger artificial rain to combat air pollution ahead of winters.

About Cloud Seeding:

  • About: It is a microclimate management technique aimed at altering precipitation patterns by dispersing substances into clouds to stimulate rainfall or snowfall.
  • Why it is used: It is used to mitigate hail, disperse fog, and either induce precipitation or prevent it from occurring in subsequent days.
  • Techniques include:
    • Static Cloud Seeding: Chemicals are introduced into cold clouds already containing supercooled water droplets, encouraging the formation of ice crystals.
    • Hygroscopic Cloud Seeding: Salts are sprayed into the base of warm clouds to act as condensation nuclei, increasing the number and size of water droplets.
    • Dynamic Cloud Seeding: This method involves boosting vertical air currents to enhance moisture passage through the clouds, leading to more rain.
  • Common Cloud Seeding Chemicals:
    • Silver iodide (AgI): Preferred for its ice-like crystalline properties.
    • Potassium iodide (KI): Functions similarly to silver iodide.
    • Dry ice (solid CO₂): Used to rapidly cool cloud droplets, aiding rain formation.
    • Liquid propane: Used in specific cloud types, effective at higher temperatures.
    • Sodium chloride and calcium chloride: Used in hygroscopic (warm) cloud seeding methods.
    • Bismuth tri-iodide (BiI₃): Sometimes used based on experimental or environmental considerations.
  • Dispersion methods range from aircraft and ground-based generators to newer approaches like drones delivering electric charges or infrared laser pulses.

Limitations: 

  • Concerns persist regarding the potential accumulation of seeding agents in sensitive ecosystems, although detailed studies have shown negligible impacts.
  • The chemicals used, such as silver iodide, may potentially damage the environment and cause health issues like iodine poisoning in high concentrations
[UPSC 2025] Artificial way of causing rainfall to reduce air pollution makes use of:

(a) silver iodide and potassium iodide *

(b) silver nitrate and potassium iodide

(c) silver iodide and potassium nitrate

(d) silver nitrate and potassium chloride

 

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